**4. Family involvement**

Beyond peer and teacher relationships, the fourth R can also be manifested when the family proactively engages in practices and activities that serve to promote learning and development [59]. Given that these practices and activities can take place within the home, and in partnerships with the school and the community [60, 61], such involvement is in line with the ecological framework [62] that highlights the interplay between two important systems (i.e., the family and the school).

Family involvement is essential to academic and mental health outcomes for children [63] and youth alike [64–66]. Several frameworks are available in the conceptualization of family involvement. For instance, based on a sample of 24,599 eighth graders, Ho and Willms [67] established a four-factor model that includes home discussion (e.g., discussing school programs with the child), school communication (e.g., contacting school personnel), home supervision (e.g., limiting TV time), and school participation (e.g., attending parent-teacher meetings). More recently, Epstein and her colleagues [68] proposed a framework that details six common types of involvement in efforts to organize the disparate literature: (1) parenting: when schools and/or community provide help to the family in establishing a positive home environment that supports learning and development; (2) communicating: when the family and schools and/or community establish an effective channel to communicate about the child's progress; (3) volunteering: when the family supports school operations and functions in collaboration with the school itself and/or community; (4) learning at home: when the family supports the child's learning at home, such as by monitoring his/her homework or providing intellectual stimulations; (5) decision-making: when schools and/or community assist family members (e.g., parents) to become leaders and representatives in decision-making pertinent to school operations; and (6) collaborating with the community: when the family leverages school and community services and resources to better support the child's learning and development.

In light of the multidimensional framework of family involvement, it is important to recognize that while certain aspects of family involvement may be positively associated with academic outcomes, other aspects may demonstrate a negative correlation. For example, in their metaanalysis, Hill and Tyson [72] found a negative correlation between homework assistance and academic achievement among middle school students. At first glance, these findings seem to be somewhat counter-intuitive because they imply that more parental involvement is linked with poorer academic achievement. Further considerations, however, suggest that these negative associations may reflect the tendency for parents to communicate more with schools or become more engaged with their child's homework when they realize the poor performance [63, 67, 72]. These associations may also illustrate age differences in terms of what constitute as effective forms of family involvement. For example, a reason why homework assistance is associated with poorer achievement among youth is that such aid may be viewed as threats to their sense of efficacy and autonomy [66, 75]. To elucidate these speculations, longitudinal

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To the extent that family involvement operates holistically as opposed to being geared toward academic achievement specifically, recent studies have associated such involvement with outcomes that extend beyond the academic domain. When families are involved in education, youth tend to have better relationships with their teachers [76], own a clearer sense of identity and future directions [77], and hold more positive perceptions of self-competence [73] and global self-worth [78]. In corroboration, a longitudinal study that followed a culturally diverse sample of students from grades 7 to 11 indicated that family-teacher communication and home-based involvement (e.g., scaffolding youth to take responsibility of learning) were associated with decreases in problematic behaviors and depressive symptoms over time [79]. Interestingly, the developmental benefits associated with home-based involvement were stronger for those experiencing more parental warmth. Of note is that although it remains unclear why family involvement promotes better mental health functioning, it is speculative that it does so by conveying a sense of caring and support that acts as a buffer toward maladaptive outcomes [66]. Another potential mechanism is that by engaging in frequent schoolbased involvement, families will have more opportunities to form positive relationships with teachers, which, as we will see below, also play an instrumental role in academic and mental

Thus far, we have considered family involvement in board terms that capture not only homebased but also the structural part of school-based involvement (e.g., parent-teacher discussions or meetings). We will now extend our focus to a more relational aspect of school-based involvement. Specifically, we will explore the parent-teacher relationship, which is perhaps the most salient fourth R within the dimension of home-school partnership. A positive parent-teacher relationship is one that is characterized by factors such as interpersonal trust, mutual respect and support, two-way communication, cooperation, coordination, and collaboration [80, 81].

studies are warranted.

health outcomes.

**4.3. Parent-teacher relationship**

**4.2. Associations with mental health**

In light of these frameworks, family involvement encompasses not only home-based involvement but also a reciprocal relationship between the family and the school where they share responsibilities and goals to support learning and development [69].

#### **4.1. Associations with academic achievement**

There is little doubt that family involvement assumes a critical role in academic outcomes. Indeed, research has consistently indicated a significant association between family involvement, specifically that of parents, and academic achievement across students of different ages, cultural groups, and socioeconomic statuses [70, 71]. For example, a meta-analysis (50 studies) found that school-based involvement and academic socialization were positively and significantly associated with academic achievement among middle-school students [72]. Of note is that academic socialization, such as when parents communicate their expectations for education or discuss learning strategies with the adolescent, yielded the strongest effect size [72]. In corroboration, another meta-analysis (52 studies) involving a group of culturally diverse secondary school students revealed that parental academic expectations had the strongest significant relationship with overall academic achievement, followed by parenting style, homework assistance, and home-school communication [65]. Moreover, parental attendance and participation in school activities were strongly associated with specific grades [65]. In addition to achievement, youth of academically involved parents tend to use more selfregulated learning strategies, spend more time on schoolwork outside of class time, and show higher levels of academic engagement [73]. At the same time, they tend to exhibit stronger feelings of enjoyment, value, and interest toward learning [66, 74] and are more likely to pursue graduate studies [64].

In light of the multidimensional framework of family involvement, it is important to recognize that while certain aspects of family involvement may be positively associated with academic outcomes, other aspects may demonstrate a negative correlation. For example, in their metaanalysis, Hill and Tyson [72] found a negative correlation between homework assistance and academic achievement among middle school students. At first glance, these findings seem to be somewhat counter-intuitive because they imply that more parental involvement is linked with poorer academic achievement. Further considerations, however, suggest that these negative associations may reflect the tendency for parents to communicate more with schools or become more engaged with their child's homework when they realize the poor performance [63, 67, 72]. These associations may also illustrate age differences in terms of what constitute as effective forms of family involvement. For example, a reason why homework assistance is associated with poorer achievement among youth is that such aid may be viewed as threats to their sense of efficacy and autonomy [66, 75]. To elucidate these speculations, longitudinal studies are warranted.

#### **4.2.  Several frameworks are available in the conceptualization of family involvement. For instance, based on a sample of 24,599 eighth graders, Ho and Willms [67] established a four-factor model that includes home discussion (e.g., discussing school programs with the child), school communication (e.g., contacting school personnel), home supervision (e.g., limiting TV time), and school participation (e.g., attending parent-teacher meetings). More recently, Epstein and her colleagues [68] proposed a framework that details six common types of involvement in efforts to organize the disparate literature: (1) parenting: when schools and/or community provide help to the family in establishing a positive home environment that supports learning and development; (2) communicating: when the family and schools and/or community establish an effective channel to communicate about the child's progress; (3) volunteering: when the family supports school operations and functions in collaboration with the school itself and/or community; (4) learning at home: when the family supports the child's learning at home, such as by monitoring his/her homework or providing intellectual stimulations; (5) decision-making: when schools and/or community assist family members (e.g., parents) to become leaders and representatives in decision-making pertinent to school operations; and (6) collaborating with the community: when the family leverages school and community services and resources to better support the child's learning

In light of these frameworks, family involvement encompasses not only home-based involvement but also a reciprocal relationship between the family and the school where they share

There is little doubt that family involvement assumes a critical role in academic outcomes. Indeed, research has consistently indicated a significant association between family involvement, specifically that of parents, and academic achievement across students of different ages, cultural groups, and socioeconomic statuses [70, 71]. For example, a meta-analysis (50 studies) found that school-based involvement and academic socialization were positively and significantly associated with academic achievement among middle-school students [72]. Of note is that academic socialization, such as when parents communicate their expectations for education or discuss learning strategies with the adolescent, yielded the strongest effect size [72]. In corroboration, another meta-analysis (52 studies) involving a group of culturally diverse secondary school students revealed that parental academic expectations had the strongest significant relationship with overall academic achievement, followed by parenting style, homework assistance, and home-school communication [65]. Moreover, parental attendance and participation in school activities were strongly associated with specific grades [65]. In addition to achievement, youth of academically involved parents tend to use more selfregulated learning strategies, spend more time on schoolwork outside of class time, and show higher levels of academic engagement [73]. At the same time, they tend to exhibit stronger feelings of enjoyment, value, and interest toward learning [66, 74] and are more likely to pur-

responsibilities and goals to support learning and development [69].

**4.1. Associations with academic achievement**

and development.

108 Health and Academic Achievement

sue graduate studies [64].

To the extent that family involvement operates holistically as opposed to being geared toward academic achievement specifically, recent studies have associated such involvement with outcomes that extend beyond the academic domain. When families are involved in education, youth tend to have better relationships with their teachers [76], own a clearer sense of identity and future directions [77], and hold more positive perceptions of self-competence [73] and global self-worth [78]. In corroboration, a longitudinal study that followed a culturally diverse sample of students from grades 7 to 11 indicated that family-teacher communication and home-based involvement (e.g., scaffolding youth to take responsibility of learning) were associated with decreases in problematic behaviors and depressive symptoms over time [79]. Interestingly, the developmental benefits associated with home-based involvement were stronger for those experiencing more parental warmth. Of note is that although it remains unclear why family involvement promotes better mental health functioning, it is speculative that it does so by conveying a sense of caring and support that acts as a buffer toward maladaptive outcomes [66]. Another potential mechanism is that by engaging in frequent schoolbased involvement, families will have more opportunities to form positive relationships with teachers, which, as we will see below, also play an instrumental role in academic and mental health outcomes.

#### **4.3. Parent-teacher relationship**

Thus far, we have considered family involvement in board terms that capture not only homebased but also the structural part of school-based involvement (e.g., parent-teacher discussions or meetings). We will now extend our focus to a more relational aspect of school-based involvement. Specifically, we will explore the parent-teacher relationship, which is perhaps the most salient fourth R within the dimension of home-school partnership. A positive parent-teacher relationship is one that is characterized by factors such as interpersonal trust, mutual respect and support, two-way communication, cooperation, coordination, and collaboration [80, 81]. At the same time, it is related to teachers' and parents' perceptions of one another's beliefs, attitudes, and values toward education and involvement [82–84]. To the extent that the parentteacher relationship quality serves as a stronger predictor for achievement and social adjustment than the frequency of home-school contacts [80, 84], an emerging line of research is emphasizing the need to examine the quality of the parent-teacher or parent-school relationship in relation to developmental outcomes [83, 85, 86].

relationships through effective communication, social engagement, relationship-building, and teamwork [92]. Accordingly, students will be more adept at creating trusting relationships with their peers and teachers. Second, by emphasizing teaching approaches that support the clear communication of expectations, cooperative learning, and classroom order [92], teachers can create a safe environment for students to become academically engaged. Third, interventions that invite the collaboration of family may also indirectly encourage more frequent

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A number of programs have been developed in line with the SEL approach. An exemplar is RULER [93], which equips primary and secondary school students with the competence to recognize and label emotions in oneself and others, understand potential causes and consequences of emotions, as well as express and regulate emotions in socially adaptive ways. By becoming emotionally literate, students will be able to interact with others more effectively; moreover, they will be able to problem-solve difficult emotional situations and have better mental health functioning [93]. Further, because RULER is incorporated into the English Language Arts (ELA) curriculum, in which books are often used to exemplify emotions and relationships, RULER also predicts improved ELA achievement [93]. Other effective programs are KiVa [94] and Roots of Empathy [95]. For example, KiVa is an antibullying program that has been found to reduce negative perceptions of peers (e.g., peers are seen as reliable

Similar to SEL interventions, research also suggests that service-learning programs can enhance a range of competencies pertinent to academic and mental health functioning. By providing meaningful services to the community in ways that connect with the school curriculum, students are empowered with social (e.g., cultural competence and empathy), personal (e.g., self-esteem), civic (e.g., community behaviors), and academic (e.g., learning engagement) competencies [96]. With its emphasis on contributing to the community, service-learning programs are particularly suitable for older adolescents. As an example, college students who participated in a 12-week service learning program (Campus Corps) in which they mentored at-risk adolescents demonstrated improved interpersonal and problem-solving skills, community service self-efficacy, self-esteem, civic action, and political awareness [97]. These mentors were also adept at sustaining positive relationships with their mentees and families [97]. In view of this line of evidence, service-learning programs may also be a promising approach to equipping students with social competence that can benefit their peer

and supportive), anxiety, and depression among children and youth [94].

**5.3. Intervention programs and professional training for family and teachers**

To encourage family involvement, it is important to first consider the underlying factors that may motivate or hinder such involvement. At the family level, three major factors have been identified to drive involvement, including parents' motivational beliefs, perception of invitations, and perceived life contexts [85]. Specifically, family involvement is more likely to occur when parents hold a belief that they should be involved in education, feel efficacious

home-school partnerships and better relationships.

**5.2. Service learning programs**

and teacher relationships.

When the quality of the parent-teacher relationship is favorable, student outcomes tend to be more positive. In the academic domain, the high-quality parent-teacher relationship is associated with better test scores and competence in language and math [82, 84], as well as overall school performance [80, 87] among kindergartners and primary and secondary school students. Further, although research regarding the role of the parent-teacher relationship on youth's mental health functioning is limited as compared to those on children (e.g., [88, 89]), available evidence underscores its importance. Among a group of secondary school students in the U.S., Froiland and Davison [87] found a negative association between a satisfying and trusting parent-teacher relationship and problematic behaviors. Similarly, a study conducted across 10 provinces in China found that the parent-teacher relationship was linked with better social (e.g., relationships) and career (e.g., goal-settings) outcomes among high school students [90]. Therefore, there is a need for schools to devote efforts to increasing the number of family-school contacts *and* enhancing the quality of the parent-teacher relationship as they both contribute to academic and mental health outcomes.


**5. Conclusion**

This chapter addresses the reality of private social work practice in the Arab world, mainly in Oman. The author has paved the way for this issue by shedding light on the

profession's global historical evolution, its entrance and development in Egypt, and its subsequent expansion to the Arab Gulf countries. It also covered the social work profession's entrance into Oman and how interest grew at all levels of professional practice and social work education institutions. The chapter also discussed numerous key concepts, including the global definition of social work, private practice in social work, private practice institutions, and the private practitioner. Moreover, the chapter addressed the reality of private practice social work in Oman by reviewing several previous studies that emphasized that topic. When compared to Arab and Gulf countries, it became obvious that the prevalence of private practice agencies in Oman was low. However, it was proved that the need for these agencies has increased in Omani society. Some of the previous studies included in this chapter also show the types of private practice agencies that the Omani community requires to help its people deal with problems and satisfy their social, psychological, educational, and economic needs. Family and marital counseling centers, counseling and psychological guidance centers, psychiatric clinics, psychological and behavioral rehabilitation centers, counseling services in various fields, educational, social, as well as educational agencies, addiction treatment centers, and so on are examples of these agencies. Although this lack of private agencies, a recent report from the Ministry of Social Development stated a noticeable spread of private rehabilitation centers, which reached 37 centers in Oman.

The chapter was also interested in identifying the most significant obstacles that hinder the expansion of private practice social work agencies in Oman. These obstacles include a lack of professional skills required for private practice, the high financial cost of establishing private agencies and bureaucratic procedures, in addition to Society's cultural norms. The study identified a number of obstacles to the establishment of private practice social work agencies in Oman, some of which are connected to the profession itself and others to the practitioners themselves. There are further challenges linked to social work education institutions, societal awareness of the profession, regulations governing private practice, and finance. Finally, the chapter concluded with some suggestions for overcoming each of these obstacles.

In our opinion, in the future, the spread of private practice social work agencies in Oman society will have a positive effect on the status of the profession in society; it will strengthen the ability of the society to face and solve its problems.