The last two questions, requiring simple 'listing', were also pitched at a lower cognitive level. However, the assessment rubric presents an illogical order in the cognitive level, with the level 3 criterion for these questions being described at a medium or higher order request for explanation. The criterion reads: *Mostly capable of explaining the importance of human involvement in the situation.* This would be expected to be more difficult to achieve than the lists required at the level 4 criterion which was: *All five ways of negative impact and all four human contributions are evident*. Additionally, there is inconsistency between the instruction in the task (to 'list') and the assessment criterion (to 'explain' at level 3). Noting inconsistency in alignment is one of the affordances offered by the New Bloom's Taxonomy raised by Anderson et al. (2001).

Had the questions and rubric been tightly aligned with the notion of 'explaining', higher order thinking skills such as complexity thinking, cost-benefit analysis, nuanced judgement and interpretation, and application of multiple criteria might have been useful for the teacher in assessing the task. However, this is not to argue that all questions should be set at a higher order level, but to point out the potential for environmentally focused tasks to develop higher order thinking. An important consideration was for the teacher to have fewer questions set for higher order thinking, considering that the CAPS curriculum requires 15% of tasks to be set at higher order levels (South Africa DBE 2011). One of the teachers highlighted the importance of targeting a variety of cognitive levels, as well as being aware of the different levels at which learners can perform. This understanding was evident in the teacher's statement that: *There should be different types of questions, lower order, and the higher order, depending on the level your learners are at.*

The above quote also raises an important caution in the South African curriculum, which highlights that high knowledge and high skills need to be attainable for *all learners* (South Africa DBE 2011). Thus, it is important to know 'where learners are at' (in the sense of their prior knowledge) but still teach towards developing higher order thinking for all. Zohar and Dori (2003) described a significant study in which they asked the question as to whether higher order thinking and low-achieving students are mutually exclusive. The conclusion from the study was that, while using certain methods in their study, they 'reached both low and high academic level students and prepared them to function in the increasingly sophisticated environment of the world today, and more so tomorrow' (p. 175).

Additionally, the importance of higher order thinking was highlighted by a number of teachers and is consistent with the CAPS curriculum principle requiring 'high knowledge and high skills' (South Africa DBE 2011: 4) to be set for each grade. Interviewed teachers implicitly highlighted the role of formative assessment in developing high knowledge and skills, as evidenced in the following quotes:

The third dimension of formative assessment was: tasks and activities that elicit evidence of student learning. Some teachers were clear regarding the kinds of formative assessment tasks that elicit evidence of learning. For example, one teacher explained that formative assessment is given orally and in written form*.* Another pointed out that:

*Informal assessments in the form of classwork, home-works, and group work and formal assessment tasks e.g. tests, examinations and assignments and projects are requirement of the WCED (CAPS) nationally.*

Regarding the link between formative assessment and learning, understanding was implicit in the statement that: *Critical thinking is essential, and this is assessed via questioning techniques and worksheets and giving them many opportunities*. Another teacher indicated the use of formative questioning: *To see if they understood the lesson*. A third teacher said that formative assessment is used to: *Assess if the set of objectives of the lesson have been reached or if the skills have been acquired*. Lastly, one of the teachers explained that: *Formative assessments are yardsticks to assess where learners are in their ability to understand test questions asked and their ability to answer them*.

Teachers further indicated the value of these tasks for identifying the need for further scaffolding of learning. For example, one teacher stated that formative assessments: *Help me to come up with activities so that I can help to close the gap my learners have*. Another teacher explained the use of Bloom's Taxonomy to: *Oversee all learners' abilities and also to know where to assist or give support.* A third teacher explained that formative assessment enables a teacher to: *Check misconceptions … identify individual learning problems, design individual work to suit different learners*.

Teachers acknowledged that one of the reasons for formative assessment is for strengthening success in summative tasks. Another explained that she gives her learners tests frequently so that they can be familiar with written examinations with regard to both processes and environment, while two others argued that formative assessment builds confidence for summative assessment.

In the observed lesson, the summative task (research on human impact on biodiversity) called for the learners to use what they learned in class and take it further by looking for more information on this topic, and then to show by listing or stating, ways in which they could prevent biodiversity loss. All prior activities were aimed at preparing the learners for this research task, as was repeatedly pointed out by the teacher. These were opportunities for the teacher to elicit evidence of learning at each stage of the process, although the dimensions below illustrate that there were problems with the follow-through of these opportunities.

Regarding the fourth dimension of effective formative assessment, questioning strategies that elicit evidence of student learning, the teacher in the observed lesson raised questions as a direct way of checking student learning. However, the observation revealed that few learners were answering questions. Even though thought-provoking questions were asked, the waiting time for learners to engage and respond to the questions was not provided. Therefore, there was not much effective elicitation of evidence of student learning at the time of observation. The teacher indicated language-related problems with the questioning strategies at two levels. The first was a lack of reading ability, where she highlighted: *Reading to understand is different from just reading*. The second was: *To get students to understand the questions asked*.

The fifth dimension of effective formative assessment is the need for feedback to be given during questioning. As mentioned above, there was no evidence of such feedback in the observed lesson as the learners were not responding to the questions, and so it was hard to get insight into this challenge.

Regarding the sixth dimension of effective feedback, namely individualised descriptive feedback, the observed teacher's intention in the pre-lesson discussion was for the learners to have multiple submissions so that she could give them feedback and they could rework their project.

*A plan is for them to bring their work, whether as a draft in their draft books or typed task so that I can give them feedback. The big challenge, as you know is time. I'm not sure if this will be possible to fit in, but it's a plan.*

Evidence of whether the above-mentioned plan for individual feedback on drafts was ultimately achieved was not available for this study. However, further insight into the challenges of individual feedback (both written and spontaneous engagement during class) were obtained from the interviews with the larger group of teachers. Two mentioned the difficulties associated with large classes (one teacher had more than 50 learners in the classroom). Another explained: *The classroom that is dedicated for science experiments is small and the floors have holes. This makes it impossible to check if all learners are working*. Additionally, as with the above-mentioned questioning strategies, teachers do not necessarily get the required work in from learners in order to respond. One teacher explained: *Learners absent themselves, not submitting tasks. This is a problem to give them feedback*.

Regarding the seventh dimension of effective formative assessment, namely selfassessment, the observed lesson did not elicit relevant evidence of this. This is to be expected as a teacher cannot use too many strategies in one lesson. However, from the interviews, a significant deepening perspective on the role of formative assessment in the meta-cognitive aspects of learning (Krathwohl 2002) came from teachers who saw formative assessment not only as a tool for the teacher, but also for the learner to track their own learning. This was evident in the explanation that: *These practices affect learning by challenging both the teachers and learners to focus on [the] learning and teaching process. Enabling learners to see where they are weak or strong.* Another teacher explained that: *Learners can be asked to mark their work and identify their mistakes and this can help them when writing the test*. A third teacher stated: *It is better when the learner explores and learns by himself.*

The eighth dimension of effective formative assessment, namely peer assessment, was not evident in practice from the single observation reported in this study. However, teachers demonstrated understanding of the opportunities offered by formative assessment for peer learning. The following quotes are indicative of this:

The ninth dimension of effective formative assessment, namely collaboration as a practice, was indicated by a teacher who explained: *The class is grouped heterogeneously and given a section of work to share with the class. This encourages them to help one another.*  The fact that collaborative formative assessment is valued as a tool to promote inclusivity and participation was seen in the following quote: *Quality learning is when all learners engage and feel a sense of achievement*. The next quote also supports the perspective of the value of participation: *Quality learning is when learners are interacting. They are responding to the subject matter in a meaningful way, they ask questions. They are not afraid to give their opinions. They are learners that are not only recipients, they are participants*.

The tenth dimension of effective formative assessment is, 'using evidence to inform teaching and learning'. Interviewed teachers showed understanding of the role of formative assessment for increasing their own reflexivity. The first move for reflexivity is recognising that one's own teaching needs to be critically considered. One teacher demonstrated recognition of this by stating: *Sometimes you might think your teaching is good, but when you assess you get the opposite of what you expected*.

The second move in reflexivity is adjusting one's teaching accordingly, and a number of teachers indicated that they use formative assessment in this way. One teacher explained that assessment could inform future planning, with the statement that formative assessment is: *Very important in guiding one's planning*. Another said: *It is important to give formative assessment during discussion to really know if learners are with you or understand. This helps me to re-teach it*. A third explained the use of formative assessment to: *Correct my methods or strategies, improve on my approaches*. While a fourth claimed that formative assessment: *Helps me to adjust the method, approach or even to divert the whole lesson to something of greater importance they should know before the concept at hand*.

Thus, while teachers clearly showed evidence of understanding the importance of using formative assessment to improve their teaching, in the context of practice, there is a limitation for this ideal. As one teacher expressed it: *The CAPS pacing does not allow time for even get deeper to content. It does not give time to look back and re-teach concepts that learners don't understand*.

# **Conclusion**

Overall, the interviews illustrated that teachers had a good understanding of the strategies for, and possibilities offered by, formative assessment practices. They demonstrated awareness of the value of formative assessment in guiding scaffolding practices by teachers; developing meta-cognitive skills through self-assessment; supporting collaboration; and encouraging inclusivity for all learners. Peer assessment did not receive much attention, although one teacher commented that it was 'appreciated' by learners. Significantly, three of the teachers highlighted the role of formative assessment in teaching towards summative assessment, and, notably, the only 'criteria for success' offered to learners in the observed lesson were those in the summative assessment task. This, and the repeated emphasis on the assignment, indicates an emphasis on assessment-driven learning.

While much of the understanding and practice of formative assessment is generic for all quality education, the study revealed that there is a need for developing higher order thinking for environmental learning. Equally, the study revealed that environmental learning can require lower order thinking if questions are posed simply, for example with questions requiring learners to 'list'. The study illustrated that if 'clarifying criteria for success' is important for formative assessment, then care should be taken that low, medium and high order thinking requirements are consistently presented between assessment tasks and associated rubrics, and also that criteria are logically ordered in rubrics. Teachers demonstrated an awareness of the need for developing low, medium and higher order thinking in their teaching as well as the role of formative assessment in developing critical thinking. Where higher order thinking is required, a more nuanced perspective on higher order thinking, such as Resnick's (1987), may be useful for guiding teachers' formative and summative assessment practices.

The teachers demonstrated an understanding of the value of teacher feedback in formative assessment, both during questioning in class and in written form (teacherlearner engagement), as well as learner-learner collaboration. However, four significant structural problems highlighted why this is not always successful. These were: time limitations in a full CAPS curriculum; language difficulties impeding learner understanding of questions during classroom questioning; exceptionally high numbers in classrooms; and learner absenteeism (failure to submit work). These problems need to be addressed especially if higher order thinking is to be achieved among learners.

The study highlights that formative assessment is a fundamental part of developing higher order cognitive skills, and fundamental to critical thinking and problem solving in environmental learning. Generally, teachers have a good understanding of formative assessment, but help with implementation strategies appears to be necessary in teacher professional development. Additionally, an over-emphasis on assessmentdriven learning may over-shadow a broader perspective of what it means 'to learn' in a classroom. Furthermore, socio-economic, organisational and language problems, in both curriculum and schools, need to be addressed if higher order thinking is to be enabled in classrooms.

# **References**

#### **Chapter 14**

Teacher professional development for environment and sustainability learning

# CHAPTER 15

# **Teacher Professional Development in Environment and Sustainability Education**

*Zintle Songqwaru and Sirkka Tshiningayamwe*

# **Introduction**

No education policy, no matter how well designed, can succeed without a teacher (Sanyal 2013). Additionally, a change in policy alone is not sufficient to improve an education system (Livingstone 2012), no matter how well meaning. The quality of teachers' professional practices determines to some extent the quality of teaching and learning in the schooling sector. Teacher quality, and not only teacher supply, is important for learning; hence, teacher professional development should be a priority in all education and development strategies (Unesco 2015a).

According to Villegas-Reimers (2003), professional development for teachers is a lifelong process that begins with initial teacher training and continues until teachers retire. Initial teacher education cannot cover all the knowledge that a teacher will need throughout their teaching career (Unesco 2015a). The development of professional practices is a continuing process that lasts for the duration of one's teaching career (South Africa DBE & SACE 2008). Continuing professional teacher development is essential for upgrading and updating teachers because the rate of social and educational change makes initial teacher training an inadequate basis for long-term professional competence (Luneta 2012). Teachers need to constantly update their knowledge and skills to be relevant to changing contexts. Continuing professional teacher development is therefore an essential component of any education system that aims to improve the quality of teaching and learning.

It is important to note that teacher professional development is not an event but a process (Harwell 2003). The process of learning and transformation in teaching practice resulting from professional development is time-consuming (Villegas-Reimers 2003). Teachers and other professionals do not change overnight. Any form of professional development requires a long-term, gradual progression to change.

There is no single form of continuous professional development programme that is appropriate for all teachers. What is required is an optimal mix of activities that suit particular teachers at different stages in their individual development (Guskey 2003). A 'one size fits all' approach to professional development does not work. Teachers tend to be at different stages of their development at different times in their careers, and these stages need to be considered because teachers' needs and dispositions may vary during the different stages (Villegas-Reimers 2003).

Significantly, with reference to the South African context, the Department of Basic Education has observed that:

Much professional development is still organised as isolated and onetime trainings, lacking a coherent strategy, monitoring and follow-up. Research has indicated that these one-off initiatives often fail to have durable effects on teaching and learning. Research also stresses the importance of working together as a cornerstone of effective professional development. (South Africa DBE 2015: 4)

Irrespective of which approaches are used to develop teachers professionally, there should also be a focus on aligning programmes with changing societal needs and challenges, such as sustainable development concerns. Internationally, in the field of Environmental Education or Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), many researchers have investigated professional development models used in addressing teacher challenges related to environment and sustainability education. A key finding emerging from these studies in 2011 was the need for a national synergistic effort to strengthen the systemic impact of Environment and Sustainability Education teacher education efforts (Lotz-Sisitka 2011). This led to the conceptualisation and implementation of the Fundisa for Change Programme (Fundisa for Change Programme 2013; Songqwaru 2019). Since the establishment of the Fundisa for Change programme in South Africa in 2011, researchers have explored similar issues within the Fundisa for Change programme itself. It is with this more recent focus in mind that this chapter provides literature on professional development in environment and sustainability education and includes case examples of research that has been done in the Fundisa for Change programme, exploring effective professional development models as well as how these models can be evaluated.1

<sup>1</sup> Earlier synthesis studies on professional development in Environment and Sustainability Education Teacher Professional Development can be found in Janse van Rensburg and Mhoney (2000), Reddy (2011), Lotz-Sisitka (2011), and Schudel (2017). These studies provide wider background and complementary texts to this chapter.

# **Teacher professional development modalities**

Researchers have different views on what effective professional development is. From the United Kingdom, Guskey (2003: 749) asserted that effective professional development requires that teachers work together, reflect on their practice, exchange ideas, and share strategies. Desimone (2009), writing from the United States, observed that professional growth of teachers can best be understood within the social contexts of their work. Writing from the same context, Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson and Orphanos (2009) argue that the most effective professional development is sustained, intensive, ongoing, connected to practice, and addresses the teaching of the specific curriculum content. Mokhele and Jita (2010) from South Africa observed that in order for professional development to be effective, it has to be aligned to teachers' personal circumstances and motivations.

Professional development for environment and sustainability education needs to be contextual, responsive, emergent, participatory, critical and praxiological (Robottom & Kyburz-Graber 2000; Janse van Rensburg & Mhoney 2000; Reddy 2011; Schudel 2017). This allows teachers opportunities to be active, reflective and responsive within their own teaching practice (Fundisa for Change Programme 2013). Such professional development enables teachers to be not merely passive recipients of others' expertise, but creators, disseminators and preservers of knowledge in their own right (Wood 2007). Teachers are intellectuals who can think, inquire and conceptualise their own knowledge (Wood 2007; Janse van Rensburg & Mhoney 2000; Reddy 2011; Schudel 2017).

There are different modalities of professional development. Among these are: seminars, conferences, workshops, coaching, mentoring, formal courses and collaborative models (Stoll et al. 2006; Mizell 2010; Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). Professional development also happens in informal contexts such as conversations with colleagues, independent reading and research (Mizell 2010). Seminars, workshops and conferences are traditional models of professional development (Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). These modalities are grounded in the assumptions that the purpose of professional development is to convey knowledge to teachers (Vescio et al. 2008). Most of these professional development activities last for only a few hours. They are generic, discuss one or two structured topics and are disconnected from teachers' classroom activities (Darling-Hammond et al. 2009). Traditional models of professional development usually do not allow teachers time to reflect on their classroom practice and thus have a minimal effect on teachers' practice and learners' achievements (Wood 2007). More collaborative professional development models represent a fundamental shift away from the traditional models, by assuming that teachers are not only implementers of others' ideas but also creators of knowledge, and that practice is a central aspect of this knowledge co-creation process for teachers (Wood 2007; Janse van Rensburg & Mhoney 2000).

Collaborative models allow for ongoing, sustained professional development activities and enable teachers to focus on one issue at a time in detail (Stoll et al. 2006). These models recognise the importance of teachers' agency (South Africa DBE 2015; Schudel 2012). Teachers who participate in collaborative models have greater confidence, develop enthusiasm for collaborative working, greater commitment to changing practice, and are willing to try new things (Darling-Hammond et al. 2017). The lesson study is an example of a collaborative professional development model (Lewis & Hurd 2011). This approach continues to be a paradigm shift for most educators outside Japan. The lesson study model has been experimented with in some parts of South Africa (i.e. the Western Cape, Mpumalanga and Free State provinces) to help new teachers (especially in Maths and Science) begin their journey, and experienced teachers to deepen their work (Mokhele & Jita 2010). This approach provides teachers with a learning structure to reflect on their own practice, build a shared knowledge base, foster intrinsic motivation and build a culture that emphasises continuous improvement and collaboration (Lewis & Hurd 2011). Lewis and Hurd point out that the lesson study model allows teachers to seek answers from one another, from specialists, from research and from carefully studying their learners during lessons. Unlike other professional development models, these models are not 'one size fits all'. They are usually teacher directed, teacher driven and teacher orientated. Professional Learning Communities (PLC) is one of the collaborative professional development models being promoted in the South African policy landscape and has been explored in some of the Fundisa for Change research, as discussed later in this chapter and elsewhere in this book (see Tshiningayamwe and Lotz-Sisitka, Chapter 16 and Thomas and Songqwaru, Chapter 17).

# **Teacher professional development in environment and sustainability education**

Environmental issues and risks are global concerns experienced worldwide (Le Roux & Ferreira 2005). The 2016 Global Education Monitoring (GEM) Report (Unesco 2016) states that the planet is in a dire state due to overexploitation of natural resources, loss of biodiversity and a rise in carbon levels leading to climate change. There have been various responses at global, regional and national level to the environmental challenges facing us. Policy, legislation, agreements, treaties and conventions have been established to address environmental degradation in an attempt to mitigate, combat and reverse some of the environmental threats. Education programmes have also been developed in formal and informal sectors to address these issues and risks. There is an urgent need for all sectors of society to work together to address environmental challenges and create a sustainable world (McKeown & Hopkins 2014).

In 1998 a call was made to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco) to develop guidelines for reorienting teacher training to address sustainability in education (Unesco 2005). In 2013, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) developed guidelines that support the empowerment of educators for a sustainable future. The guidelines share principles that underpin an educational change process that reflects the ethos of competence in ESD (UNECE 2013). One of the principles resonates with the Fundisa for Change teacher professional development programme as it speaks about understanding, and building on, the context. This principle calls for the utilisation of existing structures and making use of ongoing processes and initiatives.

Subsequent to the UNECE guidelines, the Global Action Programme was launched with an emphasis on building the capacity of educators. The Global Action Programme is a post-2015 development agenda, a follow-up to the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) that recognises that sustainable development cannot be achieved by political agreements, financial incentives or technological solutions alone (Unesco 2014). GAP Priority Area Three calls for the integration of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) into pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes to increase the capacities of educators and trainers for the delivery of ESD (Unesco 2014).

At the end of 2015 there was a launch of seventeen global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Goal Four of the SDGs focuses on quality education which seeks to ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development. To achieve this, teachers need to be trained to use appropriate and relevant teaching and learning methods and relevant content that meets the needs of all learners (Unesco 2015b). Educators are viewed as change agents who can deliver the educational responses needed to achieve SDGs (Unesco 2017). In the southern African region a programme called 'Sustainability Starts with Teachers' has been established by Unesco to support teacher educators to integrate ESD into teacher education (www. sustainabilityteachers.org).

International imperatives have shaped and influenced how South Africa has integrated environment and sustainability education in the education sector. In 1995, a policy initiative on the integration of environmental education was tabled in South Africa, which led to the integration of environmental education as a principle of the 1995 White Paper on Education and Training (RSA 1995), which was one of the first post-apartheid policies to guide the restructuring of the education and training system in South Africa. This policy called for the integration of environmental education into all levels and phases of the education sector, including teacher education. In the schooling system this call was translated into a guiding principle that continues to underpin the national school curriculum. The principle highlights a relationship between social justice, human rights, a healthy environment and inclusivity (South Africa DoE 2002). Integration of environment and sustainability education into the schooling sector has implications for how teachers are supported to engage with this kind of education. Ongoing international policy developments and reviews, and new strategies on integration of environment and sustainability education, have continued to influence South African national policies and strategies, as well as the implementation of environment and sustainability education in both formal and nonformal education sectors. However, due to challenges related to limited resources and educators' capacity, implementation of environment and sustainability education has not been fully successful. Different interventions have been put in place to address these challenges. Among other initiatives, Fundisa for Change was implemented to capacitate teachers with regard to environment and sustainability education, in order to enhance the systemic impact of programmes orientated towards supporting implementation of environment and sustainability content in the school curriculum. The Fundisa for Change programme continues with various other forms of support with this in mind. The Department of Higher Education and Training is currently revising the teacher education minimum qualification requirements to integrate ESD as a cross-cutting concern for teacher education, which offers an important platform for taking the Fundisa for Change teacher education work forward in South Africa.

# **Teacher professional development in environment and sustainability education in South Africa**

Stevenson (2007) argues that collaborative teacher professional development models are recommended for environment and sustainability education. He observes that teachers have their own ideas that emerge from experience, circumstances and understanding of teaching and learning, a point also made by Janse van Rensburg and Mhoney in 2000 in the South African Learning for Sustainability project. There have been many initiatives in South Africa which aimed at supporting teachers in environment and sustainability education in the post-apartheid period. The Learning for Sustainability project was piloted in the Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces between 1997 and 2000 (Janse van Rensburg & Lotz-Sisitka 2000). The project followed a threepillar approach of integrating environmental education in the curriculum: teacher development, curriculum development and materials development. The Learning for Sustainability project was shaped by influential educational theories such as learnercentred education, critical pedagogy and reflective practitioner theories (Janse van Rensburg & Lotz-Sisitka 2000).

In the year 2000, the National Environmental Education Project for General Education and Training (NEEP-GET) expanded upon the Learning for Sustainability Project, taking it into all nine provinces (NEEP-GET 2004). NEEP-GET was established by the South African Ministry of Education to support professional development of subject advisors and teachers. NEEP-GET also aimed at strengthening environmental learning in the South African curriculum, within an outcomebased, learner-centred curriculum framework, which was the policy of the national government at the time (NEEP-GET 2004). Professional development processes and programmes were structured around a spiral, cluster-based model (Du Toit & Sguazzin 2000; Lotz-Sisitka 2004). NEEP supported the emergence of a draft Education for Sustainable Development Strategy in South Africa (Lotz-Sisitka 2011). In the NEEP-GET synthesis report, Lotz-Sisitka (2004) discussed the key outputs of the project as well as achievements and challenges. One of the outputs she highlighted was the implementation of teachers' professional development in environmental education within which she observed the following achievements:

However, despite the above gains, the project was not able to develop an in-depth focus on the environmental aspect in the learning areas, and there is still an issue of superficial interpretations of environmental knowledge in theses learning areas (Lotz-Sisitka 2004: 13). This is a point made in earlier research in the Learning for Sustainability Project (Janse van Rensburg & Lotz-Sisitka 2000). Lotz-Sisitka recommended further support for teachers in environmental learning to ensure that learners are not exposed to superficial knowledge on environmental issues, a noticeable trend in South Africa over the years. In more recent work, Lotz-Sisitka (2011) acknowledged the good practices and positive influence of the above-mentioned projects (Learning for Sustainability Project and NEEP-GET) on the curriculum. She emphasised, however, that very little has been achieved in ensuring that environment and sustainability issues are consistently and coherently integrated into teacher education (2011: 33). Due to inadequate capacity to make a wide systemic impact, achievements were noted mainly at the pilot level. Fundisa for Change was established in 2011 as a response to this (Lotz-Sisitka 2011). Since then, research has been conducted on how Fundisa for Change has provided professional development to teachers on environment and sustainability education (Schudel 2012; Songqwaru 2012; Tshiningayamwe 2016; Thomas 2019; Songqwaru 2019; Nkhahle 2021; Heath 2021). Details of some of these studies are elaborated in other chapters of this book (see Songqwaru, Chapter 19; Tshiningayamwe and Lotz-Sisitka, Chapter 16; Thomas and Songqwaru, Chapter 17; Heath and O'Donoghue, Chapter 5).

Below are elaborations on two of the studies conducted to explore how Fundisa for Change enhanced teachers' professional development.

# **Professional Learning Communities (PLC) as a potential model for teacher professional development in environment and sustainability education**

PLCs are 'teachers who work collaboratively to reflect on practice, examine evidence about the relationship between practice and student outcomes, and make changes that improve teaching and learning for the particular students in their classes' (McLaughlin & Talbert 2006: 3–4). Fulton, Doerr and Britton (2010) unpacked the concept of PLC by noting that *professional* means engaging educators in the development of their professional practice; *learning* means focusing on both the learning of the educators and of the students; and *community* requires common vision, goals, purposes and a shared sense of trust, as well as collaborative work (p. 6). Reflected in these definitions of PLCs is that the focus of learning is not on individual teachers' professional learning but rather on professional learning within the community context. The community aspect of a PLC enables collegial support for individuals (Stoll et al. 2006). Salomon's (1993) notion of distributed cognition presumes that members of the community take responsibility for their contribution to the group and to individual learning processes.

Reviews of the PLC literature conclude that PLCs support teachers' acquisition of new knowledge and skills, thus improving teachers' content knowledge and professional practice (Stoll et al. 2006; Vescio et al. 2008). PLCs provide spaces for teachers to raise questions about their teaching, discuss content knowledge, and experiment with diverse models of students' problem-solving methods, resulting in improved teaching practice. Vescio, Ross and Adams (2008) pointed out that teachers in PLCs share successful teaching strategies, develop new approaches to shared problems and share the specific subject content knowledge. Tshiningayamwe and Songqwaru (2017) conducted a review of PLCs and collaborative models of professional developments in Namibia and South Africa. In their review, they noted that PLCs have proven to be effective models of teachers' professional development. Therefore, for effective ESD, PLCs should be considered in the planning of teacher professional development initiatives. This will support teachers to address challenges of quality teaching, learning and sustainable development issues.

To pilot the concept of PLCs in Fundisa for Change, a study explored the conversion factors, functionings (valued doings and beings), agency and structures in Professional Learning Communities with regard to Life Sciences teachers' biodiversity knowledge (Tshiningayamwe 2016). The teachers' valued beings and doings, as well as conversion factors associated with these beings and doings, were discussed within the conceptual framework of the capability approach using three PLCs in South Africa (see Tshiningayamwe and Lotz-Sisitka, Chapter 16; Thomas and Songqwaru, Chapter 17). The PLCs involved in this study were course initiated and were positioned in the Fundisa for Change programme. To illuminate constrained capabilities and how, and to what extent, the Life Sciences teachers' empirical actions are related to these, the concepts of the capability approach were underlaboured with critical realism's causal view of human action (Tshiningayamwe 2016). A critical realist theory of causation was useful in explaining how the teachers' valued beings and doings, conversion factors and capability sets can be partly accounted for via an understanding of underlying mechanisms that are generative of events and empirical experience. This is similar in some ways to the work of Brundrit (see Chapter 18) which shows how contextual dynamics filter teachers' abilities and agency for change.

Tshiningayamwe (2016) reported four main functionings valued by teachers: subject content knowledge; teaching practices; assessment practices; and use of teaching and learning support materials. These functions were also reported by Thomas (2019), who further explored how PLCs in the Fundisa for Change programme contribute to the development of teachers' capabilities and achievement of valued functionings related to teaching environmental education (see Chapter 17). Tshiningayamwe discussed these valued functionings in light of the beings and doings in the PLCs and the underlying mechanisms related to teachers' biodiversity teaching. Conversion factors associated with the teachers' valued beings and doings were discussed in line with the capability approach's environmental, social and personal conversion factors (Tshiningayamwe 2016). The study found that most of the conversion factors within the PLCs and the Fundisa for Change professional development programme (such as good facilitation, collaborative learning space, individual teachers' capabilities, teaching and learning support materials, and policy documents) were enablers to the teachers' capabilities for biodiversity teaching, and thus enhanced teachers' knowledge for biodiversity teaching. The study further found that teachers realised some of their achieved functionings in their actual teaching of biodiversity content in the Life Sciences curriculum (see Chapter 17).

# **Evaluating environment and sustainability education teacher professional development programmes**

A re-thinking of the process of professional development and how programmes are evaluated can assist in addressing some of the challenges that indicate that teacher professional development programmes are inadequate for improving the quality of education, particularly in South African schools (Bertram 2011; Mokhele & Jita 2012).

According to Haji, Morin and Parker (2013), the acknowledgement of the minimal effect of professional development programmes on intended outcomes should lead to a conclusion that either little of what is done makes a difference, or that current programme evaluation approaches are inadequate to capture what is of interest. It thus seems that questions asked are inadequate to reveal the full scope of what should be focused on to improve professional development programmes.

To extend our knowledge of teacher education programmes, Borko (2004) suggested that focus should be on four key elements that make up any professional development system, namely: the professional development programme; the teachers who are the beneficiaries of the programme; the programme facilitators; and the context in which the professional development occurs. Additionally, there is a need to look at how each element works in relation to the others. Fullan (2007) argued that professional development programmes sometimes fail to give teachers the support they need partly because of the assumptions of programme designers and implementers about how change in practice occurs. What needs to be changed often varies inversely with knowledge about how to work through a process of change. Programmes are conceptualised based on professional experience, insights and beliefs about interventions in a particular field (Birckmayer & Weiss 2000). Surfacing programme assumptions can assist in explaining why certain professional development programmes, and their variants, work in the ways they do to produce the desired results (Desimone 2009).

It has been noted in the past that there are two constraints under which environmental education programmes operate: limited financial resources, and the criticism that environmental education is ineffective (McDuff 2002) in the face of the challenges it is aiming to address. According to Scott and Gough (2003), evaluations of environmental educational programmes tended, at that time, to focus on measuring the effectiveness or quality of a programme, and participants' knowledge after attending the programme.

McDuff (2002) suggested that a needs analysis be conducted prior to designing both training and programme evaluations. He reasoned that this would enable programme designers to design programmes that respond to the needs of the participants, and the evaluation would therefore focus on how and whether those needs were met or not. Another suggestion from Rovira (2000), also writing around the same period of approximately 20 years ago, is that social differences need to be taken into account when evaluating an environmental education programme. She argued that the social context determines the potential for environmental education programmes to effect actual change of attitudes and behaviour in participants, a point that was made by Janse van Rensburg and Lotz in 2000 when they argued for contextual profiling in environmental education evaluation research.

Zint, Dowd and Covitt (2011: 471) stated that evaluations are critical to the success of individual environmental education (EE) programmes and can contribute to advancing the field of EE. They argued that when evaluation results are analysed and synthesised they can add to the body of knowledge regarding the benefits of environmental education and effective environmental education practices.

While these important points were made many years ago, what has emerged is that environmental education literature lacks a systematic approach to the development and evaluation of environmental education programmes (Riemer et al. 2014). According to O'Donoghue (1986: 20–21), evaluation in environmental education, when viewed as an emergent process of facilitating change, should have the following characteristics:

O'Donoghue (1986), more than twenty years ago, advocated for rejection of a limited conception of evaluation as a means of measuring outcomes and instead called for an integrated critical approach to evaluation within a process of social change.

More recently, Tao (2012) noted that evaluations of environmental education programmes have been challenged by a lack of clearly articulated programme objectives. This critical step is essential for identifying outcomes and structuring an appropriate evaluation plan. A related challenge identified is a misalignment between the programme's stated objectives and actual programme activities. Goals and objectives should be explicitly linked but what has been observed is that there are environmental education programmes that either have not identified their programme objectives, or have incorporated activities not aligned with programme objectives. There tends to be a mismatch between long-term outcomes of the programme and actual programme activities. Tao (2012), drawing on critical realism, suggested that evaluations of environmental education programmes can assist with identification of the underlying assumptions framing the programme, to provide clarity for programme stakeholders in aligning their short and long-term goals with programme activities.

Early proponents of theory-based evaluation, Karachi, Abbott, Catalano, Haggerty and Fleming (1999: 713) noted that:

A program evaluation enhances its utility by examining the theoretical basis of the program and the intervening and contextual factors that mediate the relationship between the program and the ultimate outcome. Thus, information generated from this type of evaluation can improve intervention conceptualization while it contributes to theory development and validation.

Arguably, without surfacing programme assumptions (which affect the delivery of a programme), even if it is sound, the programme cannot be fully understood. Coryn, Noakes, Westine and Schröter defined a theory-based evaluation as

any evaluation strategy or approach that explicitly integrates and uses stakeholder, social science, some combination of, or other types of theories in conceptualizing, designing, conducting, interpreting, and applying an evaluation. (2011: 201)

A theory-based approach to evaluation has potential to benefit environmental education programmes (see Songqwaru, Chapter 19). A programme's articulated theory of change would enable programme stakeholders to observe the synergy (or lack thereof) between articulated assumptions and programme activities, as was shown in recent evaluations of the Fundisa for Change programme (Songqwaru 2019; Mukute & Mandikonza 2020) and other environmental learning programmes (such as Enviro Champs).

Astbury and Leeuw (2010) stated that theory-based evaluations unpack programmatic 'black boxes' and explain how and why programmes work (or fail to work) in different contexts and for different programme stakeholders. A 'black box' evaluation refers to the practice or tendency of focusing only on the effects of a programme without attending to how the effects were produced. A focus on the outcomes of a programme, which excludes contexts and assumptions (beliefs, theories) held by all the stakeholders, is inadequate to account for the complexities that exist in educational programmes. It also fails to generate meaningful understanding of factors that lead to programme success or failure, as well as the interaction of these factors in open systems (Haji et al. 2013).

The black box, according to Weiss (2000), can have many theories (assumptions) for the same programme which do not get to be examined. Weiss argued that there are many ideas that implementers, stakeholders and concerned parties have about how a programme should work and these 'theories' need to be brought to light; this is important for contextualisation of programmes, as is shown in Chapters 17, 18 and 19.

Although a theory of change framework integrates both a programme and an implementation theory, it predominantly engages with uncovering a programme's implementation theory (Blamey & Mackenzie 2007). A realist evaluation approach is needed to enable engagement with a programme's programme theory, as is also shown in Chapter 19 (Songqwaru) and the work of the Enviro Champs.

An implementation theory describes the steps to be taken in the implementation of a programme. Programme theory refers to the mechanisms that mediate between the delivery and receipt of the programme and the emergence of outcomes in a particular context (Weiss 1998).

A realist evaluation starts with articulating the initial programme theory, by identifying the mechanisms that are likely to operate, the contexts in which they might operate, and the outcomes that will be observed if they operate as expected. According to Dalkin, Greenhalgh, Jones, Cunningham and Lhussier (2015), mechanisms are what generate observed outcomes. Mechanisms in realist evaluation are a combination of resources offered by the programme and participants' reasoning and responses to bring about intended programme outcomes. A Context-Mechanism-Outcome (CMO) framework is used in realist evaluation to unpack a programme's theory (Pawson & Tilley 1997; see also Chapter 19).

Programme resources, that is mechanisms, may be material, cognitive, social, and/or emotional. Programmes work when these resources resonate with programme participants (Pawson 2003). According to Westhorp (2012), participant reasoning includes preferences, norms and beliefs, and these underpin decisions that lead to particular actions, which in turn enable or constrain outcomes. Partly, the success or failure of programmes is due to the reasoning and personal choices of different participants (Pawson et al. 2005).

Cheyne et al. (2013) stated that the context in which a programme is implemented shapes the mechanisms and the outcomes. Hence a programme evolves when introduced into different contexts, as context tends to influence what people do and how they will act. When a programme is implemented in another context, there are inevitably differences in infrastructure, institutions, stakeholders and participants. Consequently, some critical causal configurations on which programme success depends might be broken by the shift. A programme can still obtain the same objectives in different sites but by different means (Pawson 2001). Pawson and Manzano-Santaella (2012) stated that there will always be multiple contexts, for example, individual, institutional and infrastructural features, that condition the action of the mechanisms.

Pawson and Tilley (1997) argued that all programmes are conceptualised and implemented into pre-existing social contexts. This is also shown by the work of Brundit and Schudel in Chapter 18, Thomas and Songqwaru in Chapter 17, Tshiniganyamwe and Lotz-Sisitka in Chapter 16 and Heath in Chapter 5. Context has an influence on the success or failure of a programme. Pawson and Tilley (1997) listed four contextual components that may determine whether the new ideas will lead to participants making the programme work or not: (i) the individual capacities of facilitators and participants, (ii) the interpersonal relationships created between them, (iii) the institutional balance and (iv) the wider infrastructural systems.

The four contextual factors that shape the implementation of social programmes were further elaborated on by Macfarlane, Greenhalgh, Humphrey, Hughes, Butler and Pawson (2011) in the following way:

The work of authors in this section of the book also points to the historicity of these contextual factors and how this shapes contemporary contextual dynamics, a point that has been highlighted in many professional development studies in South Africa (see Janse van Rensburg & Mhoney 2000; Lotz-Sisitka 2011; Reddy 2011; Schudel 2017). This adds to the complexity of the setting in which professional development is implemented and evaluated (see Reddy 2011).

# **Recommendations and conclusion**

This chapter has revealed that professional development programmes can be an important conversion factor that enables the expansion of teachers' environment and sustainability education in ways that have the potential to reshape teachers' classroom practices. The chapter recommends that teachers' professional development programmes should:

• Explicitly take into account teachers' valued functionings and conversion factors that can enable teachers to develop their professional capabilities.

A theory-based approach to evaluation enables evaluators to assess not only whether a programme has worked or not, but also why. In this regard, it is important to identify contexts that condition the operation of programme theories. Insights gained from a theory-based approach to evaluation contribute theoretical knowledge on transferrable lessons about programme implementation theory and programme theory

Programme evaluation should lead to an understanding of the mechanisms that translate intention into action, as well as surface the programme mechanisms and contextual factors that could lead to programme outcomes. The same mechanism can have different degrees of responses with participants, depending on the contextual dynamics. This does not necessarily mean that the desired outcomes are not achieved, but that they are achieved to varying degrees by different participants, influenced by contextual dynamics. It is therefore critical to identify supportive mechanisms and consider the contextual dynamics carefully for various groups and individuals to ensure maximum benefit of professional development programmes. This can help to develop a body of theory that is backed up by practical experience on what works for whom in what conditions. Insights from a theory-based approach to evaluation provide an organising framework which abstracts a particular set of conditions from a programme (in this case, Fundisa for Change), which can then be applied to new programmes. A programmes's theory of change can thus be developed further via this contextually iterative and responsive approach. Through this process, a progressive understanding can be developed, and transferable knowledge achieved.

# **References**

#### **Chapter 15**

#### *Teacher Professional Development in Environment and Sustainability Education*

*Ending the DESD and Beginning the GAP.* Canada: York University

Pawson R & Tilley N (1997) *Realistic Evaluation*. London: Sage

#### **Chapter 15**

#### *Teacher Professional Development in Environment and Sustainability Education*

Teacher Education and Development Programme Pilot Project. Unpublished M.Ed thesis, Rhodes University, Makhanda

#### **Teaching and Learning for Change** *Education and Sustainability in South Africa*

# CHAPTER 16

**Enhancing Capabilities of Life Sciences Teachers: Professional Development, Conversion Factors and Functionings in Teachers' Professional Learning Communities**

*Sirkka Tshiningayamwe and Heila Lotz-Sisitka*

# **Introduction and context**

South Africa is rich in biodiversity and is home to about 95 000 known species (South Africa DEA 2014; SANBI 2019). Yet, compared to other southern African countries, the country has a high number of threatened species (Driver et al. 2012). Approximately 12 million South Africans depend on the natural environment to meet their needs. Among other factors, overharvesting of biological resources is one of the main causes of biodiversity loss in the country (South Africa DEA 2014; SANBI 2019). In line with assessment of biodiversity reports, Unesco (2018) notes that biodiversity loss is a global phenomenon. Emphasis in these reports is that over 7 billion people in the world rely on biodiversity to maintain and enhance their well-being. The realisation of biodiversity conservation as a global concern has resulted in various international conventions, policies, legislation and educational programmes that foreground biodiversity (Shava & Schudel 2013). Aligned with international trends, South Africa also has national policies and legislation aimed at protecting biodiversity. Among these is the National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act which introduces a legal framework for governing sustainable development in the country, and includes a clause for all training and education programmes to integrate education for sustainable development (RSA 1998). Thus, like many other countries in the world, South Africa has incorporated biodiversity components in its ongoing curriculum reforms including in the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS).

An analysis of the CAPS curriculum clearly shows that Life Sciences as a subject covers a considerable amount of biodiversity-related elements (South Africa DBE 2011a). However, due to inadequate pedagogical content knowledge of new curriculum areas such as biodiversity among Life Sciences teachers, the implementation of this area of the curriculum lacks systemic coherence (Songqwaru 2012). Efforts have been made to support teachers to enhance their subject knowledge for effective implementation of environmental learning by including biodiversity content in the curriculum; however, very little has been achieved in ensuring that environmental issues such as loss of biodiversity and climate change are consistently and coherently implemented in the school curriculum (Lotz-Sisitka 2011; cf. Mmekwa and Schudel, Chapter 3 and Lotz-Sisitka and Mandikonza, Chaper 6). Many professional development initiatives have been described as one-off trainings, often with little relevance to the needs of teachers (South Africa DBE 2015). For professional development programmes to be successful, they have to be personally meaningful to the participating teachers, and should be aligned with their needs (Darling-Hammond 2008). In response to this and in line with international trends, South Africa calls for collaborative learning as a main strategy to support the ongoing professional learning and development of teachers. This is through providing support systems that promote the establishment of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) (South Africa DHET & DBE 2011; cf. Thomas and Songqwaru, Chapter 17). PLCs aim to transform teachers from being subjects in their learning spaces to becoming educational change agents (South Africa DHET & DBE 2011). In South Africa, PLCs are a relatively new policy concept; thus, limited research exists on how PLC approaches contribute to teachers' professional development.

In line with the South African policy landscape, Fundisa for Change aims to pilot and develop the concept of PLCs within the context of environmental learning (Lotz-Sisitka 2011). Using the capability approach and the critical realist theory of causation, this chapter aims to answer the following question:

How can a continuing professional development programme act as a conversion factor that expands and/or constrains the conversion factors and functionings in teachers' PLCs related to the teaching of biodiversity?

The chapter explores how PLC approaches can enhance Life Sciences teachers' capability for teaching biodiversity content in the curriculum. This has the potential to contribute to the South African policy landscape on teacher professional development and related global policies such as the Education for Sustainable Development 2030 Agenda (Unesco 2020), as well as transforming and strengthening teachers' practices.

# **Professional Learning Communities**

PLCs are defined as 'on-going groups ... who meet regularly for the purpose of increasing their own learning and that of their students' (Lieberman & Miller 2008: 2). PLCs comprise 'teachers who work collaboratively to reflect on practice, examine evidence about the relationship between practice and student outcomes, and make changes that improve teaching and learning for the particular students in their classes' (McLaughlin & Talbert 2006: 3–4). In the South African context, PLCs are defined as 'communities that provide the setting and necessary support for groups of classroom teachers to participate collectively in determining their own developmental trajectories, and to set up activities that will drive their development' (South Africa DHET & DBE 2011: 14). Examples of PLCs are: teacher learning communities, teacher networks, and critical friend groups. Reflected in these definitions of PLCs is that the focus of learning is not on individual teachers' professional learning but rather on the professional learning within the community context. This communal conception of learning, according to Sfard (1998), assumes an inextricable bond with identity formation. The community aspect of a PLC enables collegial support for individuals (Stoll et al. 2006). Borko (2004) claims that professional development is situative and that outcomes are influenced by personal and group processes.

PLCs are grounded in adult learning theories aligned with socio-cultural learning, grounded in the work of Vygotsky (1978). Through Vygotsky's theories, the idea of scaffolding was identified by Bruner (1993), which implies that people learn at a much higher level when support for their learning gap is provided through peer interaction, or the contribution of a more knowledgeable other (Vygotsky 1978). In the case of PLCs, this suggests that Life Sciences teachers must understand their own acquisition of biodiversity knowledge, and its relationship within the social context, in order to enhance their knowledge. This requires a forum for teachers to construct biodiversity knowledge through a continuous cycle of learning rooted in reflection, social collegial interaction, professional dialogue, and processes that can provide scaffolding for improved knowledge for teaching (Stoll et al. 2006). In this chapter, the focus is on a course-initiated PLC and explores the potential of this approach for enhancing teachers' biodiversity knowledge. Of particular interest are PLCs that operate outside the school and consist of Grade 10–12 Life Sciences teachers from various schools in one district. This is motivated by the model used by the Fundisa for Change programme. Fundisa for Change support to teachers is subject, grade and environmental-issue specific (Fundisa for Change Programme 2013). PLCs provide spaces for teachers to raise questions about their teaching, improving teachers' content knowledge, teaching strategies and professional practice (Stoll et al. 2006). This implies that Life Sciences teachers can use PLCs to collaborate on their knowledge of biodiversity and experiment with new teaching methods that are encouraged for biodiversity teaching. This has the potential to improve learners' knowledge of biodiversity and, ultimately, contribute to the conservation of South Africa's biodiversity.

# **Theoretical framework**

The study used the capability approach and critical realist theory of causation. The capability approach is developed by Amartya Sen. Among the core concepts of the capability approach are functionings, capabilities and conversion factors. Functionings are 'the various things a person may value doing or being' (Sen 1999: 75) which constitute the practical realisation of one's chosen way of life. Capabilities are 'the alternative combination of functionings that are feasible for [a person] to achieve; they are the substantive freedom a person has to lead the kind of life he or she has reason to value' (Sen 1999: 87). Conversion factors are factors that can allow teachers in PLCs to convert resources to new functionings (Robeyns 2005). Robeyns distinguished between three sources of conversion factors that can constrain or enable people's capabilities. These are:

Robeyns further noted that personal, social and environmental conversion factors are interrelated. Therefore, the capability of individual Life Sciences teachers in the PLC is likely to be dependent on these interrelated conversion factors. The capability approach is not aimed at understanding causal structures and mechanisms that influence the conversion factors; for this reason, critical realism was used to understand and explain the causal structures and mechanisms that influence PLC functionings.

Critical realism is a philosophy of natural and social sciences developed by Roy Bhaskar (1978). It is based on the assumption that there are real generative mechanisms underlying the events of the world and our experiences of it (Benton & Craib 2001). Critical realism posits that natural and social phenomena are real but that our knowledge about them is theory-laden, imperfect and fallible (Sayer 2000). Critical realist researchers base their explanations of how people experience a phenomenon on mechanisms that operate at deeper levels of reality. The three levels of reality are: the empirical, the actual and the real. Benton and Craib (2001) asserted that scientific research employing a critical realist methodology goes beyond what is experienced, to uncover the underlying dynamics that give rise to generative mechanisms. A generative mechanism is 'the way of acting of things' (Bhaskar 1978: 14). The empirical is the layer of reality that is most accessible to us. It refers to our personal observations and experiences of the world (Danemark et al. 2002). This layer consists of knowledge that is fallible and unstable, meaning that knowledge is not static and can change. Empirical knowledge pertaining to Life Sciences teachers is their conceptions of their

#### **Chapter 16** *Enhancing Capabilities of Life Sciences Teachers*

valuable beings and doings as teachers and participants in PLCs. The actual is the layer of reality that consists of the events of the world, whether experienced by people or not (Danermark et al. 2002). An example would be the actual practices of Life Sciences teachers. The real refers to anything that exists that has power to cause events and experiences at the level of the actual and empirical (Sayer 2000). It is within the level of the real that causal mechanisms and causal powers are found. Martins (2006) differentiates between the concepts of structures, power and mechanisms as three fundamental concepts of critical realist ontology, noting that:

Structures are the underlying conditions of possibility that enable or facilitate the occurrence of a given phenomenon. Structures comprise powers that may or may not be exercised and, when exercised, may or may not be actualised in actual events and states of affairs. Mechanisms refer to the mode of operation of structures and exist as the power that a structure possesses of acting in a given way. (2006: 676)

Bhaskar (1978) argued that mechanisms are ways in which structured entities, by means of their powers and liabilities, act and cause particular events. Sayer (2000) posited that the same structures and mechanisms operating in different conditions cause different observed events. He notes that causal mechanisms do not act deterministically. Bhaskar (1998) asserted that causal mechanisms are better understood as tendency, which can be explained as activities that may or may not be actualised in concrete events and states of affairs. Tendencies can be linked to courses of action that one would take: for example, Life Sciences teachers participating in the PLC activities in order for their valued beings or doings to come to fruition (Tao 2013).

Critical realism argues that reality is a differentiation between open systems and closed systems (Shipway 2011). Bhaskar (1978) noted that open systems result in a situation where particular mechanisms cause certain effects and those effects are observable. Education programmes such as Fundisa for Change always take place in open systems. Tendencies operate within the open systems (i.e. in the PLCs) of the social world among counter-tendencies. Archer (2007) noted:

If there is a congruent relationship between an individual's tendency with concurrently operating tendencies, there is enablement of action: but if there is incongruence, there is a constraint. At that point, an individual has the power to reflect upon one's circumstances and to decide what to do in them or to do about them; and this reflexive deliberation may result in compliance to counter-tendencies (in which original course of action is negated), or evasion of it (in an attempt to realise the action, albeit in a constrained way). (2007: 20)

Also important is to understand the causal factors and causal processes that explain how the generative mechanisms relate to the Life Sciences teachers' PLC activities, and the conversion factors that enable or constrain their capabilities (their valued beings and doings as teachers). This is linked to the critical realism concept of causality. 'To ask the cause of something is to ask what makes it happen, what produces, generates, creates or determines it, or more weakly, what enables or leads to it' (Sayer 1992: 104). As outlined above, significant to critical realism is the notion of social structures (Sayer 2000). Like natural entities, social structures emerge from relations: the relations between people, and relations between people and nature (Easton 2010). Martins (2006) noted that structures can be physical, biological, psychological or social.

What inspired the use of the capability approach and critical realism in this chapter is Tao's (2012, 2013) analytical framework (see Figure 1).

#### **Chapter 16** *Enhancing Capabilities of Life Sciences Teachers*

To unpack this framework at the level of the real, structures and agency can interact to develop a functioning that an individual values (Tao 2012). These factors can be seen as causal mechanisms that trigger an individual's tendency of action. This happens in an open system (Collier 2005). Within the open system are conversion factors that can either enable or constrain the Life Sciences teachers' capabilities to achieve their valued functionings (Tao 2012). If the conversion factors are enabling, the teacher's functionings will be achieved and the individual then decides whether to actualise the functioning (Outcome 1) or not (Outcome 2). If the conversion factors are constraining, this may result in an individual teacher complying with the constraint (Outcome 3), or being content with the counter-tendencies that can result in a constrained version of the valued functioning (Outcome 4) (Tao 2012). This brief discussion clarifies how such a framework can be helpful in identifying causal mechanisms in the PLC as well as the conversion factors, and exploring how the agents (i.e. Life Sciences teachers) can deliberate on whether to realise their achieved outcomes in the PLCs or not.

Drawing on Archer's (1995) perspectives, the agential ability for teachers to reflexively deliberate on social structures explains why teachers do not respond in the same ways under the same circumstances. Agency refers to the reflexive, creative, innovative and purposeful actions of people (Archer 1995). It explains the choices that people make in their daily lives which either reinforce existing structures and cultures or transform them.

Drawing on the critical realist theory of causation explains why specific interventions such as Fundisa for Change will only generate particular outcomes. The outcome will depend on both the context and the generative mechanisms that exist (Smith & Seward 2009). Similarly, even though teachers participating in the PLC activities may be receiving the same resources, different contextual factors and mechanisms will determine how teachers can or will convert them into new functionings (Robeyns 2005; cf. Thomas and Songqwaru, Chapter 17).

# **Research design**

The research was conducted as a qualitative case study, stressing the ontological foundations of the socially constructed nature of empirical experiences; the intimate relationship between researcher and what is studied; and the situational constraints that shape inquiry and practices (Denzin & Lincoln 2011; Bhaskar 1978). Case study methodologies are significant for learning about environmental learning (Lotz-Sisitka & Raven 2004) as they enable research into environmental issues such as biodiversity. All three PLC activities happened in two contact sessions (three days per session). Both sessions were attended by the same ten Life Sciences teachers and three facilitators. The teachers were qualified to teach Life Sciences and all had one or more qualifications in the field of education. Their qualifications varied from a Senior Secondary Teaching Diploma in Education to a Bachelor of Education Honours degree. Data was generated through ten semi-structured interviews with teachers, conducted by six facilitators, and with observations of the contact sessions. Document analysis was done on the Life Sciences CAPS documents, which served as primary data sources (Harland 2014). The data generated was analysed using the capability approach and critical realist theory of causation described above. Careful attention was given to ethical issues that confronted the researcher, such as policies regarding informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity (Harland 2014).

# **Research findings and discussions**

The teachers' valued functionings were mainly to expand their content knowledge, pedagogical practices and assessment practices related to the teaching of biodiversity (Tshiningayamwe 2016). Teachers also valued improving their confidence for teaching biodiversity, exploring study opportunities on marine biodiversity, receiving teaching and learning support materials, and expanding other capabilities such as having a good-looking curriculum vitae and supporting learners and the community to be knowledgeable on biodiversity. As discussed previously, capabilities can be expanded or constrained by conversion factors (Robeyns 2005). In PLCs there are different factors that enable or constrain the teachers in achieving their valued beings and doings. These include policies, teachers' qualifications, and the context in which PLC activities take place. Tao (2013, 2015) has argued that when located within a critical realist theory of causation, teachers' valued functionings can be viewed as the causal mechanisms that generate much of their actions as they relate to the teaching of biodiversity. She has developed an analytic framework that helps explain how causal mechanisms can lead to realised achieved functionings, or not. Using Tao's analytic framework here will provide an explanation of how the causal mechanisms among teachers in the PLCs can lead to realised functionings, or not. Figure 2 offers a visualisation of the intersections of capability approaches and critical realism with the realist causality that shapes the emergence of teachers' functionings in the PLCs.

Figure 2 outlines a process that begins at the level of the real with the dialectical interaction between structure and agency that produces the valued functionings of teachers as they relate to the teaching of biodiversity. The interplay was between Life Sciences teachers (agency) and the policy documents (structures) on teaching practice and professional development, such as the Life Sciences CAPS documents and the opportunity to participate in the PLCs. Teachers engaging in a reflexive deliberation process determined to what extent, as individuals, they wanted to be knowledgeable Life Sciences teachers, with improved practices on biodiversity. As shown in Figure 2, it is evident that the teachers' valued beings and doings related to biodiversity is an interplay between structures and agency. It is evident that in South Africa, contributing to teachers' lack of biodiversity knowledge is the fact that after 1994, school and teacher education curricula were implemented in a country with high poverty and social inequalities. It is also evident that unsuccessful or poorly monitored education policies, such as the Integrated Quality Management System, contributed to teachers' lack of biodiversity teaching knowledge. Another causal mechanism for teachers' lack of biodiversity knowledge is the ongoing curriculum change in South Africa (Tshiningayamwe 2016); at the time of writing, teachers had already had to adapt to three different versions of the national curriculum since 1994. The curriculum changes in South Africa introduce concepts and content that teachers are not trained to teach, including the concept of biodiversity. This implies that the education system and policies in South Africa are among the generative mechanisms that influence teachers' valued beings and doings as they relate to the teaching of biodiversity.

# **Figure 2.** A visualisation of critical realism and capability approaches (SCF = social conversion factors; PCF = personal conversion factors; ECF = environmental conversion factors)

As discussed earlier, critical realism bases explanations of how people experience a phenomenon on mechanisms that operate at deeper levels of reality. At the level of the actual, the causal mechanism triggers a person's tendency for action (Tao 2013). People's courses of action are triggered in open systems. The individual teacher's course of action was triggered in an open system that entailed teachers participating in the PLC activities to achieve their valued beings and doings. Some practising teachers do not have formal qualifications for the subjects they teach (South Africa DHET & DBE 2011b).

The teachers' differential qualifications have been influenced by the apartheid legacy and social inequalities (Tshiningayamwe 2016). This has an impact on both the teachers' lack of biodiversity knowledge and the quality of education in South Africa. It was therefore evident that teachers' different experiences and qualifications – personal conversion factors – influenced their biodiversity teaching.

Good facilitation among the facilitating team in the PLC was an important personal conversion factor that enabled teachers to expand their capabilities for biodiversity teaching in the PLCs (Tshiningayamwe 2016; Songqwaru 2020) (see Brundrit and Schudel, Chapter 18 for insight into aspects of facilitation appreciated by teachers). The Fundisa for Change partners who facilitated the PLC activities had different experiences (i.e. as teachers, teacher educators or subject advisors) and qualifications (i.e. master's and PhDs in Sciences and Environmental Education) that enabled them to facilitate the PLC activities together, drawing on this diversity of pedagogical, subject specialist, and facilitation expertise (Tshiningayamwe 2016). The facilitators' experiences and qualifications, related to environmental learning and related active learning pedagogies, were found to be contributing factors to the facilitators' good facilitation skills. In addition to teachers' capabilities and good facilitation, it was evident that in PLCs, another personal conversion factor that enabled teachers to expand their capabilities for teaching biodiversity was subject specialisation (Tshiningayamwe 2016). The Minimum Requirements of Teacher Education Qualification in South Africa notes that different subjects have different disciplinary or subject matter knowledge (South Africa DHET 2011: 8). Therefore, subject specialists who are knowledgeable in the subject matter in the PLCs enabled teachers' capabilities for teaching biodiversity.

In the Fundisa for Change PLCs, an important social conversion factor that enabled teachers to achieve their valued functionings was teaching and learning support materials and policy documents used in the PLCs and professional training programme. These were provided by the Fundisa for Change programme and were specially designed for enhancing Life Sciences Biodiversity knowledge, pedagogy and assessment practice in a context where good teaching and learning resource materials for teacher education programmes are rare (Tshiningayamwe 2016). This lack has been caused by inadequate support for teachers and teacher educators to develop quality teaching and learning support materials (Fundisa for Change Programme 2013). In some institutions of higher education, teachers have not been adequately prepared to design their own resources for teaching and learning (South Africa DHET & DBE 2011b). In some cases, there is a lack of curriculum understanding among those who support teachers with their professional development needs (Tshiningayamwe 2016). For this reason, the Fundisa for Change teacher education materials were designed specifically to be important social conversion factors in the PLC context for supporting biodiversity content knowledge, pedagogy and assessment practice.

The environmental conversion factors that enabled teachers to achieve their valued functionings in the PLCs were: collaborative spaces; sites for PLC activities (the presence of the botanical garden, wetland and ocean); and the actual beings and doings (the activities) in the PLCs (Tshiningayamwe 2016). The collaborative space is associated with the teachers' professional modalities that encourage teachers to share best practices together (Schmoker 2006). This is in response to a situation in South Africa where once-off models were among the popular models used for teachers' professional development, despite these having been found inadequate for substantive teacher professional development. These models have not fully transformed teachers' practices; in fact, they have contributed to teachers having inadequate biodiversity knowledge and expertise for their teaching. It is this historical situation that led to the introduction of the policy on PLCs in South Africa (South Africa DBE 2015) and motivated the more substantive response in the Fundisa for Change teacher education programme.

Another causal mechanism influencing environmental conversion factors of teachers' functionings is linked to the loss of biodiversity. As with most countries, biodiversity in South Africa is under threat as outlined above. This is due to the development model used in the country (Abdu-Raheem 2010). Land has been cleared for development purposes and loss of habitats has led to loss of biodiversity and/or species being threatened with extinction (Abdu-Raheem 2010). Long histories of occupation have produced human activities that have had impacts on natural habitats, leading to habitat destruction. Even though there is legislation at both international and national levels that aims at protecting biodiversity, some of the policies have not been fully implemented. In response, the South African government, as in other countries, has sought to integrate the concepts and content of biodiversity in the formal school curriculum, including the Life Sciences CAPS curriculum.

The personal, environmental and social conversion factors discussed above enabled the individual teachers' tendencies in the PLCs. Archer (2007) noted that if there is a congruent relationship between a teacher's tendency and the social, personal and environmental conversion factors, then the teacher's capabilities are expanded: for example, when teachers were able to convert the social conversion factor of good learning materials into their aspirations for improved teaching of biodiversity lessons; or where the social conversion factor of good facilitation provided teachers with better pedagogical knowledge and experience on how to go about teaching biodiversity in the outdoors. Here, the conversion factors were the enabling of teachers valued beings and doings, especially as these related to their intentions to improve their biodiversity teaching in the Life Sciences. As shown above, however, some of the conversion factors in the PLCs were constraining of teachers' capabilities, for example, the personal conversion factors that were constrained by inadequate qualifications or opportunities for obtaining qualifications that included biodiversity knowledge.

With the enabled conversion factors, the teachers had expanded capabilities for the teaching of biodiversity. Thus, teachers, through reflexive deliberations, had to decide what to do with their enabled or expanded capability of teaching biodiversity. Most teachers who participated in the Fundisa for Change PLCs realised their achieved functionings that resulted from expanded capabilities (Outcome 1). Tao (2013) noted that if teachers' valued functionings are expanded they are likely to be actualised. The expanded capabilities were in line with teachers' valued functionings, thus some teachers had actualised their expanded capabilities. This was mainly through teaching some of the biodiversity concepts they had learnt in the PLCs, and the use of pedagogical approaches and assessment practices learned in the PLCs. In this way they transformed their actual classroom practices related to biodiversity teaching. This outcome was reported by other Fundisa for Change researchers including Chitsiga (2015), Isaacs (2015), Songqwaru (2020) and Nkahle (2021), as well as in other environmental learning professional development research (Schudel 2012). The researchers observed that the Fundisa for Change programme has the potential to expand the valued beings and doings of teachers (i.e. their capabilities) and their professional learning interest, both in expanding their own environmental knowledge and teaching practices and in successfully teaching the curriculum (cf. with Songqwaru 2020).

As shown in Figure 2, some of the teachers who had expanded capabilities did not realise their achieved functionings (Outcome 2). This was mainly because of external constraints such as inadequate teaching and learning support materials; finances to take learners on field-work trips; large class sizes; too much CAPS content which allowed little time for teaching biodiversity concepts adequately; and learners' struggles with reading and writing.

It is arguable that teachers not realising their achieved functionings is also due to aspects that affect their agency (or passive agency). For example, in terms of teaching and learning support materials as required in the CAPS curriculum, they could have improvised to realise their achieved functionings. However, as noted by facilitators in the PLCs, some teachers were still not feeling confident to realise their achieved functionings. Even though teachers did not mention lack of confidence as one of the reasons for not realising their expanded capabilities, it is implied in the valued new functionings.

In the PLCs some individual tendencies were met by counter-tendencies or conversion factors that constrained capabilities. Social environmental factors such as lack of time spent on the activities were the main conversion factor that constrained teachers' capabilities (see Figure 2). As a result, some of the teachers did not expand their capabilities to teach all of the biodiversity concepts. Through reflexive deliberation they decided to contend with the conversion factors by expressing a need for further support in the PLCs to expand their capabilities with those biodiversity concepts not dealt with (Outcome 3). Some teachers' valued functionings were to explore study opportunities around marine biodiversity. That valued functioning was not achieved in the PLCs, therefore, as shown in Figure 2, teachers contended with this valued functioning by expressing a need for funding from the Fundisa for Change programme to study marine biodiversity further. Alternatively, as shown in Figure 2, through reflexive deliberations, teachers could have complied with the conversion factors, in which case a constrained form of the valued functioning would be achieved (Outcome 4). An example of this outcome would be teachers giving up on the PLC activities or not expressing a need for more professional development activities to expand their constrained capabilities related to the teaching of biodiversity. However, as shown in Figure 2, there was no evidence in the teachers' data that pointed to compliance of a constrained capability.

It is evident from Figure 2 that the critical realism theory of causation offers an explanation as to why teachers in the PLCs value ongoing support for their professional development. In these PLCs the same causal power can produce different outcomes, depending on the individual teachers' capabilities and contexts in which they work (Sayer 2000). Critical realists argue that because 'events are not pre-determined before they happen but depend on contingent conditions, the future is open – things could go in many different ways' (Sayer 2000: 15). This implies that the same causal mechanisms will not necessarily produce the same outcomes in the future. Thus, even though teachers in this study have expressed the need for continued participating in the PLC activities to expand their capabilities for biodiversity teaching, their ongoing participation might lead to different outcomes. However, by identifying that one of the key causal mechanisms in the PLCs is the teachers' valued functionings, and that conversion factors enable teachers' achievement of what they value in PLCs, we can improve teachers' practices on biodiversity components in the Life Sciences CAPS curriculum through understanding and addressing these mechanisms and/or their conversion factors in PLCs and in professional learning programmes more generally.

# **Conclusions and recommendations**

This study shows that simply to criticise teachers' poor teaching practices in relation to biodiversity content in the Life Sciences CAPS curriculum is an inadequate response that fails to recognise the need for a better foundation for programmes and professional learning. The study shows that teachers have valued functionings and capabilities that need to be appreciated when it comes to their teaching practices. It also demonstrates a need to give adequate time to understanding the root causes of teachers' observed practices, their expressed valued beings and doings, and the support they desire to achieve their capabilities. What emerged is that the causal power that has led to teachers' poor content knowledge, pedagogical approach and assessment includes the following factors: inadequate training; lack of professional development support; ongoing changing curricula; apartheid legacy and social inequalities; lack of and/or poor policy implementations; and education quality. It is clear that relying on empirical observations of teacher actions is only helpful in offering an understanding as to what extent a particular action occurs; but drafting policy on teachers' poor teaching practices, for example, will require a deeper understanding of the mechanisms that create the observed practices.

Unpacking teachers' practices related to biodiversity teaching, and understanding the underlying structures, mechanisms, tendencies and counter-tendencies that produce these observed practices is important. This provides information for programmes such as Fundisa for Change on the kind of support teachers need to expand their capabilities to transform classroom practices. This will enable programme initiators to put in place the requisite interventions to ensure that teachers' biodiversity practices are improved. It is important that such interventions take heed of teachers' capabilities, because these are the valued beings and doings that, as Sen (1999) described, are central to the types of lives that teachers would like to lead. If interventions such as the Fundisa for Change programme are aligned to teachers' valued beings and doings, then this could lead to improved teacher practices around biodiversity. It is also important that interventions aim to address the constraining conversion factors (counter-tendencies) such as time constraints. It can be argued that if professional development activities do not consider teachers' valued functionings and the constraining conversion factors, they are less likely to positively impact on the teachers' teaching practices as they relate to biodiversity.

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# CHAPTER 17

# **Developing Teacher Capabilities and Valued Functionings in Professional Learning Communities: Focus on Environmental Content Knowledge in Natural Sciences**

*Kgomotso Thomas and Zintle Songqwaru*

# **Introduction**

This study explored how professional learning communities can contribute to the development of teachers' capabilities and the achievement of their valued functionings related to teaching environmental content knowledge in the 'Life and Living' strand of Grade 8 Natural Sciences (NS). This is in the context of the Natural Sciences Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) which is strongly content-referenced and is committed to learning approaches that are active and critical, and to environment and sustainability content knowledge (Lotz-Sisitka 2011). The integration of environmental education in the school's curriculum is of significance as it addresses global and local environmental issues by preparing and actively involving learners in the planning, improvement and protection of the environment for the future (Unesco 2012). The successful implementation of CAPS requires that teachers attain necessary subject content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) for the integration of environment and sustainability concerns into the South African National Curriculum (Lotz-Sisitka 2011). Teachers are also required to have the requisite skills to implement pedagogical approaches that support environmental education. However, it is apparent that the implementation of environment and sustainability content knowledge in CAPS has certain challenges due to teachers' lack of subject knowledge, poor pedagogy and poor assessment practice in relation to environmental education (Songqwaru 2012). Researchers in South Africa (Tshiningayamwe 2016; Songqwaru 2012; Lotz-Sisitka 2011) have noted that there is a lack of adequate environment and sustainability content knowledge among teachers, and that the solution would be for teachers to participate in ongoing professional development activities to enhance their knowledge. However, many of these teacher professional development programmes have been described as once-off in-service workshops, which do not offer continuous meaningful support and training. These once-off trainings do not have a noticeable impact on improving teachers' teaching practices (Moodley 2013).

# **Teacher professional development**

Robottom (1987, in Riordan & Klein 2010) emphasised that teachers' professional development should promote pedagogical approaches which differ from traditional approaches, to support teachers in environmental education. Professional development includes many concepts such as staff development, in-service training, professional learning, and continuing education (Darling-Hammond et al. 2009). Mokhele and Jita (2010) view teacher professional development as involving systematic efforts to bring about a change in classroom practices of teachers, their attitudes and beliefs, and in the learning outcomes of learners. This study uses Evans's concept of professional development, defined as 'all types of professional learning undertaken by teachers beyond the point of initial training, the concomitant skills learnt and developed in these learning processes, and changes in approaches to practice resulting from them' (2002: 134). Effective professional development should offer teachers opportunities to collaborate with each other and to engage with ideas and materials. The focus should be on building teachers' skills, competencies and attitudes, rather than on mere transfer of information (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin 1995; Du Toit & Sguazzin 2000; Hinde 2003). Furthermore, professional development should provide a foundation for inquiry, reflection and experimentation, and take into account teachers' contexts in teaching and their prior knowledge and experiences. Researchers who focused on teacher development in biodiversity have noted that in South Africa there is a lack of biodiversity knowledge among teachers, and that the solution would be for teachers to participate in ongoing professional activities to enhance their biodiversity knowledge (Lotz-Sisitka 2011; Songqwaru 2012; Chitsiga 2016; Isaacs 2016; Tshiningayamwe 2016).

Literature on professional development contains a lot of critiques regarding the many teacher training programmes which offer once-off in-service workshops. Hargreaves (1995, in Songqwaru 2012) noted that these workshops expose teachers to new curriculum changes without continued meaningful support and training; and as a result they do not have a noticeable impact on improving teachers' current practices. Mokhele and Jita (2010) argued that for professional development programmes to be effective, they need to have personal meaning to teachers who are participating in them, and should be relevant to their needs. They concluded that teacher development programmes should be continuous and aligned with teachers' personal needs and motivations. To strengthen teacher professional development and promote collective participation in professional activities for professional development, professional learning communities were introduced in South Africa.

# **Professional learning communities**

Professional learning community refers to 'a group of teachers sharing and critically interrogating their practice in an on-going, reflective, collaborative, inclusive, learningorientated, growth-promoting way to support innovation and knowledge sharing' (Stoll et al. 2006: 223). There are different terms used in relation to the concept of professional learning communities, including professional learning groups, collaborative learning communities, critical friends groups, communities of practice, study groups, teacher research collaboration, and professional networks, to name just a few (Great Schools Partnership 2014; Norman et al. 2015). A general agreement across the different definitions of PLCs is that a PLC emphasises relationships, shares ideas, and develops a strong culture committed to improved student learning.

The Integrated Strategic Planning Framework for Teacher Education and Development (ISPFTED) (South Africa DHET & DBE 2011) clearly indicates that teachers should be the central focus of PLCs, and take leadership roles. This is supported by Brodie and Borko (2016) who argued that if PLCs are to become widespread and truly professional, teachers are the ones who should conceptualise and lead PLCs, with some support from the districts, and other institutions such as universities.

## **Characteristics of professional learning communities**

The benefits for teachers participating in PLCs include reduced isolation, increased commitment to goals, shared responsibility, increased knowledge of effective teaching practices, increased professional aspiration, and embedding systemic change (Hord 1997, in Underwood 2007). The hallmarks of PLCs, according to the ISPFTED, are 'open and democratic collaboration, conflict management and mutual problem-solving, which in turn promote the identification of specific individual and group developmental needs along with actions aimed at addressing these needs' (South Africa DHET & DBE 2011: 80).

PLCs appear to have five main intertwined characteristics as given by Stoll et al. (2006):

Professional learning communities allow teachers to see themselves as primary agents for change in teaching and learning processes (Wood 2007). They support and encourage teachers to examine their practice, and collectively construct and share new knowledge (Hord 2004). With that point highlighted, this study has focused on how professional learning communities can develop and assist teachers in acquiring the necessary content knowledge and skills to teach and assess environmental topics, as guided by the following research question:

How can professional learning communities contribute to the development of teachers' capabilities and the achievement of their valued functionings as related to teaching environmental content knowledge in the 'Life and Living' strand in Grade 8 Natural Sciences?

# **Sub-questions**

The capability approach (Sen 1999) was used as the theoretical framework to explore teachers' valued functionings, as well as the conversion factors related to those functionings.

# **Theoretical framework**

The capability approach developed by Sen (1999) was used in this study. The key concepts in the capability approach are: capability, functioning, agency, human diversity, and public participation in generating valued capabilities (Walker 2005). However, for this study the main concepts being explored are capability and functioning. According to Sen (1987: 36):

A functioning is an achievement, whereas a capability is the ability to achieve. Functionings are, in a sense, more directly related to living conditions, since they are different aspects of living conditions. Capabilities, in contrast, are notions of freedom, in the positive sense: what real opportunities you have regarding the life you may lead.

Sen (1999) further explains that a functioning relates to the various things a person may value doing or being. For this study, functionings are the things that teachers value doing or being in relation to teaching environmental content in Natural Sciences, and in belonging to a professional learning community. Walker (2005) says the capability approach is about freedom and the development of an environment suitable for human flourishing. She further states that capability refers to what people are actually able to be and do, rather than what resources they have access to. Robeyns (2005) clarifies further, claiming that the difference between a functioning and a capability is similar to the difference between an achievement and the freedom to achieve something, or between an outcome and an opportunity. She emphasises that the core characteristic of the capability approach is its focus on what people are effectively able to do and to be. The capability approach focuses on developing people's capability to choose a life that they have reason to value. For this study, capabilities are what Natural Sciences teachers are able to do in a classroom and/or in the PLC, what they value from belonging in the PLC as well as the kind of teachers they can be if the PLC provides a suitable environment for their professional development. Understanding teachers' functionings and capabilities is important in their professional development.

Also of importance in the capability approach is the concept of conversion factors. They are factors that can enable teachers in PLCs to convert resources into new functionings (Robeyns 2005). Functionings and capabilities can be both expanded or constrained by conversion factors, which can be grouped into the following categories:

According to Robeyns, the personal, environmental and conversion factors are interconnected.

# **Methodology**

# **Research site and participants**

The study was conducted in Mahikeng, in the North West Province. Data was generated through observations, semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. The research participants were 13 Natural Sciences teachers who filled out a questionnaire; two of these were observed in the classroom and interviewed post observation, and four were interviewed post PLC observation. The teachers' qualifications ranged from Diploma of Higher Education to master's degree, with years of experience in teaching Natural Sciences that ranged from three months to fifteen years. Of the thirteen teachers, eight majored in Education while five had Bachelor of Science degrees (B.Sc.) with Postgraduate Certificates in Education (PGCE). The teachers majored in different specialisations such as Life Sciences (Biology), Natural Sciences, and Mathematics.

All the teachers were from different schools, and all were part of the professional learning community under study. Those who attended the PLC session on the day of observation numbered around 35, but only 13 of them returned the questionnaires.

Classroom observations were done with two teachers, two lessons being observed for each teacher. Both teachers were qualified to teach Natural Sciences. One of the teachers had a Further Diploma in Biology teaching with an Advanced Certificate in Education (ACE), and 23 years of teaching experience, two of them in teaching Natural Sciences. The other teacher had a Biomedical Sciences degree and a PGCE; with one year's teaching experience. The purpose of classroom observation was to get some insight into how teachers teach environmental content in Natural Sciences. An observation of the PLC was also done to develop a deeper understanding of teachers' valued beings and doings in the PLC, and how these related to their functionings in teaching environmental content in the classroom. A further purpose was to get insight into conversion factors related to those valued beings and doings. The data was analysed using the capability approach.

# **Findings and Discussion**

The study found that teachers have different valued functionings related to teaching environmental content in the 'Life and Living' strand of Grade 8 Natural Sciences. Teachers' valued beings and doings related to teaching environmental content are discussed under the three conversion factors of the capability approach, namely: personal, social and environmental. The study found that teachers' qualifications, experiences, passion for environmental content topics, level of confidence, availability and access to teaching and learning resources, as well as learners' interest and participation, support from subject advisors, and school and classroom environments were among conversion factors that either enabled or constrained teachers' valued functionings in teaching environmental content.

Findings also revealed that teachers have different valued functionings related to belonging to the PLC, namely: shared responsibilities, shared values and vision, collaboration, and discussion of environmental subject content knowledge aspects. The conversion factors related to these functionings were found to be learning space, timing and duration of the PLC activities, types of activities in the PLC, teaching and learning resources, teaching experience, and facilitation.

# **Teachers' valued functionings related to the PLC**

## *Sharing responsibilities among teachers and the subject advisor*

Teachers valued taking active roles in the PLC and sharing responsibilities with the subject advisor. They noted that they had limited roles in the PLC*.* It emerged that the subject advisor did almost everything in the PLC, from setting up the agenda to giving presentations, leading discussions, and providing materials. For example, one teacher commented as follows: '*She does everything. She would normally start the meeting with some motivation. Then she goes into policies and administration things. Hey, she takes a lot of time in that. Then she will talk about school performances for previous exams. Basically, she does almost everything in the PLC.'* Teachers mentioned some of the roles they would like to play in the PLC, such as helping with the planning of activities, facilitation, and doing more practical tasks. This is in accordance with what is stipulated in the ISPFTED, that teachers should be at the core of PLC activities and take leadership roles (South Africa DHET & DBE 2011). Professional learning communities should offer supportive conditions and shared leadership as argued by Hord (2004).

## *Shared values and vision to guide the discussions*

PLCs are spaces where teachers can have conversations that can help them to reflect on their classroom practices. It was evident that another valued functioning was having shared values and vision, and the freedom to make decisions about points of discussion in the PLC meetings. Teachers commented as follows: '*I wish the subject advisor could allow us teachers to come with our own points of discussion. Especially for content discussions*'; '*If we could be given an opportunity to say what we as teachers want to discuss*'. Other aspects that teachers wanted to discuss besides subject content were teaching strategies and experiences, classroom challenges, and topics that are difficult to teach. A shared value-base provides a framework for shared, collective, ethical decision-making, and a vision focused on student learning and shared values guides discussions and decisions about teaching and learning, while enabling individuals to act autonomously (Stoll et al. 2006).

## *Collaboration*

Collaboration is one of the key characteristics of effective professional development (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin 1995). In the interviews and questionnaires, there were teachers who indicated that it would be beneficial to invite different organisations to offer workshops on different topics; and to have other subject specialists in some of the PLC meetings. Another form of collaboration suggested by teachers was for neighbouring schools to have their own mini PLC sessions and workshops.

## *Discussion of subject content*

Most teachers valued discussing subject content, especially on topics they find difficult. What was observed and what teachers expressed was that much of the PLC time was spent on administration-related activities. Teachers thought it would be better to have separate PLC sessions: one that dealt with administration only, and another that focused on subject content only. One teacher noted the following: '*We need more workshops that deal with administration and then ones that deal with content, that supply past question papers that have been written and then us as teachers we break it down and come up with ways to improve the subjects.*' Other teachers shared similar sentiments. The following extracts give evidence of the teachers' views: '*I will like us to discuss content*…'; '*I am interested in discussing content*'; '*Spend more time discussing subject content, that's what matters at the end of the day*'; '*Focus on how to teach biodiversity. Hear from other teachers, or even have the subject specialist teach the topic, or other teachers*'. Effective professional development should offer meaningful intellectual engagement with ideas, and take explicit account of the contexts of teaching and the experience of teachers (Hinde 2003). This assertion is supported by Du Toit and Sguazzin (2000) who note that professional development should enable teachers to build increasingly sophisticated understandings of their work and context. A focus on environmental content discussions will enhance teachers' knowledge, understanding and teaching practice. Teachers' valued functionings related to teaching environmental topics in Natural Sciences were also explored, and are discussed in the next section.

# **Teachers' valued functionings related to teaching environmental topics in Natural Sciences**

Through questionnaires and interviews, teachers expressed their valued functionings in teaching environmental topics in Natural Sciences. A summary is given in Table 1 below.

# **Table 1.** Teachers' valued functionings in teaching environmental topics in Natural Sciences

# **Conversion factors related to teachers' valued functionings**

The conversion factors related to teachers' functionings were clustered under Robeyns' (2005) conversion factors: the personal, environmental, and social. Conversion factors are factors that can enable or constrain teachers. Through questionnaires, postclassroom and PLC observation interviews, teachers noted the conversion factors that either enabled or constrained them in achieving their valued functionings.

## *Personal conversion factors*

# **Teachers' qualifications and experience**

For some teachers, their qualifications were an enabling factor to teaching Natural Sciences and environmental topics specifically. For example, one teacher said: '*I am a Life Sciences major, and have a bit of chemistry from my qualification. Therefore, I can teach and enjoy teaching topics related to the environment.*' Other teachers expressed how their qualifications were a constraining factor; one teacher noted that he had to teach Natural Sciences because there was no science teacher at that school. He explained that he did not enjoy teaching the subject because he did not know the content; his majors were Electronics and Computer Science. This shows that the teacher did not have the freedom to choose what he valued doing and being.

It was also evident that the difference in experiences enabled teachers to work together and learn from each other in their schools. For example, one teacher, who had two years of teaching experience, expressed: '… *I have two senior teachers who are helping me … Everytime I need help with some topics that I find difficult I go to them.*'

However, in the PLC it appeared that experience was a constraining factor, mainly due to how the PLC sessions were structured. Teachers with more years of teaching experience noted that they no longer found the PLC beneficial to them because the focus is, most of the time, on orientating new teachers. They felt there was a need to have a separate session for inducting new teachers.

## **Passion and interest in environmental topics**

One of the teachers who was observed during a lesson demonstrated passion in the way she delivered her lesson on conservation of ecosystems. Her enthusiasm (the tone of her voice, facial expressions and body language) in presenting the lesson showed passion. The learners were showing interest in the lesson because of how she taught the topic. Learners were actively involved during the lesson, asking and responding to the teacher's questions. In her interview she said: '*I love teaching the Life and Living topics in term one. It's part of what I teach in Life Sciences* …'

There were, however, teachers who indicated that they do not have passion for teaching Natural Sciences and environmental topics. In a follow-up interview one teacher said: '*Honestly I don't enjoy it because I have never taught it before … It's not for me. I am just doing it for those children.*'

## **Acquisition of knowledge and skills**

Teachers noted the need to gain knowledge and skills in teaching environmental topics as an enabling factor. Another teacher observed: '*Maybe if they made it possible for us to register for short courses like Nature Conservation, so that we can increase our knowledge in those topics.'*

Findings in this study revealed that there are still challenges around teachers' indepth knowledge of environmental content, as pointed out by other researchers (Lotz-Sisitka 2011; Songqwaru 2012; Chitsiga 2016; Tshiningayamwe 2016). Teachers valued enhancing their knowledge of environmental topics but the PLC, as mentioned earlier, did not offer them time to engage in subject content discussions.

### *Environmental conversion factors*

## **Learning space**

The PLC was viewed by some teachers as a space that enables collaboration among them and learning from each other. Teachers used phrases such as '*learning from each other*', and '*gaining knowledge*', when commenting on the PLC as a learning space. This resonates with what Hipp and Huffman (2000) emphasised, that PLCs should have supportive conditions that allow time for collaboration, empowering teachers and reducing isolation.

However, it emerged that some of the teachers who have been part of the PLC for many years did not find it to be a learning space for them. This was noted by one teacher, who said: '*Not anymore. The meetings are mainly aimed at empowering beginner teachers. They are now becoming less and less relevant for us experienced teachers.*' The teachers' participation in the PLC was to some an enabling factor to achieve their valued functionings, while to others it was a constraining factor.

# **Physical space where the PLC is held**

The PLC was held in a school situated in the urban area. The venue for some teachers was in itself a constraining factor because they had to travel a very long distance to attend the session, and leave before the end of the session. Also, the classroom used for the session was not an enabler; it was too small, and the seating arrangements did not promote space for engaging in discussions or working in groups. PLCs should develop an environment suitable for teachers to flourish and achieve their valued functionings (Robeyns 2005).

## *Social conversion factors*

# **Duration of PLC activities**

Time emerged as a main conversion factor that constrains teachers from achieving their valued functionings in the PLC. Teachers expressed that the frequency as well as the duration of the PLC sessions were not enough. They wanted extended time so that they can discuss different topics, as one of them noted: '*If the Department can schedule PLC meetings during school holidays to allow us more time to engage in content discussions and other issues. 2 hours is not enough.*' The issue of time was emphasised in the ISPFTED (South Africa DHET & DBE 2011), noting that time should be scheduled for teachers to participate in PLCs and engage in quality teacher development.

## **Natural Sciences CAPS document**

The CAPS document was used in the PLC session and it enabled teachers' achievement of their valued functionings. The subject advisor used it to orientate teachers who were new in teaching Natural Sciences. Teachers were also given an opportunity to use it during a group activity of setting practical tasks for assessment. They were not familiar with the skills that must be assessed in a practical activity. The use of the CAPS document in PLCs should not be a mere transfer of information, but should be used to build teachers' skills, competencies and attitudes to enable them to achieve their valued functionings in teaching the environmental topics and the Natural Sciences subject in general.

# **Availability of and access to teaching and learning resources**

During the PLC, teachers were given subject policies, but there were no materials to expand teachers' knowledge in environmental topics or in the Natural Sciences subject generally. Teachers mentioned their need to be supplied with materials, and they perceived availability of and access to teaching and learning materials as an enabling factor in teaching Natural Sciences. For example, one teacher stated: '… *another thing*

*is lack of enough resources. I need charts, videos … I would love to get help with teaching materials that are interactive, like videos, for learners to see how different animals adapt to the environment.*' The ISPFTED clearly states that it is the role of Districts to support PLCs with resources and expertise on facilitation skills, development of teaching resources, and the use of Information and Communication Technology.

## **Activities in the PLC**

There were a few activities that took place in the PLC, and teachers had different perceptions about them. Experienced teachers noted that the presentations by the subject advisor, which were focused on administration, analysis of results and orientation of new teachers, were a constraining conversion factor for them. Although the Department of Education's (2015) PLC guideline highlighted these topics as some of the activities to be done in PLCs, balancing the activities to accommodate all the teachers is crucial. There should be a balance in terms of meeting the needs of both novice and experienced teachers.

One teacher noted that '*workshops are mostly aimed at empowering beginner teachers*; *about 80% of the time is spent on admin issues. I don't benefit from that unless there are new requirements.*' Group discussion activities were identified as an enabling conversion factor; teachers saw it as an opportunity to learn from each other, share knowledge and discuss subject content. For PLCs to be effective in developing teachers, they should consider what teachers value and incorporate that in the activities of professional development.

# **Conclusion**

Findings revealed that teachers have different valued functionings related to their professional development in the PLC and the teaching of environmental content. Teachers valued active participation, taking leadership roles and responsibility, discussing subject content, learning from each other, and being provided with teaching and learning resources. There were conversion factors that were, to some teachers, enablers, while to others they were constraints. This suggests that teachers' professional development programmes within PLCs need to identify teachers' functionings and align them with the programmes' activities. Teachers' individual professional needs should be taken into account. PLCs need to offer teachers a platform to create knowledge collectively by having more time to engage in discussions on subject content, classroom practices, and sharing ideas and strategies. For PLCs to be effective in developing teachers' capabilities and valued functionings, teachers must be at the centre of the system, take the lead with their own professional development, and be offered continuous support through the PLCs.

The findings from this study can inform the Department of Basic Education (DBE) towards establishing new PLCs and strengthening existing ones. The DBE could look into the already existing teacher clusters to see how they can be strengthened to become better functioning PLCs. Additionally, other teacher development programmes can see how they can support professionals within PLCs.

# **References**

Sen AK (1987) *The Standard of Living*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

# CHAPTER 18

# **Teacher Contexts as Amplifiers and Filters to Environmental Pedagogical Content Knowledge within a Professional Development System**

*Susan Brundrit and Ingrid Schudel*

# **Contextualising the research question**