**4.2. Crystallochemical vacancy in the nanovoid of an ideal crystal**

Оnе of the most important properties of а crystal is the coordination of the constituent atoms. Тhe coordination polyhedron in а crystal was isolated for the first time bу [58]. Then the method of coordination polyhedra was successfully developed bу [3]. The coordination of atoms in crystals was also considered in recent publications bу Urusov, О'Keeffe, Раrthe, and Grekov [26, 55, 57, 71]. Тhе present study is developed toward the establishment of the relation between the number (*Z*) of the fоrmulа units реr unit сеll of the сrуstal and the coordination number (с.n.). As far as we know, there аrе nо other publications addressing this particular topic.

Тhe number *Z* of thе fоrmulа units реr unit cell of а rеаl crystal is usually determined bу the fоrmulа

$$\mathbf{Z} = V\_{\alpha \text{ell}} \mathbf{Q} \mathbf{N}\_{\text{A}} / \mathbf{M}\_{0^{\prime}}$$

formula units per unit сеll is obtained in the form of algebraic equations. On the basis of these equations, it has been shown that for all 14 Bravais lattices there are 146 соrrеsроnding coordination spheres with an аrrangеmеnt of atoms inside these spheres that is consistent with both space and point groups of symmetry. The shapes of the coordination polyhedra inscribed into these spheres соrrеsроnd (with due regard for the vertex occupancies) to 146 crystallo‐

The idea of providing the coordination polyhedron in a crystal belongs to L. Pauling. N. V. Belov identified more complex and less symmetric forms of coordination polyhedra than the octahedron and the tetrahedron. As a further development of the polyhedron method of presentation for the crystal, one can consider the idea of the image of the coordination polyhedron combinations of simple forms [45] because through these combinations it is

Using examples of the structures of periclase, sphalerite, wurtzite, fluorite, rutile, anatase, brookite, nickeline, barite, stannum, hydrargyrum, copper, and magnesium the following

**•** if the forms of nanovoids correspond to the class of symmetry of the crystal, they are becoming the uninhabited vertices of simple forms that construct the coordination polyhe‐

**•** if the forms of nanovoids do not correspond to the class of symmetry of the crystal, the vertices and faces of the coordination simple form are settled and the nanovoids have no

So, the concept regarding coordination vacancies that are unpopulated vertices and the faces of coordination simple forms is formulated. Coordination vacancy may coincide with the host lattice or it can be in the interstitial space. In the first case, the filling or the formation of coordination vacancies leads ultimately to a change in the symmetry of the structure. As an example, we can look at the structural transition in the system Ni-As. In the second case, coordination vacancies can be populated with impurity atoms (diamond) or extra electrons of

Оnе of the most important properties of а crystal is the coordination of the constituent atoms. Тhe coordination polyhedron in а crystal was isolated for the first time bу [58]. Then the method of coordination polyhedra was successfully developed bу [3]. The coordination of atoms in crystals was also considered in recent publications bу Urusov, О'Keeffe, Раrthe, and Grekov [26, 55, 57, 71]. Тhе present study is developed toward the establishment of the relation between the number (*Z*) of the fоrmulа units реr unit сеll of the сrуstal and the coordination number (с.n.). As far as we know, there аrе nо other publications addressing this particular topic. Тhe number *Z* of thе fоrmulа units реr unit cell of а rеаl crystal is usually determined bу the

possible to explain the role of voids in the polyhedral models of crystal structures.

**4.1. Atom and Nanovoids in the polyhedron model of an ideal crystal**

dron and the nanovoids have coordination vacancies;

π-bound (graphite) and unattributed electron pairs (litharge).

**4.2. Crystallochemical vacancy in the nanovoid of an ideal crystal**

graphic types for 47 simple forms.

128 Solar Cells - New Approaches and Reviews

regularity is found:

fоrmulа

coordination vacancies.

where *V*cell is the cell volume unit, *ρ* is the measured density, NΑ is the Avogadro constant, and М0 is the molar weight. Thе value of *Z* for an ideal crystal саn also bе calculated without this fоrmulа bу invoking the concept of а regular point system. With this aim, we denote the total number of atoms in the unit сеll with *Р*, the number of regular point systems with *п*, and the multiplicity of an regular point system with *k.* According to the [69], we obtain the dependence of the form

$$Z = \begin{pmatrix} q+1 \end{pmatrix} \mathbf{s}(p\_i)^{-1} \Sigma\_u \begin{pmatrix} 1/\mathcal{S}\_i \end{pmatrix} \;/\ \Sigma\_m \begin{pmatrix} 1/\mathcal{S}\_i \ \* \end{pmatrix}. \tag{13}$$

where *q* is the number of additional translations equal to unity for *А*, *В*, С, and *I* cells. *S*i is the factor that characterizes the symmetry of the position in regular point system. Тhe symmetry factor *S*i is а numerical indicator of the position symmetry that indicates the order of the point group for the special position [75]. *S*i *\** is the symmetry factor of the subgroup characterizing the position of а face of the particular simple form in the point group, which, in turn, charac‐ terizes the symmetry of the simple form itself. Here s is the number of the faces of several simple forms (see in detail in [45]. Thе characteristics of the space and point groups are borrowed from [27] and the description of the structure is borrowed from [8, 39, 59].

In particular, Eq. (13) establishes the relation between the number of the formula units in the unit сеll of а crystal and the number of faces of the coordination polyhedron. Тhе relation between the convex coordination polyhedron and the coordination number is described bу the Euler-Descartes formula [39] in the following form

$$s + \upsilon = e + \text{ } \mathcal{D}, \tag{14}$$

where *s* and *е* аге the number of faces and edges of the coordination polyhedron, respectively. Тhe number of the coordination-polyhedron vertices is denoted bу *v* and is equal to the coordination number if all the vertices аrе occupied bу atoms. Relationship (14) is invalid for monohedra and pinacoids that аrе characterized bу *s=*1 and *s=*2, respectively. Their faces may have one or several regular point system positions forming various figures.

Тhе separation of coordination polyhedra and the determination of the coordination numbers of atoms is not always unique. Тhе simplicity аnd clear representation of these concepts for cubic structures is partly lost for more complicated structures with low symmetry. For mоrе details see e.g. [8, 71]. Неrе, we should like to note only that the coordination polyhedra do not necessarily look like simple forms оr their combinations. In this case, some vertices mау bе unoccupied and сan be considered crystallochemical vacancies with occupancy δ. Тhеrefore Eq. (14) takes the form

$$s + c.n. / \delta = e + 2.$$

Тhе reduction of the coordination polyhedra tо simple forms оr their combinations is similar to а certain normalization procedure leading to self-consistent coordination numbers and is somewhat analogous to the representation of а crystal structure bу Bravais lattices оr their combinations.


**8. Expression pattern under influence of various factors**

#### **8.1 Metal ions**

As homologs of animal MTs, it would be reasonable to assume that the MTs in plants are related to metal metabolism and detoxification of excess metal ions. Indeed, the expression of both Ec proteins and several class I MT genes vary under metal treatment. The wali l (type 2) in wheat was originally isolated as an aluminum-induced gene. Its expression is also increased by treatment with other toxic metal ions like Cd, Fe, Zn, Cu, Ga, In and La.

In rice, the transcript level of RgMT (type 1) was elevated by 250 μM CuCl2, in suspension-cultured cells [27, 28], while 100 μM CuSO4 increased ricMT (type 4) transcripts in both shoots and roots of seedlings. This expression-enhancing effect of Cu2+ are been reported in the type 2 MT genes from *Arabidapsis* and tobacco, and in type 3 MT from *Arabidopsis*. In contrast, copper ion are shown to have a suppressive effect on type 2 MT in soybean and *Vicia faba*; in the copper-tolerant plant *Mimulus guttatus*, transcription of the type l MT was inhibited by 5 μM CuS04, as well as by 5 μM CdSO4 and 15 μM ZnSO4. In addition, the mRNA Ievel of ricMT in the root of rice seedlings was reduced by 100 μM aqueous solutions of ZnSO4, CdCl2, FeCl3, Pb (Ac)2 and AlC13, respectively.

#### **8.2 Senescence**

Coupe *et al.* [29] isolated the type 2 MT gene JET12 from abscission zones of the ethylene-treated leaves of *Sambucus nigra* L. Northern analysis reported that JET12 gene was expressed only in senescent leaves, and in the ethylene-treated abscission zone.

Similarly, the type 3 MT LSC54 in rape (*Brassica napus*) was expressed during leaf senescence, and as senescence progressed, the mRNA level of LSC54 increased. Yu *et al*. [28] showed that the expression of rgMT (type 1) increased as young leaves progressed to senescence. These findings suggest that these MT genes may play a key role in senescence-associated metabolism of plants.

#### **8.3 Other stresses**

Considerable effort are made to clarify the relationships between plant MTs and environmental factors other than metal ions. The expression of type 2 MT seems to *Metallothioneins: Diverse Protein Family to Bind Metallic Ions DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97658*

be easily affected by stresses- For example; the MT in tobacco was strongly induced by tobacco mosaic virus and wounding [30] and expression of MT in *Vicia faba* was reduced when plants were treated with salt, cold, salicylic acid or UV-light. Furthermore, transcripts of OsMT-2 in rice can be induced by sucrose sta, heat shock and ABA and the expression of wali l in wheat was increased by low-nutrient conditions and wounding.

Regarding type I MT, the mRNA level of rgMT in rice increased under treatment with heat shock, a toxicant (DMSO) and starvation, and decreased in presence of abscisic acid.


**5. Abbreviations**

Ab, antibody; ALD, aldolase; ANA, anti-nuclear antibody; anti-SSA Ab, anti- Sjögren's syndrome A Ab; anti-SSB Ab, anti- Sjögren's syndrome B Ab; CK, creatine kinase; D-E junction, dermo-epidermal junction; DM, dermatomyositis; IL, interleukin; NSAID, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; pSjS, primary Sjögren's syndrome; PSL, prednisolone; VAS, visual analog scale; WNL, within normal limit


*Edited by Christian Cuadrado-Laborde*

In this book the reader will find a collection of chapters authored/co-authored by a large number of experts around the world, covering the broad field of digital signal processing. This book intends to provide highlights of the current research in the digital signal processing area, showing the recent advances in this field. This work is mainly destined to researchers in the digital signal processing and related areas but it is also accessible to anyone with a scientific background desiring to have an up-to-date overview of this domain. Each chapter is self-contained and can be read independently of the others. These nineteenth chapters present methodological advances and recent applications of digital signal processing in various domains as communications, filtering, medicine, astronomy, and image processing.

Applications of

Digital Signal Processing

*Edited by Christian Cuadrado-Laborde*

ISBN 978-953-307-406-1

ISBN 978-953-51-5574-4

Applications of Digital Signal Processing


1. Introduction

#### 1.1. Nara Desert wetland complex (NDWC)

The Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary is located between 2628 N and 6870 N (Elevation 50–115 m) in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. The desert area is approximately 23,000 km2 semiarid, receiving most of its water 88–135 mm of annual rainfall sporadically during the season of monsoon. These wetlands have rich variety of floral and faunal life such, as various aquatic plant species and different animal species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. However, the region is of diverse ecological value for the biodiversity of plant and animal species. These wetlands are distributed in different districts which usually start from Ghotki, Sukkur, Khairpur and ends in Sanghar District [1–4]. In the Nara Canal region, the ground water level usually varies around 76 mm. The capacity of recharging these wetlands in the region is very low due to low rainfall. The level of water table varies between 2.5 and 5 m. In the nearest lands to the Nara Canal, the water level increases up to 10–18 m. Most of the wetlands were developed from sand dunes while a few were developed by deposition of silt [5]. Irrigation system on Nara Canal is contained from upper Nara between Sukkur Barrage to the south Jamrao Headwaters and includes major canals such as Jamarao, Mithrao, Khipro and Thar [1–6]. The area is geographically part of the Indus Basin and is composed of alluvial sediments which are deposited by previous and current different branches of the rivers. The sediments of the area are carried by Indus River which have tertiary shale and limestone basement. The sediments are composed of acolin sands that have previously been deposited during the Pleistocene Epoch. The composition of soil is from sandy to loamy and some part of soil is scarcely made up with the loamy sands. The color of soils is generally from brown to gray brown with the 5–15% mixture of CaCO3. The soil is usually composed of nan-saline, non-sodic mixed with poor organic materials having range of pH from 7.8 to 8.4. The developing hypersaline wetlands are common due to the overflow from Nara Canal [5]. The region is distributed with the sandy and steep hills which are locally famous as "patt", "Tars" or "Tals". The main source of water for the agriculture and other activities is Nara Canal which extends up to 4–5 km from both sides of canal [5] (Figure 1).

The area has high wind velocity with the huge amounts of shifting of sand hills and have high temperature with higher soil radiation in the summer and observed very short rainfall and high evapo-transpiration. In the Nara Desert the average minimum temperature is 20C and the maximum temperature is 45C. In the summer, the hottest months are from May to July, when the temperature increases from 45 to 51C. In the winter season, the lower temperature ranges from 20 to 28C for the months of December to January. In the region, the annual rainfall from 88 to 135 mm occurs during the months from July to September [1–4, 6]. The region of NDWC includes about more than 225 small to medium and some large sized-wetlands; some of these are seasonal and most are permanent. The Nara Canal is the largest canal of Sindh Province and covers more than 108 million hectares. On the both sides of Nara Canal the area is covered with woodland, riverine forest, scrub and desert scrubs. In the region, the source of water for wet-

Ecological and Environmental Assessment of Nara Desert Wetland Complex (NDWC), Khairpur, Sindh-Pakistan

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78623

57

The climate of the area is mainly arid having high temperatures and late summer rains observed. The seasonal rainfall is varied and is less than 250–300 mm and rainy season usually starts from June to September. Before the monsoon season, the average temperature is exceeding 45C in the desert region and in the plains of NDWS the average temperature between 30 and 40C. The wetland complex is recognized of great hydrological values as 98% Nara Canal water is used for agriculture and only 2% water is used for domestic and drinking purposes. The wetland complex of Nara Canal is 361.6 km long and 90–135 m wide. The maximum water depth of wetland complex is 7.5 m. The highest water discharges of Nara Canal are reported in the months of

According to the census survey report of 2016, the total population of Nara Taluka is counted 160,985. The target area of Nara Taluka the total population can be estimated to be more than

lands is the seepage from the Nara Canal [1–4, 7].

Figure 1. Map of study area of Nara Desert wild life sanctuary.

1.2. Socio-economic status of area

May–July and the minimum water flow in the August [1, 2, 5].

Ecological and Environmental Assessment of Nara Desert Wetland Complex (NDWC), Khairpur, Sindh-Pakistan http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78623 57

Figure 1. Map of study area of Nara Desert wild life sanctuary.

1. Introduction

56 Community and Global Ecology of Deserts

1.1. Nara Desert wetland complex (NDWC)

up to 4–5 km from both sides of canal [5] (Figure 1).

The Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary is located between 2628 N and 6870 N (Elevation 50–115 m) in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. The desert area is approximately 23,000 km2 semiarid, receiving most of its water 88–135 mm of annual rainfall sporadically during the season of monsoon. These wetlands have rich variety of floral and faunal life such, as various aquatic plant species and different animal species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. However, the region is of diverse ecological value for the biodiversity of plant and animal species. These wetlands are distributed in different districts which usually start from Ghotki, Sukkur, Khairpur and ends in Sanghar District [1–4]. In the Nara Canal region, the ground water level usually varies around 76 mm. The capacity of recharging these wetlands in the region is very low due to low rainfall. The level of water table varies between 2.5 and 5 m. In the nearest lands to the Nara Canal, the water level increases up to 10–18 m. Most of the wetlands were developed from sand dunes while a few were developed by deposition of silt [5]. Irrigation system on Nara Canal is contained from upper Nara between Sukkur Barrage to the south Jamrao Headwaters and includes major canals such as Jamarao, Mithrao, Khipro and Thar [1–6]. The area is geographically part of the Indus Basin and is composed of alluvial sediments which are deposited by previous and current different branches of the rivers. The sediments of the area are carried by Indus River which have tertiary shale and limestone basement. The sediments are composed of acolin sands that have previously been deposited during the Pleistocene Epoch. The composition of soil is from sandy to loamy and some part of soil is scarcely made up with the loamy sands. The color of soils is generally from brown to gray brown with the 5–15% mixture of CaCO3. The soil is usually composed of nan-saline, non-sodic mixed with poor organic materials having range of pH from 7.8 to 8.4. The developing hypersaline wetlands are common due to the overflow from Nara Canal [5]. The region is distributed with the sandy and steep hills which are locally famous as "patt", "Tars" or "Tals". The main source of water for the agriculture and other activities is Nara Canal which extends

The area has high wind velocity with the huge amounts of shifting of sand hills and have high temperature with higher soil radiation in the summer and observed very short rainfall and high evapo-transpiration. In the Nara Desert the average minimum temperature is 20C and the maximum temperature is 45C. In the summer, the hottest months are from May to July, when the temperature increases from 45 to 51C. In the winter season, the lower temperature ranges from 20 to 28C for the months of December to January. In the region, the annual rainfall from 88 to 135 mm occurs during the months from July to September [1–4, 6]. The region of NDWC includes about more than 225 small to medium and some large sized-wetlands; some of these are seasonal and most are permanent. The Nara Canal is the largest canal of Sindh Province and covers more than 108 million hectares. On the both sides of Nara Canal the area is covered with woodland, riverine forest, scrub and desert scrubs. In the region, the source of water for wetlands is the seepage from the Nara Canal [1–4, 7].

The climate of the area is mainly arid having high temperatures and late summer rains observed. The seasonal rainfall is varied and is less than 250–300 mm and rainy season usually starts from June to September. Before the monsoon season, the average temperature is exceeding 45C in the desert region and in the plains of NDWS the average temperature between 30 and 40C. The wetland complex is recognized of great hydrological values as 98% Nara Canal water is used for agriculture and only 2% water is used for domestic and drinking purposes. The wetland complex of Nara Canal is 361.6 km long and 90–135 m wide. The maximum water depth of wetland complex is 7.5 m. The highest water discharges of Nara Canal are reported in the months of May–July and the minimum water flow in the August [1, 2, 5].

#### 1.2. Socio-economic status of area

According to the census survey report of 2016, the total population of Nara Taluka is counted 160,985. The target area of Nara Taluka the total population can be estimated to be more than 60,000. The major communities are living in the area study are Baradin, Baloch, Chang, Shard, Syed, Rapper, Dashi, Maleah, Khaskheli, Channa, Sahta, Gopang, Bhurgari, Rind, Nizamani, Mirbahar, Khoso, Wassan, Deewan, Ibupoto, Kakepoto, Rajar, Mirani, and Macchi. From these communities, a few numbers of people are engaged in artisan work, trade, business and job in government departments etc. The Livestock and agriculture are the major source of income of local communities. Cotton and wheat are the main crops cultivated in the Nara while sugarcane, barely, oil seed, pulses, vegetable and fodder are also cultivated. The peoples of the area are living in the worst condition and they have least health facilities, drinking water, education and they do not have available basic life facilities. In spite of low productivity of area, the desert area sustains relatively higher human (1.05 m) and livestock (1.25 m) populations was reported, respectively. The livestock is the major source of income, meat and wool in the area. The overexploitation of vegetation by the grazing animals and the cutting of trees and shrubs for fuel purposes have resulted in environmental degradation that threatens the natural resources in this area. There is no developed transportation system in the Nara Desert. Due to low literacy rate in the area, there is a lack of employment opportunities [5].

large-pied wagtail (Motacilla maderaspatensis) and rock bunting (Emberiza cia) were the first time reported in this region [5]. Some important bird species categorized by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUNCN) Red List as Least Concern species include the Indian darter, black or red-naped ibis, ruddy Shel duck; as Vulnerable, the marbled teal, and as Near Threat-

Ecological and Environmental Assessment of Nara Desert Wetland Complex (NDWC), Khairpur, Sindh-Pakistan

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59

For the collection of data the study was carried out in Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary which is located between 2628 N and 6870 N (Elevation 50–115 m) in the province of Sindh, Pakistan For the collection of flora species, the direct method/observation was applied during the diurnal period. To collect the faunal species, the direct and indirect methods were applied. For the collection of important ecological data of floristical and faunistical species, the field

For the various physicochemical parameters, water from 10 randomly selected stations from a few selected lakes of NDWC were sampled monthly from January to December 2015. The samples were collected from two different sampling sites of upper surface and lower bottom layers and were kept in (Van Dorn Plastic Bottles 1.5 liter) during the collection period.

work for diurnal and nocturnal surveys were conducted randomly.

Parameters Abbreviation Units Procedure

pH pH pH Unit pH meter

Total dissolved solids TDS mg L1 WTW 320

Carbonate HCO ppm Titration (2310) Bi-carbonate HCO3 ppm Titration (2310) Alkalinity Alkal mg L1 Titration (silver nitrate) Chlorides Cl mg L1 Titration (silver nitrate)

Sodium Na mg L1 WTW (320)

Table 1. Analytical procedure for physicochemical parameters of NDWC during 2015.

2. Material and methods

#### 1.3. Floristical and faunilistical assessment of Nara Desert wetland complex

In the region of NDWC the richest biodiversity comprises a mosaic habitat of sandy hills, canals, forests, agriculture fields, freshwater and hypersaline wetlands. The area has the richest plant biodiversity consisting of 160 plant species belonging to 118 genera and 45 families were recorded [8–10]. The seasonal crops include sugarcane, cotton, wheat, barley and sunflower. The major vegetation in the sandy habitats are Prosopis cineraria, Acacia niloticus, Salvadora oleoides, Dalbergia sissoo, Tamarix aphylla, Melia azedarach, Populus spp. and Calotropis procera [5, 6, 11–13]. In the Nara Desert, the various drought-tolerant plant species, such as cactuses and succulents (Agaves spp.), Aerva javanica, Calligonum polygonoides, Crotalaria burhia, Capparis decidua, Dipterygium glaucum, Tephrosia villosa, Aristida adscensionis, Cassia, Tephrosia uniflora and Cassia italic were recorded [5]. In the zone of Nara Desert, a mixed vegetation of shrubs and plants, such as Typha spp., Hydrilla verticillata, Paspalum distichum, Polygonum hyaropier, Urticularia lotus, Nelumbium nuciferum, Desmostachya bininata, Phragmites karka, Saccharum bengalensis and Tamarix indica were also reported [5, 8–10, 14–23].

The region has been received the high socio-economic values for the local community which is dependent on the agriculture, livestock, fish farms and freshwater wetlands. In this area, the small to medium villages are scattered and their major economies are agriculture and livestock [1, 2, 5, 17, 24]. In this zone, the variety of different wild mammalian species includes Hemiechnus auritus, Caracal caracal, Felis chaus, Felis margarita, Herpestes edwardsi, Herpestes javanicus, Canis lupus pallipes, Vulpes zerda, Hyaena hyaena, Mellivora capensis, Manis crassicaudata, Gazella bennettii, Hyelaphus porcinus, Sus scrofa cristatus, Lepus tibetanus, Funambulus pennantii, Hystrix indica, Lutrogale perspicilletta, Lutra lutra and Prionailurus viverrinus [5, 25–27]. The NDWC has the richest biodiversity of native and migratory avian fauna of which more than 78 avian species were recorded [5, 7, 24, 25, 28–30]. From this region, two threatened species of Indian-backed vulture and houbara bustard were recorded. The indigenous bird species of myna, crow, sparrow, redwattled lapwing, white-tailed plover, and stilt were commonly observed. Two bird species of large-pied wagtail (Motacilla maderaspatensis) and rock bunting (Emberiza cia) were the first time reported in this region [5]. Some important bird species categorized by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUNCN) Red List as Least Concern species include the Indian darter, black or red-naped ibis, ruddy Shel duck; as Vulnerable, the marbled teal, and as Near Threatened, the ferruginous duck [5, 23, 24, 28–32].


**BLOOD PRESSURE - FROM BENCH TO BED**

#### **Blood Pressure - From Bench to Bed**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69557 Edited by Aise Seda Artis

#### **Contributors**

Daryl Irving Smith, Nobuyuki-Hai Tran, Geoffrey Teehan, Ghazal Quinn, Phillip John Gary, Christopher Damiano, Manuela Ciocoiu, Bogdan Mihail Diaconescu, Codruta Badescu, Leandro Lacerda, Ricardo Cambraia Parreira, Ingrid Prkačin, Tomo Svaguša, Diana Rudan, Matija Bakoš, Zrinko Šalek, Kateryna Fuks, Tiegang Li, Tamara Schikowski, Guang-Hui Dong, Bo-Yi Yang, Shu-Jan Fan, Lisheng Xu, Yang Yao, Attila Frigy, Ildikó Kocsis, Aleksandra Ilic, Jelena Papovic, Aleksandra Milovancev, Snezana Stojsic, Dragana Grkovic, Anastazija Stojsic-Milosavljevic, Tatjana Redzek-Mudrinic, Olivera Rankov, Artur Bjelica, Lazar Velicki, Djordje Ilic

#### **© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2018**

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#### **Notice**

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in London, United Kingdom, 2018 by IntechOpen eBook (PDF) Published by IntechOpen, 2019 IntechOpen is the global imprint of INTECHOPEN LIMITED, registered in England and Wales, registration number: 11086078, The Shard, 25th floor, 32 London Bridge Street London, SE19SG – United Kingdom Printed in Croatia

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**Abstract**

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common in pregnant women and provide a substantial therapeutic challenge due to the high potential of serious effects for both the mother and the baby. Pregnancy affects the urinary system physiologically, anatomically, and functionally, which can lead to infections emerging from the urethra. Unlike the general population, all pregnant women should have their urine cultures examined for bacteriuria, and any cases of asymptomatic bacteriuria should be treated, as it is a major risk factor for pyelonephritis in this group. Both the mother and the fetus should be safe from the antibiotic administered. To determine the prevalence of UTI in pregnancy in compare to non-pregnant woman in Wasit province to roll out the impact of pregnancy on the frequency of UTI. A case–control study between 2019 July and 2019 September was carried out on 30 pregnant women in compare to 30 matched non pregnant women were attending Al-Zahraa teaching hospital. A randomized (Every member of a population has the same probability of being picked for the sample, as do all possible samples of a given size) age, employment, present history, previous history, obstetric history, sex partner, frequency of sexual intercourse, and peeing frequency were all analyzed separately utilizing a plate form questioner. Urine samples, as well as a regular urine examination and urine culture, were obtained from the women who were being studied. Bacteriouria was shown to be prevalent in 13.3% of women, 16.7% of pregnant women, and 10% of non-pregnant women in this research. Asymptomatic bacteriuria in all women was 5/60 cases 8.3%. This indicates that about 16.7% of pregnant women are at risk of development of acute episode of UTI during pregnancy if they are not properly treated. In pregnant women, urinary tract infections (UTIs) are still a prevalent concern, particularly in the second trimester. During the prenatal period, urinalysis is necessary for all pregnant women. Early diagnosis and treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria will be aided by the screening, preventing complications for both mother and child. The most prevalent risk factors for UTI during pregnancy were poor personal cleanliness, a history of UTI, diabetes mellitus, and anemia. As a result, the study suggests that pregnant women get health education on personal sanitary cleanliness, be advised not to overuse antibiotics, and undergo frequent comprehensive urine analysis.

**Keywords:** pregnant woman, nonpregnant women, bacteriuria, UTI, hygiene


**Heat Shock Proteins in** *Mycobacterium tuberculosis***: Involvement in Survival and Virulence of the Pathogen**

Divya Bajaj and Janendra K. Batra *National Institute of Immunology Aruna Asaf Ali Marg New Delhi India*

### **1. Introduction**

256 Understanding Tuberculosis – Deciphering the Secret Life of the Bacilli

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Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease of global concern. Worldwide TB kills two million people each year. About 90% of those infected with *Mycobacterium tuberculosis* have asymptomatic, latent TB infection (sometimes called LTBI) (Smith, 2003; Wayne & Sohaskey, 2001). Years after initial infection, the bacilli may resume growth, the outcome of which is active TB. If left untreated, the death rate for active TB cases is more than 50%. Approximately 95% of new cases and 98% of deaths occur in developing nations, where human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections are common, this is generally because of the unavailability of proper treatment. The causative agent, *M. tuberculosis* has a cell wall which has a very low permeability for most antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents. Another critical problem is the development of multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) or extremely drug resistant TB (XDR-TB) (Chiang et al., 2010; Eismont, 2009; WHO report, 2010). Every year in the world, around 440,000 new MDR-tuberculosis cases are found due to bacilli that are resistant to the two main antitubercular drugs, isoniazid and rifampicin. The XDR-TB is a recently developed form. The mortality rate in the case of XDR-TB can go from 50 to 100%. *M. tuberculosis* mutants, resistant to any single drug are naturally present in any large bacterial population, irrespective of exposure to drugs. Despite the availability of effective chemotherapy and the moderately protective vaccine, new anti-TB agents are urgently needed to decrease the global incidence of TB (Cox et al., 2006; Ducati et al., 2006).

#### **2. Mycobacterial infection and survival of pathogen inside the host**

On infection, *M. tuberculosis* resides mainly in the host macrophage, inside an endocytic vacuole called the phagosome. The pathogenic mycobacteria inhibit phagosome-lysosome fusion (Hestvik et al., 2005; Pieters & Gatfield, 2002). Lack of maturation of phagosomes containing pathogenic *M. tuberculosis* within macrophages has been widely recognized as a crucial factor for the persistence of mycobacterial pathogen. Mycobacteria have been shown to remain within phagosomes for a long time after infection by EM analysis (Jordao et al., 2008). It is unclear whether blocking of phagosome–lysosome fusion is essential for *M.*

Heat Shock Proteins in *Mycobacterium tuberculosis*:

Involvement in Survival and Virulence of the Pathogen 259

The predominant class of Hsps is of molecular chaperones (Ellis & Hemmingsen, 1989). The molecular chaperones are further grouped into five major families based upon their molecular masses. These families are Hsp100, Hsp90, Hsp70, Hsp60 and small heat shock protein (sHsps) (Richter et al., 2010). The classification is based on their related functions and sizes, using the conventional nomenclature adopted after the Cold Spring Harbor Meeting of 1996 (Hightower & Hendershot, 1997). The molecular chaperones not only facilitate the proper folding of proteins but many times direct improperly folded proteins for destruction. In recent years, multiple chaperone-assisted degradation pathways have emerged, in which chaperones associate with a protease present inside the cell to degrade a misfolded protein (Gottesman, 2003, Kettern et al., 2010). Several other small heat inducible

The Hsp100 family consists of a group of ATPases associated with cellular activities (AAA+) family of ATP-dependent chaperones that transfers aggregated protein into a proteolytic chamber of an associated protease. These energy-dependent proteases, also known as caseinolytic proteases, Clp or Ti, are involved in a number of cellular activities, such as the degradation of proteins misfolded as a result of various types of stresses, the regulation of short-lived proteins and the housekeeping removal of dysfunctional proteins, which include denatured and aggregated polypeptides (Gottesman et al., 1997a, Gottesman et al., 1997b). The members of Hsp100 family include ClpA, ClpB, ClpC, ClpE, ClpX, ClpY and others (Kirstein et al., 2009). Hsp100 proteins have either one or two copies of a conserved ATPase, AAA+ core domain. Hsp100 family is further divided into two subclasses. The class I family members that include ClpA-E and L, contain two ATPase domains. The class II family members contain one ATPase domain, and include ClpX and ClpY (Lindquist & Craig, 1988; Schirmer et al., 1996). The Clp proteins form hexameric structure with one nucleotide binding site in each monomer of Class II and two nucleotide binding sites in Class I (Schirmer et al., 1996). These ATP-dependent chaperones associate with a protease, ClpP or ClpQ forming an oligomeric enzyme which assembles into ring-like or barrel like structure, containing a cavity within the centre of the macromolecular structure (Gottesman, 2003). The central cavity is also known as the proteolytic chamber, where unfolded protein substrates are translocated and subsequently degraded by the proteolytic site (Gottesman, 2003). Degradation of structured protein substrates requires the presence of ATP (Baker & Sauer, 2006). Unlike the other class I Clp proteins, ClpB does not associate with any protease

Hsp90 is present mostly in cytosol of bacteria and eukaryotes, and is upregulated under stress (Welch & Feramisco., 1982). This chaperone is different in a way that it is not very promiscuous in substrate binding as it does not bind unfolded proteins rather it binds to native like proteins (Jakob et al., 1995). Under stress conditions two of the Hsp90 family proteins, namely yeast Sti1 and the propyl isomerise, Cpr6 are upregulated (Pearl &

Hsp70 family consists of highly conserved chaperones. All Hsp70 proteins bind ATP and under physiological conditions prevent the aggregation of proteins, and also refold aggregated proteins (Kiang & Tsokos, 1998). The activity of Hsp70 is regulated by co-factors. Much of the functional diversity of Hsp70s is driven by a diverse class of cofactors named J proteins or Hsp40 (Kampinga & Craig, 2010). The major members of the Hsp70 family include HSC 70 (heat shock cognate 70), mitochondrial GRP 75 and GRP 78 (Shi & Thomas,

molecular chaperones, like Hsp33 are also known (Jakob et al., 1999).

to direct substrates for degradation (Lee et al., 2004).

Prodromou., 2006).

*tuberculosis* survival (Armstrong & Hart, 1975). After phagocytosis and replication of pathogenic bacteria within macrophages, the infected cells migrate into tissues where additional immune cells are recruited to form a granuloma which consists of T cells and *M. tuberculosis*-infected macrophages (Grosset, 2003). The granuloma subsequently develops central areas of necrosis called caseum. This mass of cells of immune system and the bacteria are all dead cells. The surviving bacilli exist in a latent state and can become reactivated to develop active disease (Grosset, 2003). The latent infection in the asymptomatic individuals serves as a large reservoir of the bacterium. The biology of the latent state of the bacterium is not completely understood, however it is accepted that the latent state bacilli are metabolically less active (Wayne & Sohaskey, 2001).

Inside the macrophages, *M. tuberculosis* encounters many stress conditions like nitric oxide generated by inducible nitric-oxide synthase, nutrient starvation or carbon limitated condition, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the phagosomal NADPH oxidase (Farhana, 2010; Ehrt, 2009; Butler, 2010; Beste, 2007; Axelrod, 2008). A large number of studies have been undertaken to understand the survival of *M. tuberculosis* under stress such as heat, reduced oxygen or hypoxia, nutrient starvation, reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI), antimicrobial molecules and downshift in pH (Chan et al., 1992; Farhana et al., 2010; Firmani & Riley, 2002; Lowrie, 1983; Wayne & Sohaskey, 2001). It has been suggested that the bacteria enter the non-growth or stationary phase during such stress conditions (Wayne & Sohaskey, 2001). *M. tuberculosis* also survives the lethal effects of RNI and antimicrobial molecules produced by activated macrophages and other cell types (Chan et al., 1992). The intracellular pathogen has the ability to survive inside the host macrophage in spite of the microbicidal effector functions of the macrophages. The bacterium responds to the stress conditions by genome wide changes in gene expression including the induction of a transient expression of a well conserved set of genes encoding heat shock or heat stress proteins.