7.1.1 Tokamak

The tokamak, acronym for the Russian phrase toroidál'naja kámera s magnitnymi katúškami meaning toroidal chamber with magnetic coils, was designed in 1951 by Soviet physicists Andrei Sakharov and Igor Tamm [8]. It is a doughnut-shaped device in which the combination of two sets of magnetic coils, known as toroidal and poloidal field coils, creates a field in both vertical and horizontal directions. The magnetic fields hold and shape the charged particles of the plasma by forcing them to follow the magnetic field lines. They essentially create a "cage," a magnetic bottle, inside which the plasma is confined. A strong electric current is induced in the plasma using a central solenoid, and this induced current also contributes to the poloidal field.

#### 7.1.2 Stellarators

Unlike tokamaks, stellarators [9, 10] do not require a toroidal current to be induced in the plasma. Instead, the plasma is confined and heated by means of helical magnetic field lines. They are produced by a series of coils which may themselves be helical in shape. As a result, plasma stability is increased compared with tokamaks. Since heating the plasma can be more easily controlled and monitored with stellarators, they have an intrinsic potential for steady-state, continuous operation. The disadvantage is that, due to their more complex shape, stellarators are much more complicated than tokamaks to design and build.

### 7.2 Inertial confinement

After the invention of laser in 1960 at Hughes Research Laboratory in California, researchers sought to heat the fusion fuels with a laser so suddenly that the plasma would not have time to escape before it was burned in the fusion reaction. It would be trapped by its own inertia, hence the name "inertial confinement," because it relies on the inertia of the implosion to bring nuclei close together. This approach to confinement was developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California [11].

Within the context of inertial confinement, laser beams with an intensity of the order of 1014 1015W=cm2 are fired on a solid pellet filled with a low-density mixture of deuterium and tritium. The energy of the laser vaporizes the pellet

instantly producing a surrounding plasma environment for a short period of time. During the process, the density and temperature of the fuel attains a high enough value to ignite the fusion reaction.

These methods produce temperatures of 100 million degrees Celsius in present-day

Experiments with d-t fuel began in the early 1990s in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor in Princeton (USA) [14] and the Joint European Torus (JET) in Culham (UK) [15]. The world's first controlled release of fusion power using a 50–50 mix of tritium and deuterium with a fusion output of 16 MW from an input of 24 MW heating (Q-factor is 0.67) was achieved in 1991 by JET. The Q-factor is used to represent the ratio of the power produced in the fusion reaction to the power required to produce the fusion. It should not be confused with the Q-value of a reaction, which is the amount of energy released by that reaction. Obviously, Q-factor of 1 is breakeven. To achieve commercially viable fusion energy, the

The 35-nation International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER, "The Way" in Latin) project currently under construction in Cadarache, France, is the

1. To operate at 500 MW (for at least 400 s continuously) with less than 50 MW

2. Demonstrate the integrated operation of technologies for a fusion power plant and test technologies for heating, control, diagnostics, cryogenics, and

3. Achieve a deuterium-tritium plasma in which the reaction is sustained through internal heating and stays confined within the plasma efficiently

4.Test tritium breeding because the world supply of tritium (used with

deuterium to fuel the fusion reaction) is not sufficient to cover the needs of

Launched in 2006, the project has been beset with technical delays, labyrinthine decision-making, and cost estimates that have soared. The reactor is now expected

According to ITER Newsletter [16], "When completed, the plasma circulating in the core of the reactor will be 150 million degrees Celsius, or about 10 times hotter than the Sun. The massive superconducting magnets surrounding the core will be cooled to 270 degrees, as cold as the depths of space. So many of the technologies

There is a considerable amount of research into many other fusion projects at various stages of development, but ITER is the largest, with 10 times more plasma capacity than any other reactor. Although China is a participating country in the ITER project, the Chinese are nevertheless building a tokamak reactor by themselves. Known as the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST), they managed to heat hydrogen gas to a temperature of about 50 million degrees

5. Demonstrate the safety characteristics of a fusion device, particularly the control of the plasma and fusion reactions with negligible consequences to the

world's largest tokamak fusion reactor [16]. The goals of ITER are:

of input power for a tenfold energy gain (Q-factor is 10).

enough for the reaction to be sustained for a long duration.

fusion devices.

9.1 Research programs

Nuclear Fusion: Holy Grail of Energy

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82335

Q-factor must be much greater than one.

remote maintenance.

future power plants.

to be completed and become operational by 2030.

involved are really at the cutting edge."

environment.

Celsius [17].

13

The capability of present lasers does not allow the inertial confinement technique to obtain break-even conditions, simply because the efficiency for converting electrical energy into radiation is very low, about 1–10%. Consequently, alternative approaches are being explored to achieve the ignition temperature. One such approach involves using beams of charged particles instead of lasers.


*A Review on Phase Change Materials for Sustainability Applications by Leveraging Machine… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114380*

desired properties. For example, a study found that adding 20% by mass of NaCl to n-octadecane-based PCMs reduced supercooling by 6°C, demonstrating the impact of nucleators in enhancing PCM performance [76], provided in **Table 1**.

## *3.2.1 Mechanisms and benefits of nucleator*

Nucleators are essential in phase change materials (PCMs) for providing sites where PCM molecules can organize and solidify. Without them, PCMs may not transition to a solid state efficiently, remaining disordered and liquid below the intended phase change temperature. By reducing the energy barrier, nucleators facilitate an organized crystalline formation, enabling a more immediate phase change near the desired temperature. This significantly enhances thermal energy storage efficiency by mitigating supercooling and ensuring predictable, consistent phase change behavior, crucial for reliable thermal energy storage applications [77].


*Article* **Influence of Oligopeptide Length and Distribution on Polyisoprene Properties**

**Chang-Cheng Wang, Rong Zhang, Shiqi Li, Guangsu Huang, Maozhu Tang \* and Yun-Xiang Xu \***

College of Polymer Science & Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(C.-C.W<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(R.Z<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(S.L<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(G.H.) **\*** Correspondence<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(M.T<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(Y.-X.X.)

**Abstract:** The tuning of binding modes of polar groups is the key step to mimicking the structure and properties of natural rubber through the molecular design of synthetic polyisoprenes. Herein, the ordering and binding distances of oligopeptides could be altered systematically by changing their lengths and distribution along the polyisoprene chain, which impose huge impacts on the mechanical properties and chain dynamics of green rubber. In detail, a series of peptide-functionalized polyisoprenes with terminal blocks (B-2A-PIP, B-3A-PIP) or random sequences (R-2A-PIP, R-3A-PIP) are fabricated by using dipeptides (2A) or tripeptides (3A) as crosslinkers to explore the mechanism of terminal interaction on mechanism properties and chain dynamics. B-4A-PIP and R-4A-PIP served as control samples. It is found that the increased oligopeptide length and the block distribution improves the mechanical properties and confine the chain movement by elevate the contents of ordered and compact microstructures, which is indicated by XRD, broadband dielectric spectroscopy (BDS) and consistent with the result of molecular dynamics simulation. New relaxation signals belonging to oligopeptide aggregates are found which showed elevated dielectric strengths upon temperatures increase. Additionally, it also reveals that the binding modes of oligopeptide do not significantly influence the entanglements of polyisoprene.

**Keywords:** polyisoprene; oligopeptide length; distribution; terminal block

#### **1. Introduction**

As an important strategic material, natural rubber (NR) is used in a wide range of livelihood and military applications, such as tires, seals, and aerospace applications. This is due to its excellent comprehensive performance, such as high strength, high toughness, high abrasion resistance, tear resistance, and wet skid resistance [1–3]. However, the natural conditions of the origin greatly limit the quality and yield of natural rubber. Therefore, it is necessary to find alternatives to natural rubber. IR is the most promising synthetic rubber to replace natural rubber, which has similar chemical composition and cis content with NR [4]. Nevertheless, the comprehensive properties of IR are quite inferior to those of NR, such as tensile strength and fatigue resistance [5–7]. Practically, the properties of NR are not only related to the cis content and molecular weight, but also closely related to their terminal structures [8]. In particular, the α-terminal and ω-terminal consist of phospholipids or non-covalently linked proteins, respectively [9]. Different polar terminal structures make distinct contribution on the mechanical properties. However, so far it is relatively challenging to reverse engineer the terminal structures of NR by synthetic approach due to their complicated components. For example, several types of proteins are found in NR and each type is one kind of huge molecule. Therefore, to mimic the terminal structures of NR from the principal level, simplified system is urgently required.

It is generally assumed that the key functions of terminal structures of NR consists of two factors [10]. One is the formation of branching structures which elevated the entanglement of polyisoprene chains, and another one is the dissociation of noncovalent

**Citation:** Wang, C.-C.; Zhang, R.; Li, S.; Huang, G.; Tang, M.; Xu, Y.-X. Influence of Oligopeptide Length and Distribution on Polyisoprene Properties. *Polymers* **2021**, *13*, 4408. https://doi.org/10.3390/ polym13244408

Academic Editor: Edina Rusen

Received: 18 November 2021 Accepted: 13 December 2021 Published: 15 December 2021

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**Copyright:** © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

interactions to dissipate energy which are both closely related to the terminal supramolecular interactions. However, although a great deal of research has been conducted focused on the mechanism of supramolecular interactions on comprehensive properties, the support regarding terminal interactions such as NR is rare [11,12]. Moreover, the contributions of terminal groups are generally verified in tensile strength [13], dimensional stability [14], shape memory [15] and so on because of their unique structures. Thus, to construct high performance elastomers, it is valuable to establish the structure–property relationship of terminal interactions on high performance elastomers via precisely tuneable systems.

As a commonly utilized self-assembly tool, oligopeptide has the potential to provide aggregates with tuneable supramolecular interactions and self-sorting properties. If proper terminal structures and oligopeptide structures are selected, precise terminal supramolecular interactions between different polymer chains would occur and their assembly or dissociation could be manipulated. Specifically, the hydrogen bonding numbers of oligopeptide units can be expediently tuned by changing the oligopeptide backbone length [16], which significantly tunes the supramolecular binding strength and impact the elastomer properties. For instance, Jia et al. [17] synthesized a series of star-block copolymers comprising of polyisobutylene stars and oligo(β-alanine) end segments with different length. β-alanine dimer is partially hydrogen-bonded, while the trimer, tetramer and pentamer are fully hydrogen-bonded and form β-sheets. As the oligopeptide length increased, the melting temperatures of crystalline domains raised and eventually increased the rubber elastic moduli.

In addition, the oligopeptides can form aggregates and affect the dynamics of the multiscale units of the polymer. To better understand the structure–property relationships on the molecular unit concepts, the molecular dynamics are necessary. Dielectric spectroscopy is a powerful tool for detecting multi-level molecular units relaxation, which can easily allow to cover 10−6–1012 Hz in frequency [18]. In the present work, we use cis-1,4-PI as the bulk material. Owing to the asymmetrical structure, cis-1,4-PI has a dipole moment both parallel and perpendicular to the chain contour [19]. Usually, it presents two relaxation modes under an external electric field, defined as segmental mode (SM) relaxation and normal mode (NM) relaxation, respectively. SM relaxation is caused by the perpendicular component of the dipole, and NM relaxation is caused by the parallel component [20]. Valid information can be obtained from the changes of multi-level molecular units relaxation, and therefore, dielectric spectroscopy will contributes to a better understanding of the structure–property relationships.

In our previous research of mimicking the terminal structure of natural rubber, techniques to prepare terminally oligopeptide functionalized polyisoprene have been developed [21]. However, how to tune the supramolecular binding strength of terminal structures and their principle to maintain terminal interactions need to be further explored. In this paper, besides the previously prepared B-4A-PIP and R-4A-PIP, dipeptide and tripeptide units were grafted onto hydroxyl-functionalized polyisoprenes B-OH-PIP with terminal block and R-OH-PIP with random sequence, producing B-2A-PIP/B-3A-PIP and R-2A-PIP/R-3A-PIP, respectively (Scheme 1). It is found oligopeptide backbone lengths influence the mechanical properties, relaxation processes of elastomers and the self-assembly mode of oligopeptide themselves because of different terminal supramolecular strength and β-sheet aggregation. Furthermore, the terminal block of oligopeptide will self-sort to form stronger terminal interactions regardless of the peptide length, which provide a robust tool to construct the mimicking terminal structures of NR.

**Scheme 1.** Chemical structures of oligopeptide functionalized polyisoprene with terminal blocks (B-nA-PIP, n = 2, 3, 4) or random sequences (R-nA-PIP, n = 2, 3, 4).

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

### *2.1. Materials*

B-OH-PIP (Mn = 9.2 × 105) and R-OH-PIP (Mn = 8.2 × 105) were synthesized by the stereoselective coordination polymerization in the glove box according to our previous method [21]. The average number of hydroxyl groups in the terminal block of B-OH-PIP copolymer is approximately forty, while about one hundred hydroxyls are randomly dispersed in the rest polyisoprene chain. For R-OH-PIP, there are about 130 hydroxyl groups randomly dispersed in the polyisoprene chain. Additionally, B-4A-PIP and R-4A-PIP are prepared according to our previous study [21]. Tetrahydrofuran was refluxed over sodium/diphenylketone under nitrogen and then distilled before use. Other chemicals, unless otherwise specified, were purchased from Aldrich (Aldrich, Shanghai, China) and used as received.

#### *2.2. Synthesis of Samples*

### 2.2.1. B-2A-PIP

Step 1: The preparation of 2Ala-OCH2Ph. Boc-2Ala-OCH2Ph was synthesized according to the reported procedure [22]. Boc-2Ala-OCH2Ph (399 mg, 1.14 mmol) was resolved in the dichloromethane (3 mL) for 10 min and then trifluoroacetic acid (TFA, 7 mL) was slowly added into the suspension at the room temperature. The solution was stirred overnight and concentrated by rotary evaporation. The crude product 2Ala-OCH2Ph was then used without further purification. Step 2: The preparation of B-DSC-PIP. N,N -disuccinimidyl carbonate (76.8 g, 300 mmol) and 4-dimethylaminopyridine (37.0 g, 300 mmol) were resolved in the mixed solution of dry THF (3000 mL) and DMF (1400 mL) in the three-neck bottle while B-OH-PIP (3.0 g) was resolved in dry THF (300 mL) in the flask. Secondly, the latter was slowly added into the mixed solution at 0 ◦C. The reaction was stirred at the room temperature for 8 h. The mixture was evaporated and poured into acetone to get the precipitate B-DSC-PIP. The crude grey product was collected (2.98 g, 99.3%) and the conversion ratio from hydroxyl group to carbonate group is detected with 1H-NMR, which is 99.4%, as shown in Figure S1. 1H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ: 5.12 (t, 2H), 4.29 (t, 2H), 2.83 (s, 4H), 2.04 (m, 10H), 1.83 (m, 2H), 1.68 (s, 3H). Step3. The synthesis of B-2A-PIP. 2Ala-OCH2Ph (1.14 mmol) and diisopropylethylamine (DIEA, 5.5 mL) were resolved in the mixed solution of THF (150 mL) and water (14 mL) in the three-neck bottle while B-DSC-PIP (1.5 g) was resolved in dry THF (300 mL) in the flask. Secondly, the latter was slowly added into the mixed solution at 0 ◦C. The reaction was stirred at the room temperature for 8 h. The mixture was evaporated and poured into water to get the precipitate B-2A-PIP. The precipitate was washed with water for three times and the final product was dried in vacuum oven at 45 ◦C to afford a gray elastomer (1.46 g, 97.3%). The conversion ratio from carbonate group to dipeptide is detected with 1H-NMR, which is 99.6%, as shown in Figure S2. 1H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ: 7.34 (s, 5H), 5.12 (t, 2H), 4.61 (m, 1H), 4.21 (m, 1H), 4.04 (t, 2H), 2.04 (m, 10H), 1.83 (m, 2H), 1.68 (s, 3H).

### 2.2.2. Synthesis of B-3A-PIP

Step 1: The preparation of 3Ala-OCH2Ph. Boc-3Ala-OCH2Ph was synthesized according to the reported procedures [22]. Boc-3Ala-OCH2Ph (480 mg, 1.14 mmol) was resolved in the dichloromethane (3 mL) for 10 min and then trifluoroacetic acid (TFA, 7 mL) was slowly added into the suspension at the room temperature. The solution was stirred overnight and concentrated by rotary evaporation. The crude product was then used without further purification. Step 2: The synthesis of B-3A-PIP. 3Ala-OCH2Ph (1.14 mmol) and diisopropylethylamine (DIEA, 5.5 mL) were resolved in the mixed solution of THF (150 mL) and water (14 mL) in the three-neck bottle while B-DSC-PIP (1.48 g) was resolved in dry THF (300 mL) in the flask. Secondly, the latter was slowly added into the mixed solution at 0 ◦C. The reaction was stirred at the room temperature for 8 h. The mixture was evaporated and poured into water to get the precipitate B-3A-PIP. The precipitate was washed with water for three times and the final product was dried in vacuum oven at 45 ◦C to afford a gray elastomer (1.46 g, 98.6%). The conversion ratio from carbonate group to tripeptide is detected with 1H-NMR, which is 99.6%, as shown in Figure S3. 1H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ: 7.34 (s, 5H), 5.12 (t, 2H), 4.61 (m, 1H), 4.21 (m, 1H), 4.04 (t, 2H), 2.04 (m, 10H), 1.83 (m, 2H), 1.68 (s, 3H).