*3.3. Microhardness Measurements*

In-depth microhardness distributions were obtained with the standard Vickers test method using a Leitz Wetzlar hardness tester with a 200 g load and a 15 s load time. Vickers microhardness was measured at a depth of 2 mm from the LSP-treated surface (Figure 12). The microhardness analysis of the surface layer indicated that, after the LSP, strain hardening occurred. Strain hardening was detected as an increase in microhardness. The microhardness of the heat-treated maraging steel before the LSP was 667 HV0.2. The highest microhardness value after the LSP was measured just below the surface in a range between 730 and 740 HV0.2. The increased hardness was detected in the surface layer. The thickness of the strain-hardened surface was between 0.6 and 1.6 mm, depending on laser PD and laser SD.

Interactions of laser PD and SD have a significant influence on the hardness of an LSP-treated surface, found by a statistical analysis (ANOVA) (*P* < 0.0001) [25]. We fitted the measured values with the quadratic model. The results are presented as contour plots for the whole range of laser SD from 1.5 to 2.5 mm. The contour plots, shown in Figures 13 and 14, indicate that, in general, the maximum microhardness was achieved with a 2.0 mm-diameter laser spot, both at the surface and at a depth of 1.0 mm. Once again, this could not be directly connected with PPD. In the case of a 1.5 mm-diameter laser spot, the PPD was higher than in the case of a 2.0 or 2.5 mm-diameter laser spot. These findings confirm that, for our laser source, with a 2.0 mm-diameter laser spot, the most pronounced mechanical effect was obtained.

**Figure 12.** Micro-hardness measurements in depth for different PDs (i.e., 900, 1600, and 2500 cm−2) and different SDs (i.e., 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 mm).

**Figure 13.** Microhardness at the surface as a function of laser SD for different PDs (i.e., 900, 1600, and 2500 cm−2).

**Figure 14.** Microhardness at a depth of 1.0 mm as a function of laser SD for different PDs (i.e., 900, 1600, and 2500 cm−2).

Additionally, other researchers found out that higher overlapping rates and multiple LSP impacts tend to cause a hardness increase [4,9]. We have previously shown that hardness increases after LSP is mainly due to the presence of compressive RSs [15,22]. With different LSP parameters, the microhardness decrease from the surface to a depth of 1.0 mm is almost linear. The relationship between microhardness and laser SD for PD = 1600 cm−2 is shown in Figure 15.

**Figure 15.** Microhardness at the surface and at a depth of 1.0 mm as a function of laser SD for PD = 1600 cm−2.


**4. Diagnosis**

Pleural diseases are common and the causes are diverse, but there is also considerable overlap in the clinical manifestatations of these conditions. Because of this, MPM is notoriously difficult to diagnose, both radiologically and pathologically.

#### **4.1. Radiology**

Radiologically, pleural malignancy is often suspected on clinical history and an abnormal chest radiograph showing pleural effusion or thickening. Computed tomography can be helpful in distinguishing malignant from benign pleural processes [49]. Whilst direct invasion of surrounding structures is diagnostic of malignancy, mediastinal pleural thickening, nodules in the pleura and thickness >1cm predict malignancy with a sensitivity of 40-70% and specificity of 64-96%. In differentiating mesothelioma from secondary pleural malignan‐ cies, mediastinal pleural involvement and rind-like encasement of the lung shows a sensitivity/specificity of 85%/67% and 70%/85% respectively. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has a similar performance to CT at distinguishing benign from malignant processes on the basis of morphology, but signal intensity is a useful additional feature which improves the ability to differentiate between the two [50] [51]. PET-CT is less helpful for the differen‐ tiation of benign from malignant pleural diseases and is more valuable in staging than in diagnosis [52]. Interpretation is confounded by inflammatory and infective pleural condi‐ tions and recent talc pleurodesis [53] [54]. Nevertheless, none of these modalities are absolutely specific so, irrespective of radiological findings, diagnosis of mesothelioma requires pathological confirmation.

#### **4.2. Obtaining tissue for diagnosis**

The mesothelium is a flattened layer of pluripotent mesodermal-derived epithelial cells on the surface of the pleura and mesothelioma can be morphologically diverse. Two main issues face the pathologist trying to establish a diagnosis of mesothelioma. Firstly, mesothelial prolifera‐ tion is common in benign conditions, and differentiating benign from malignant mesothelial proliferation can be very difficult with many benign processes showing atypical features and mimicking invasion. Secondly, of the malignant pathologies affecting the mesothelium, secondary malignancies are by far the most common and mesothelioma is rare. Determining that a pleural malignancy is primary can also be very difficult.

The quality of tissue available to the pathologist greatly influences the ability to make a diagnosis. Fluid from a pleural effusion is helpful at narrowing the differential diagnosis but it has poor sensitivity (about 50-60%) for the diagnosis of malignancy, and in most studies the negative predictive value is around 70% [55]. However, a diagnosis may be more forthcoming when aspiration cytology is repeated [56]. For the specific diagnosis of mesothelioma, cytology has an overall sensitivity of about 30-50%, and is almost useless at diagnosing sarcomatoid mesothelioma (20% sensitivity) [57].

concomitant loss of INKa/ARF [47]. Indeed functionally, loss of INKa/ARF appears to be permissive for NF2 tumourigenesis [48]. Thus, the evidence points to mutations in INKa/ARF and NF2/merlin as driver mutations central to the pathogenesis of mesothelioma. As a result of the genetic instability conferred by these tumour suppressor gene mutations, a large number of genetic lesions appear causing dysregulation of growth factor expression and signalling,

Pleural diseases are common and the causes are diverse, but there is also considerable overlap in the clinical manifestatations of these conditions. Because of this, MPM is notoriously difficult

Radiologically, pleural malignancy is often suspected on clinical history and an abnormal chest radiograph showing pleural effusion or thickening. Computed tomography can be helpful in distinguishing malignant from benign pleural processes [49]. Whilst direct invasion of surrounding structures is diagnostic of malignancy, mediastinal pleural thickening, nodules in the pleura and thickness >1cm predict malignancy with a sensitivity of 40-70% and specificity of 64-96%. In differentiating mesothelioma from secondary pleural malignan‐ cies, mediastinal pleural involvement and rind-like encasement of the lung shows a sensitivity/specificity of 85%/67% and 70%/85% respectively. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has a similar performance to CT at distinguishing benign from malignant processes on the basis of morphology, but signal intensity is a useful additional feature which improves the ability to differentiate between the two [50] [51]. PET-CT is less helpful for the differen‐ tiation of benign from malignant pleural diseases and is more valuable in staging than in diagnosis [52]. Interpretation is confounded by inflammatory and infective pleural condi‐ tions and recent talc pleurodesis [53] [54]. Nevertheless, none of these modalities are absolutely specific so, irrespective of radiological findings, diagnosis of mesothelioma

The mesothelium is a flattened layer of pluripotent mesodermal-derived epithelial cells on the surface of the pleura and mesothelioma can be morphologically diverse. Two main issues face the pathologist trying to establish a diagnosis of mesothelioma. Firstly, mesothelial prolifera‐ tion is common in benign conditions, and differentiating benign from malignant mesothelial proliferation can be very difficult with many benign processes showing atypical features and mimicking invasion. Secondly, of the malignant pathologies affecting the mesothelium, secondary malignancies are by far the most common and mesothelioma is rare. Determining

angiogenesis and apoptosis, conferring on the cell the phenotype of malignancy.

to diagnose, both radiologically and pathologically.

requires pathological confirmation.

**4.2. Obtaining tissue for diagnosis**

that a pleural malignancy is primary can also be very difficult.

**4. Diagnosis**

134 Principles and Practice of Cardiothoracic Surgery

**4.1. Radiology**

Tissue for histopathology can be obtained by percutaneous or thoracoscopic means. Of the percutaneous methods, the Abram's needle has the highest yield, but is only similar to cytological diagnosis [58] [59]. Although pneumothorax can be expected in 15% of patients, few require intervention and the overall complication rate is low in safe hands [60] [61]. The addition of image guidance to target areas with >5mm pleural thickening significantly improves the diagnostic yield to >80% and reduces the rate of complications [61].

Thoracoscopy allows direct visual inspection and target selection, at the same time enabling greater amounts of tissue to be obtained, thereby improving the diagnostic yield for malig‐ nancy to about 95%. Video-assisted thoracoscopy requires a general anaesthetic and single lung ventilation and may be less suited to frail patients, however, it offers the opportunity to proceed to other procedures such as opening up loculations, pleurodesis or insertion of an indwelling drain in case of trapped lung.

Thoracotomy and pleural excision remains the gold-standard for diagnosis of mesothelioma. Whilst pleural biopsy, both open and close, have a high sensitivity for the diagnosis of mesothelioma, the sensitivity for the determination of tissue subtype is approximately 80-86% and is less accurate for non-epithelioid subtypes [62] [63].

#### **4.3. Differentiating benign from malignant mesothelial proliferation**

The separation of benign from malignant mesothelial proliferation can be extremely difficult. Most processes that affect the pleural space, from pneumothorax to thoracic surgery, pulmo‐ nary diseases to systemic diseases cause a degree of pleuritis with a degree of reactive mesothelial hyperplasia. This hyperplasia can be accompanied by quite florid cytological atypia, sometimes more florid than seen in some mesothelioma. Therefore, cytological features of a specimen are not helpful in the diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma [64].

Whilst invasion necessarily implies malignancy, benign processes in the pleura can also produce features that mimic invasion. To demonstrate invasion requires surrounding fat and stroma within the biopsy specimen, that is a reason why the diagnostic yield is higher with larger surgical specimens which contain the full thickness of the pleura and the deeper surrounding tissue. To illustrate the difficulty in clinching a diagnosis, even expert members of the US-Canadian Mesothelioma Reference Panel disagree 22% of the time on selected cases referred to them [65] [66].

Some benign histological features can appear ominous, one such is entrapment, where organising pleuritis within the pleural space overlying a pleural surface gives the deceptive appearance of mesothelial invasion. This can be complicated by the concomitant appearance of fat-like spaces within the organising pleuritis further giving the appearance of fat invasion [67]. Reactive proliferation of the surrounding stroma fibroblasts and spindled mesothelial cells can resemble sarcomatoid mesothelioma, whilst dense, fibrous pleuritis with low cellular content can resemble desmoplastic sarcomatoid mesothelioma.

sleep, and the breathlessness would often force the patient to stop working. Medical attention

Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma and the Role of Non–Operative Therapies

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137

Physical examination is helpful insofar as suggesting a pleural effusion or pleural thickening, but is nonspecific for the diagnosis of MPM. Peripheral stigmata of pulmonary diseases such as clubbing and hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy are not features of MPM, and

In those with large effusion, drainage may lead to rapid improvement of symptoms but a trapped lung is also common. As the disease progresses, less fluid is produced and there is progressively more pleural thickening, eventually the fluid disappears and the chest becomes contracted and filled with tumour. Local invasion of the chest wall can result in intractable pain and paresthesia, whilst invasion of the contralateral pleural space, pericardial space or through the diaphragm usually herald a rapid deterioration. Distant spread is common but is

The outlook for patients with mesothelioma is bad. For patients who present asymptomatically on a chest radiograph, the median survival is 20 months with best supportive care [76], and it is with this baseline in mind that we should evaluate noncomparative studies on new therapies.

The purpose of staging is threefold: it allows stratification of patients by the anatomical extent of disease into groups with similar prognosis, enables comparison of results between studies and facilitates treatment decision-making by determining the role of specific therapies in these subgroups. However, the staging of mesothelioma is hampered by two difficulties, firstly it has a non-spherical and non-concentric plate-like growth pattern and secondly, there is a lack of understanding of the natural history of mesothelioma. This is reflected in the fact there has been six different staging systems over the last 30 years [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83]. Only the later systems adopted the TNM model, and most have not been independently validated. The lack of an organ within which mesothelioma grows and the way it encroaches insidiously onto contiguous structures make clinical staging by imaging challenging. This is particularly the case with T-staging. The latest International Mesothelioma Interest Group (IMIG) staging system recognises that mesothelioma starts on the parietal pleura (T1a), and the spreads onto the visceral pleura as isolated and scattered foci (T1b), which becomes confluent (T2). These features are not easily resolvable on imaging and require direct visualisation with thoraco‐ scopy or open surgery. Nevertheless, most tumours present at the T3 and T4 stages. Here, the preoperative determination of invasion into the chest wall, mediastinum, diaphragm or pericardium is crucial to the separation of potentially resectable (T3) from unresectable (T4) tumour, but in practice this is not an exact science. The visual distinction between a contiguous structure and an invaded structure can be a difficult call. When compared to the pathological stage, both CT and MRI have an accuracy of only 50-60% in most categories, but MRI may be marginally more superior in the diagnosis of diaphragmatic and chest wall invasion on account

is usually only sought after a median of 3.5 months of progressing symptoms [76].

palpable lymphadenopathy is rare.

**6. Staging of mesothelioma**

of the signal changes in these structures [84].

usually less symptomatic than the primary site.

Because of the difficulties differentiating benign from malignant mesothelial cells on morpho‐ logical grounds, other techniques have been developed to this end. Unfortunately, immuno‐ histochemistry is of limited value, with poor sensitivity and specificity [68], but the identification of mutated genes may be more fruitful. The discovery that the majority of mesothelioma has loss of 9q21 led to the recent development of fluorescence in-situ hybridi‐ sation techniques looking for homozygous deletions of the p16INK4a gene. Loss of p16 in this assay appears to be 100% specific for mesothelioma [40] [69]. Another avenue which has found commercial application is diagnosis through the pattern of downregulation of specific microRNAs [70].

#### **4.4. Differentiating MPM from other pleural malignancies**

Immunohistochemistry is indispensable for the differentiation between primary pleural mesothelioma and secondary malignancies. A number of markers for each of mesothelioma and the carcinoma should be used to improve the diagnostic specificity. The International Mesothelioma Interest Group (IMIG) recommends the use of at least 2 mesothelial markers and 2 markers of the tumour under consideration, and if no diagnosis could be arrived at, an expanded panel could be used [64]. Epithelioid mesothelioma markers include Wilms Tumour 1 (WT-1), calretinin. cytokeratin 5 or 5/6. Thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF-1) is useful for the differentiation of lung adenocarcinoma, whilst CYFRA 21-1, SCCA and p63 are useful squamous cell carcinoma markers. Markers can also be selected for secondary malignancies of other tissue origin.

#### **4.5. Histological subtypes**

Many subtypes of mesothelioma have been described, but a single tumour can harbour several subtypes, so they are best broadly grouped into three types: epithelioid, sarcomatoid and mixed or biphasic. The epithelioid type is the most common (60%) whilst the other two types comprise 20% each [71]. The histological type not only determines the main differential diagnoses, but is also a predictor of response to treatment and one of the most powerful prognostic predictor [72] [73] [74].


**1. Introduction**

Puerperium is the time following delivery during which pregnancy-induced maternal anatomical and physiological changes return to the nonpregnant state. Its duration is understandably inexact, but is considered to range between 4 and 6 weeks. By popular use, however, the meaning usually includes the six subsequent weeks of delivery.

The word puerperium is derived from Latin—puer- child andparus bringing forth.

The postpartum period is associated with much tradition and superstition because the health of a new infant is very important to the survival of any family. Puerperium begins as soon as the placenta is expelled and lasts for approximately 6 weeks when the uterus regress almost to the non pregnant size.

Puerperium can be divided into:

a.immediate – within 24 hours.

b.early – up to 7 days.

c. remote – up to 6 weeks.


**5. Conclusions**

The semi-annual and annual cycles of temperature and the annual cycle of rainfall could be generated indeed by the ITCZ oscillation and modulated by the WAM. The models used in this study highlighted the variability of temperature and rainfall that are characterized by a significant upward trend in temperature and a low downward trend in rainfall. The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report review of climate model projections of temperature shows a consistent warming in all subregions, but less consistent patterns for rainfall [105]. Temperature and rainfall variability at Conakry site were analysed and linked to dominant modes of climate variability at annual to multiannual timescales.

There is a strong teleconnection between the SST of both pacific and Atlantic in the variability of rainfall and temperature. So, the annual variability of temperature and rainfall at Conakry are largely influenced by climate forcings AMM, TNA and Niño3.4. However, there is no significant influence of AN on these meteorological parameters. Furthermore, the warming of 1998 seems to be a response of the 1997–1998 strong El Niño event. Physically, the influence of climate modes on temperature and rainfall were found to vary at different time scales. In Guinea, more important mining projects are under way. And, in this regard, it would also be important to take into account the anthropogenic impacts in order to deepen our knowledge. This would allow us to better understand their variability which is useful in planning sustainable development projects. It is hoped that the results from this study would help to better understand climate variability in order to get sufficient operational decision support, and resource management for a sustainable development of developing countries.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, R.T.L.; Data curation, R.T.L.; Formal analysis, N.M. and N.B.; Resources, H.B.; Software, N.M.; Supervision, H.B., N.M., A.H., Z.B. and V.S.; Validation, A.H.; Writing—Original draft, R.T.L.; Writing—Review & editing, R.T.L., H.B., N.M. and V.S.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Acknowledgments:** This work is undertaken in the framework of the French South-African International Research Group LIA-ARSAIO (International Associated Laboratories—Atmospheric Research in Southern Africa and Indian Ocean) supported by the NRF and CNRS and by the Protea program. Authors are grateful to the Guinean Meteorological Service (GMS) for providing the temperature and rainfall data series used in this study, and to NOAA and KNMI web-teams for providing climate indices. Authors are thankful to Paulene Govender for proofreading. We are also thankful to the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**3. Results and discussions**

Based on the established methodologies, we start with the climatic variables of the laboratory such as temperature and relative humidity (RH) in the environment. For this cold weather situation, the mice gradually adapt according to their habit of developing in glass cages, where they present concerns for their immunological and psychological development. Initially, the mouse has a social characteristic and is kept in groups without any problem; these groups form quickly once they are introduced to the glass cage. However, the males of both strains (boxes) begin to show their aggressiveness on the 15th day, even though these groups have not fully established themselves in their habitat. Low temperatures in the laboratory cause a death of 15% of the samples, which causes a controlled heat system to be introduced at certain hours of the night, in order to avoid the loss of the samples. Once these environmental conditions of temperature and humidity were established, the mice showed greater social activity among themselves. At the time of providing the corresponding food, there should have been a procedure for an adequate food balance, such as composition, meeting growth needs, and coat maintenance, the latter being a main aspect of observation, which thanks to this I show some allergies and/or poor digestion in gnawing some cereals.

Therefore, the feeding that is supplied to the mice must have the necessary amounts in fiber and nutrients; in addition, it must be considered that these animals always seek to gnaw some food; that is why much of the diet is concentrated in cereals such as wheat and corn. However, their diet is also concentrated on green foods and nuts in addition to proportions of potatoes, carrots, and other foods that help in growth. It is evident that balanced food that exists for domestic animals such as cats and dogs are attractive to the mouse, the same that causes the fur of the mouse to increase and be much finer. This leads us to have two affirmations: the first is that the food has enough vitamins and they consume in greater quantity in addition to having the corresponding hardness to gnaw. The second is that the taste sensation in some mice causes the bowel movements to be inconsistent but rather causes foul smelling diarrhea that is not favorable to the mouse. Therefore, the nutrition of the mice had processes through which the biological body transforms and uses the nutrients to obtain enough energy, as well as to maintain and repair the tissues since the organism needs to acquire an external contribution of matter, essential for getting the substances that regulate the metabolic processes of the mouse.

It is important to consider the feeding for cold places should be a maximum of 5.7 to 7.5 g of food per mouse; the above is subject to consideration depending on the climate of the region. It should also be considered that the water supply should never be missing in either of the two sample boxes, in a quantity of 250 ml per day. The adaptation time of the mice in the climatic conditions of the city of Potosí

#### **Table 1.**

*Body mass control at adaptation time.*

was 33 days; currently, there was the loss of samples due to the climate conditions, where the extreme coldest temperature was −4°C. Despite the fact that the environment is controlled, it is important to consider that carbohydrate feeding increases between 10 and 15% on these cold days, since the body of the mice needs to create a greater amount of fat for their protection from weather conditions. In the laboratory, there is a heat regulator so that the temperature does not drop abruptly in the implemented environment (**Table 1**).

Once the adaptation of the mice has been achieved, parallel to this and for a time of 70 days, the accumulated average values of the power density of electromagnetic radiation are shown; according to the density of users, these levels of power increase during daylight hours, especially in the periods from 12:00 to 13:00 and approximately 18:30 to 20:00. This action is because many people today use the mobile phone, for immediate communication, which causes the concentration of power in some parts of the city to increase; so it is right where there is a telecommunication antenna, especially mobile telephony, will have a quasi-similar behavior to that of the following graph.

Although the graph in **Figure 5** shows high peaks, it must be considered that the irradiation activity was continuous; this means that the levels of electromagnetic radiation increased progressively, making use of commercial mobile phones. Where the power density generated by each of the cell phones does not exceed the value of 5 (mW/cm2 ), this is based on the ICNIRP international standards, giving certainty of compliance with this.

In knowledge of these aspects, it is important to explain the behavior of mice exposed to these electromagnetic fields. It should be considered that the irradiation was progressive, considering that adaptation to the environmental conditions of the city of Potosí, also influence mice, which influences the behavior of hyperactivity, feeding, and growth. For the analysis of the irradiation of electromagnetic fields on the mice, a detailed control was carried out, starting with the division and marking of each mouse, with great care, where it identifies individually the behavior of feeding (appetite), thirst (water consumption), sleep, aggressiveness, hyperactivity,

**15**

**Figure 6.**

**Figure 5.**

*Chart of stress levels without exposure (left) and with exposure (right) to EMF.*

*Temporal behavior of the power density of non-ionizing radiation.*

*The Influence of Electromagnetic Fields on the Behavior of Mice*

irritability of the eyes, and bedding (mouse nest). Each of these aspects is considered as a variable, the same that is registered in a Likert table; this evaluation allows describing the physiological conditions, that is, the stress level of each mouse in the adaptation period, as well as in the gradual exposure to concentrated electromagnetic field levels in the experimental environment. The Likert levels adopted for this situation were as follows: normal level: 1 to 21; medium or moderate level: 22 to 42; and high or acute level: 43 to 63. Based on these considerations, **Figure 6** shows the

These last two graphs show admirable considerations at the level of the behavior of mice, especially on stress, generated by electromagnetic fields. It is interesting to discuss why this exposure to electromagnetic fields influences the behavior of mice, taking the following explanatory points of observation that are evident in

**Adaptation aspect and without exposure to electromagnetic fields:** mice in the adaptation period show conflicting behavior in the first week, and in some cases, the isolation of some of the samples is evident, causing the normal level of stress to be high; however, over time, this decreased in this period. Despite having an extensive controlled diet of fibers, minerals, and others, some of the mice were unable to adapt to the environment; this is due to the low temperatures recorded. The death of the mice was not only due to the climate but also due to the fight between the dominant males of the herd; there was also the fight between some females and some males; this is due to the desire for reproduction which produced the death of some samples. Between the second and fourth weeks, it is evident that the mice begin to have an organizational system with respect to their habitat. From the third week on,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93320*

behavior of the mice in general.

experimentation.

### *The Influence of Electromagnetic Fields on the Behavior of Mice DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93320*

*Rodents*

**Table 1.**

**Mouse ID**

**Initial mass (g)**

was 33 days; currently, there was the loss of samples due to the climate conditions, where the extreme coldest temperature was −4°C. Despite the fact that the environment is controlled, it is important to consider that carbohydrate feeding increases between 10 and 15% on these cold days, since the body of the mice needs to create a greater amount of fat for their protection from weather conditions. In the laboratory, there is a heat regulator so that the temperature does not drop abruptly in the

**Box 1 Box 2**

 11.54 19.45 1 10.45 20.71 13.45 20.45 2 9.25 — 11.23 23.81 3 10.33 24.56 10.45 — 4 12.31 24.67 12.25 29.83 5 11.37 20.12 12.64 29.68 6 12.15 31.84 11.34 — 7 11.57 22.64 10.57 — 8 10.28 — 12.52 24.67 9 9.92 27.37 9.89 23.58 10 9.72 — 10.29 — 11 10.84 25.36 11.64 23.37 12 11.71 23.37

**Mouse ID**

**Initial mass (g)**

**Final mass at the end of adaptation time (g)**

**Final mass at the end of adaptation time (g)**

*Source: U.A. "T.F."—FAUTAPO—Physic Department, Investigation Roberto Vera.*

Once the adaptation of the mice has been achieved, parallel to this and for a time

Although the graph in **Figure 5** shows high peaks, it must be considered that the irradiation activity was continuous; this means that the levels of electromagnetic radiation increased progressively, making use of commercial mobile phones. Where the power density generated by each of the cell phones does not exceed the value of

In knowledge of these aspects, it is important to explain the behavior of mice exposed to these electromagnetic fields. It should be considered that the irradiation was progressive, considering that adaptation to the environmental conditions of the city of Potosí, also influence mice, which influences the behavior of hyperactivity, feeding, and growth. For the analysis of the irradiation of electromagnetic fields on the mice, a detailed control was carried out, starting with the division and marking of each mouse, with great care, where it identifies individually the behavior of feeding (appetite), thirst (water consumption), sleep, aggressiveness, hyperactivity,

), this is based on the ICNIRP international standards, giving certainty

of 70 days, the accumulated average values of the power density of electromagnetic radiation are shown; according to the density of users, these levels of power increase during daylight hours, especially in the periods from 12:00 to 13:00 and approximately 18:30 to 20:00. This action is because many people today use the mobile phone, for immediate communication, which causes the concentration of power in some parts of the city to increase; so it is right where there is a telecommunication antenna, especially mobile telephony, will have a quasi-similar behavior

implemented environment (**Table 1**).

*Body mass control at adaptation time.*

to that of the following graph.

of compliance with this.

**14**

5 (mW/cm2

irritability of the eyes, and bedding (mouse nest). Each of these aspects is considered as a variable, the same that is registered in a Likert table; this evaluation allows describing the physiological conditions, that is, the stress level of each mouse in the adaptation period, as well as in the gradual exposure to concentrated electromagnetic field levels in the experimental environment. The Likert levels adopted for this situation were as follows: normal level: 1 to 21; medium or moderate level: 22 to 42; and high or acute level: 43 to 63. Based on these considerations, **Figure 6** shows the behavior of the mice in general.

These last two graphs show admirable considerations at the level of the behavior of mice, especially on stress, generated by electromagnetic fields. It is interesting to discuss why this exposure to electromagnetic fields influences the behavior of mice, taking the following explanatory points of observation that are evident in experimentation.

**Adaptation aspect and without exposure to electromagnetic fields:** mice in the adaptation period show conflicting behavior in the first week, and in some cases, the isolation of some of the samples is evident, causing the normal level of stress to be high; however, over time, this decreased in this period. Despite having an extensive controlled diet of fibers, minerals, and others, some of the mice were unable to adapt to the environment; this is due to the low temperatures recorded. The death of the mice was not only due to the climate but also due to the fight between the dominant males of the herd; there was also the fight between some females and some males; this is due to the desire for reproduction which produced the death of some samples. Between the second and fourth weeks, it is evident that the mice begin to have an organizational system with respect to their habitat. From the third week on,

**Figure 5.** *Temporal behavior of the power density of non-ionizing radiation.*

**Figure 6.** *Chart of stress levels without exposure (left) and with exposure (right) to EMF.*

*Rodents*

the mice show permanent exploration activity within their vital areas or domains they constantly explore in their environment, both the known and new elements or objects, whether sniffing, gnawing (biting), and tasting food and liquids found in the glass cage. We consider the organization and the exploratory activities carried out by the mice as relevant, however it is important to highlight that, at the time of periodically cleaning the cages, it is evident that urine stools defecation, frequently they are positioned in the same place away from the power supply and water.

**Aspect of behavior of mice with exposure to electromagnetic fields:** it is evident that in the second graph (right) of **Figure 6**, it shows that the behavior of mice in their stress levels gradually increases, from the lowest (tranquility), going through the moderate level to the level of watery aggressiveness. It is evident that the influence of electromagnetic field or radiation has a great direct influence on the behavior of mice exposed to these physical agents; despite the fact that the average energy accumulated per minute does not exceed 350 mJ, it is the same as it is a very low energy, compared to the molecular resonance that occurs for the ionization of the molecules. However, considering the physical principles of electromagnetic wave interaction with matter and its penetration on these biological bodies, we affirm that energy can accumulate according to the principle of wave superposition for certain time. This aspect causes an invisible concentrated field of energy to exist in the cages and the experimental environment, the same that increases the temperature level that is perceptible to mice; so, the behavioral changes in their habitat and physiology are very noticeable and progressive. The influence of electromagnetic radiation, emanating from different sources, causes a natural and necessary response for survival in the mouse; so, these actions give rise to the following aspects:

**17**

*The Influence of Electromagnetic Fields on the Behavior of Mice*

the activated source of electromagnetic radiation (mobile phone) avoid being close to it. The mice feel discomfort in the whiskers more frequently when the active electromagnetic signal is increased (when the cell phone is switched on); the frictions that are made in the presence of this physical agent develop

All these exposed aspects show an explanation of how the influence of electromagnetic fields in prolonged periods influence the behavior of mice both in their

The presence of electromagnetic fields within the environmental environment has grown progressively according to the human population density. The direct or indirect influence of these fields generates an uncomfortable presence in the habitat of an animal, especially for those animals that are sensitive to the variation of the intensities of static or dynamic electromagnetic fields, proof of this is the behavior of the mice within this study which are sensitive to the increase in the levels of

Mice, without the influence of electromagnetic fields, present an organization within their habitat, which demonstrate dynamic hyperactivity in their life cycle. On the other hand, if the conditions of their habitat are abiotic due to the influence of electromagnetic fields, the mice present different levels of behavior, raising their

In an epilog, it can be concluded that the action of the electromagnetic fields generated by mobile phones directly influences mice on their level of behavior and their habitat. Furthermore, when the presence of this signal exists, the mice avoid

The authors are grateful to the FAUTAPO foundation, for making possible the purchase of equipment for the investigation of electromagnetic fields in the non-

stress conditions, for example, in aggressiveness and irritation of the eyes.

proximity by activating intrinsic prevention in each one of them.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93320*

irritation in the mouse's snout.

stress levels and in their physiology.

**4. Conclusions**

electromagnetic fields.

**Acknowledgements**

ionizing spectrum.

the activated source of electromagnetic radiation (mobile phone) avoid being close to it. The mice feel discomfort in the whiskers more frequently when the active electromagnetic signal is increased (when the cell phone is switched on); the frictions that are made in the presence of this physical agent develop irritation in the mouse's snout.

All these exposed aspects show an explanation of how the influence of electromagnetic fields in prolonged periods influence the behavior of mice both in their stress levels and in their physiology.


Brain-Computer Interface *Edited by Vahid Asadpour*

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Brain-Computer Interface http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94618 Edited by Vahid Asadpour

#### Contributors

Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento, Ilan Figueirêdo, Lilian Lefol Nani Guarieiro, Vahid Asadpour, Reza Fazel-Rezai, Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi, Maryam Vatankhah, Manupati Hari Nithin Hara Nithin Reddy, Jen A. Markovics, Ibrahim Kaya, Horst Schneider, Sigrid Seuss, Jennifer Riederle, Beatriz García-Martínez, Antonio Fernández-Caballero, Arturo Martínez-Rodrigo, Amitabh Dube, Kapil Gupta, Jitendra Gupta, Bhoopendra Patel, Shubha Dube, Umesh Kumar, Sanjay Kumar Singhal, Kavita Yadav, Lubaina Jetaji, Ebru Sayilgan, Yalcin Isler, Yilmaz Kemal Yuce

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*Edited by Orhan Korhan*

*Musculoskeletal disorders* are defined as disorders that affect a part of the body's musculoskeletal system, which includes bones, nerves, tendons, ligaments, joints, cartilage, blood vessels, and spinal disks. These are the injuries that result from repeated motions, vibrations, and forces placed on human bodies while performing various job actions. They are extremely common and costly problems for people and companies. Thus, this book is designed to include a wide array of extensive and comprehensive discussions provided on occupational, educational, and medical aspects of ergonomics. Thus, it can be utilized as a guide to identify and analyze the risk factors, reveal the impact of prevention and intervention, and discuss treatment of musculoskeletal disorders.

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**11. Dosimetry in clinical trials**

Clinical trials including the NCTN and industry are the primary vehicles used to validate process improvements in patient care. Quality assurance in clinical trials is important as the process ensures consistency in trial execution and we can trust the outcome of the trial. Physics and dosimetry teams play an important role in the development and execution of clinical trials. Members of the Imaging and Radiation Oncology Core (IROC) will write guidelines and data management strategies into each clinical trial for imaging and radiation oncology. IROC will review clinical trial objects in real time to ensure completeness of the data acquisition process and re-compute patient analytics for target and normal tissue dose in a single platform to harmonize dose to volume for each patient on study. It is only through processes such as this that data can be powered to understand toxicity relative to dose/volume and ensure protocol coverage of tumor targets. Moving forward, large databases housed in a uniform format with planning and outcome imaging will be required to optimize our understanding of tumor contouring and normal tissue metrics. Annotation of these cases can be used for the development of AI programs. Clinical trials remain our primary resource to confirm standards of care and the quality assurance physics and dosimetry teams of IROC serve an important role in the development and standardization of standards. The Cancer Imaging Archive (TCIA) will be an important resource to further enhance our knowledge by associating radiation therapy data with pathomics and radiomics [1–11].