*3.2. Schi*ff *Base Loading in Bacteria Cellulose*

To allow the precursor coat onto the nanofibers, the bacteria cellulose firstly interacted with acidic aqueous mixture of *m*-phenylenediamine and glutaraldehyde. The pretreated bacteria cellulose immersed into precursor solution as soon as their contact. In contrast, the raw bacteria cellulose took ~30 min to be absolutely wetted by the solution. That should be caused by the pretreatment of bacteria cellulose, which alters its surface properties. After the saturation of precursor, the cellulose was put into the alkaline solution to speed up the polymerization process. Due to the strong interaction between –NH2 and –OH, the poly Schiff base would stably coat onto the nanofibers of bacteria cellulose. The white cellulose became brown after the polymer coating (Figure 1g), which had ultra-low density. The final product was named as pBC-Polym-*x*, where pBC is the pretreated bacteria cellulose and *x* is the concentration of m-phenylenediamine in precursor solution. For comparison, the product without pretreatment was denoted as BC-Polym-*x*.

More importantly, the difference on the wettability of raw and pretreated bacteria cellulose changed the loading mass of poly Schiff base. As shown in Figure 1h, the polymer loading on pretreated bacteria cellulose increased very fast and it took 30 min for saturation. However, for the raw bacteria cellulose, it spent ~120 min for the complete loading. Typically, the content of poly Schiff base on pBC was at least 20% higher than that on raw materials, which can be vividly distinguished by the color of the product (Supplementary Section S2). This should be related to the improvement of the wettability of bacteria cellulose by the pretreatment.


**4. Conclusions**

The process of high-temperature interaction of titanium with gaseous medium (nitrogen or oxygen) was modelled at temperatures T<Tα↔β and T>Tα↔β considering the surface processes and structural phase transformations.

The kinetics of surface processes is reflected by the mass balance equation, which takes into account the interaction of an external flux of impurities to the surface and its chemisorption with diffusion dissolution and segregation on defects as a result of a chemical interaction with titanium atoms.

The kinetics of diffusion saturation of α-titanium by nitrogen under rarefied atmosphere (1 Pa) in the temperature range of 750-850 0 C was investigated experimentally and analytically. The influence of time and temperature parameters on the depth of the nitrided layer and a change of its microhardness was estimated.

It was shown the role of these interstitial elements as α-stabilizers in forming the diffusion zone which contains three layers based on α-phase, α+β-phases and β-phase.

It was received the solution of the formulated task as for diffusion of nitrogen or oxygen in such a heterogeneous medium taking into account the motion of interfaces.

The constants of parabolic growth of layers were calculated. It allowed to foresee the kinetics of their growth and distribution of interstitial elements (nitrogen or oxygen) in diffusion zone.

The adequacy of the proposed model representations was confirmed by the results of experi‐ mental investigations on nitriding of titanium at Т=950 0 C. The microstructural evolution (after processing times of 1 and 5 h) of the diffusion zone which is caused by the structural phase transformations during diffusion of nitrogen was examined experimentally.


Author details

Maciel Carla Isabel dos Santos1 \*, Bose Filho Waldek Wladimir2 and Ruchert Cassius Olívio Figueiredo Terra3

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**About the Editors**

## **Rajive Ganguli**

Dr. Rajive Ganguli is the Malcolm McKinnon Professor of Mining Engineering and Associate Dean of Assessment in the College of Mines and Earth Sciences at the University of Utah. He was previously affiliated with the University of Alaska Fairbanks, Jim Walter Resources (Alabama) and Hindustan Copper Limited (India). He has three degrees in Mining Engineering, and is a registered Professional Engineer (Alaska) and a mine foreman (Alabama). He is very interested in the grand challenges of mining, from exploiting Big Data to tackling the various issues that make mine operations difficult. Over the last two decades, among other things, he has been working on computational intelligence applications in the mining industry. He has partnered with mines in the United States, Mongolia, and Mexico in developing the industrial applications of computational intelligence.

#### **Sean Dessureault**

Dr. Sean Dessureault is the Vice President of Technology and Innovation for The Mosaic Company, a leading vertically integrated fertilizer producer with mines throughout the Americas and a global distribution network. From 2002 to 2018, Dessureault was a professor at the University of Arizona, where he engaged in research related to the integration and effective use of mining information systems and sustainability. In 2004, he founded MISOM Technologies, an IT services company with expertise in data integration, control rooms, and automation. MISOM eventually developed the FARA platform, which brings together Internet of Things (IoT) sensors, a tablet-based mobile app, and modern approaches such as Big Data and gamification to create innovative form digitization, worker engagement, and fleet management. In late 2017, MISOM was acquired by MST Global, where Dr. Dessureault served as Chief Innovation Evangelist until joining Mosaic in 2019.

#### **Pratt Rogers**

Dr. Pratt Rogers is a mining professional with extensive research and business experience in data management systems, automation, mining technology, and health and safety management systems. Dr. Rogers started in a mining faculty at the University of Utah in 2016 as an Assistant Professor. Prior to joining the University of Utah, Dr. Rogers worked as the VP of Product Development at MISOM Technologies. He has Bachelor's (2008), Master's (2012), and Doctoral (2015) degrees in Mining Engineering from The University of Arizona. He has worked as a site engineer for Luminant Mining and as a mining analytics consultant across the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Dr. Rogers continues to provide data analytics consultation for various mining companies. His research interests concentrate on the reliability of data management systems in mining organizations for a variety of objectives, such as fatigue management, short-range planning, and operational excellence. Recently, Dr. Rogers has been working on a research project funded by NIOSH focused on fatigue management modeling and monitoring tools.


**Abstract**

The debate concerning reforms in sovereign debt restructuring (SDR) ranges from those which maximize flexibility (e.g. adoption of clauses in debt contracts) to those which maximize uniformity and predictability (e.g. enacting a fixed framework similar to a domestic bankruptcy regime). This paper proposes that the principles of SDR in the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 69/319 be broadly codified into a treaty. This includes the principle of sustainability which emphasizes "inclusive growth and sustainable development" of stakeholders in SDR. In the current unsystematized regime of SDR, this proposal seeks to bridge the value of flexibility in *ex post* negotiations and the values of uniformity and predictability in *ex ante* rules under fixed bankruptcy regimes.

**Keywords:** sovereign debt, bankruptcy, sustainability, inclusive growth, reform, resolution, restructuring


**7. Implications for further research**

Using a lens founded upon philosophies from semiotics, communication, and biomedical ethics, this analysis examined the communicative value and potential use of SARS-CoV-2 *Health Capsules* as a modality of health communication in a pandemic. This study was conducted to answer the WHO's call for health communication research during global health crises and emphasizes the importance of health communication in accordance with the ACGME and other stakeholders, coming to several conclusions.

Comics have the potential to communicate appropriately in manner, relevance, quality, and quantity, as well as to disseminate medical information beneficently, justly, non-maleficently, and in a way that supports patient-autonomy. The findings of this analysis show that medical comics could fulfil in part the WHO's search for multimodal methods of health communication during pandemics.

This analysis also demonstrates that comics could be used effectively and ethically to communicate during pandemics and in health communication generally, using semiotic features, such as using facial expressions to create emotional connections, using physical proximities to set tone, using vectors to direct the reader's eye, using humor to aid recall, using simple language to increase comprehension, and using illustrated step-by-step instructions to guide patients. However, without exhaustive research on the topic, there are no current best practices for the creation of biomedically and communicatively ethical medical comics.

The findings of this analysis call for a broader scope of the use of comics in medicine and suggest standardized guidelines for their use. Guidelines that establish regularized uses of facial expressions, ellipses, vectors, physical proximity, humor, step-by-step instructions and other semiotic values typically found within comics, should be established prior to the general and widespread use of comics as means of health communication.

#### **Author details**

Jonathan de Rothewelle Harry S Truman College, United States

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**6. Conclusions**

Using ultrasonic vibration shoe centerless grinding technique to fabricate microscale tungsten carbide steel cylindrical workpiece was investigated. An experimental apparatus was modified by installing fine feed and adjustment mechanisms, and the ultrasonic vibration shoe used in experimental grinding was designed and made especially. The tungsten carbide steel cylindrical workpiece with 0.6mm in the original diameter and 15mm in the length was ground with a diamond grinding wheel. As a result, a microscale tungsten carbide steel cylindrical workpiece of around 60μm in diameter and 15mm in length, the aspect ratio of which was over 250. The validity of the new microscale tungsten carbide steel cylindrical workpiece using ultrasonic vibration shoe centerless grinding technique is confirmed.

For a new microscale tungsten carbide steel cylindrical workpiece technology, it is further required to investigate influencing factors, such as the workpiece geometrical arrangement, and ultrasonic vibration amplitude how to affect the machining accuracy, i.e., workpiece roundness. The more fine adjustment mechanism and the measurement rig suitable for micro-scale workpiece less than 100�m also be designed and made.

Future work will focus on further developing this new technique in terms of the inuence of grinding conditions, such as the workpiece geometrical conguration(φ, γ), on machining accuracy,i.e., workpiece roundness. To this end, it is essential to rst develop a roundness measurement method for microscale components less than100μm in diameter since there is, at present, no commercially available measurement rig suitable for such microscale components. This work will be detailed in a future report.


**8. Conclusion**

*Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development*

are especially affected.

(**Figure 4**).

**7. Discussions**

organization.

seen above?

intended messages and their target audiences.

had reportedly attacked 42 schools, at least 36 of which were burnt down; the Cameroonian's figure indicated that they had burnt at least 120 schools. Rural areas

Anglophone villages suspected of harboring separatists or arms have been burned and pillaged in both the South West and North West regions. Homes have been burned to ashes, sometimes with their inhabitants. About 206 settlements have been raided and partially destroyed by state defense forces during attempts to crack down on armed separatists. Several villages in Mbonge and Konye subdivision have been completely emptied of their population. Civilian witnesses say that army attacks are routinely followed by the ransacking of houses and shops, the destruction of food stocks, and the rounding up and mistreatment or killing of civilians, often as reprisals for their killing of a member of the defense and security forces

One of the key ways social movements engage in cultural resistance is by means of the production and dissemination of multiple forms of media in order to mobilize support, to reach out for supports beyond those already in agreement with movement claims, and to increase the legitimacy of their claims and demands. Social movements operate at a considerable disadvantage when trying to influence news portrayals of issues than do their better-funded opposing groups and

Anglophones or Ambazonians who are defending themselves from the Cameroon security forces that kill them are presented in the state television and other media as "terrorists" and never as those fighting for a just course, whereas as seen above, they did not start the war; it was declared on them. The main stream media equally promoted hate speech and incitement to violence, which radicalized separatist groups the more. Government officials refer to protesters in dehumanizing or incendiary terms, such as "dogs" and "terrorists" in the main stream media. When the security agents who terrorize the population are presented in mainstream media, they are considered as valiant and patriotic agents of the republic who protect the population. Did they really protect the population when they tortured them, arbitrarily arrested them, and burned their houses as

Therefore, media serve to propagandize and serve the interests of the powerful that control and finance them. The propaganda model shows that media function to represent the agendas of the dominant social, economic and political groups that exercise power nationally and globally. Therefore, social movements face difficulties in their attempts to transmit their claims and to traverse the gap between their

Activists in the Ambazonian crisis created a strategy that Mattoni [47] considered as alternatives that are the creation of their own independent media or public forums of communication in order to communicate for a lack of interest or bias by established media. Alternatively, in the Ambazonian crisis, many videos were produced that facilitated the mobilization and production of a counter-narrative to the 'official story,' which indicates that there is no Anglophone problem in Cameroon and the professionalism of the security forces. The Internet makes the process of sharing easier and faster and with a potentially larger audience than ever before. These messages in the videos from the alternative media environment have made their ways into mainstream mass media like the various reports carried by BBC,

**160**

France 24, TV5 Monde, etc.

The Ambazonia crisis was triggered by the Southern Cameroonians' attempt to break the dominant Francophone cultural hegemony. They came into union with them from a weaker position with a population numerically smaller. As a result, La République du Cameroon has been making efforts not just to dominate them but to absorb them into the broader Francophone cultural system. They silently destroyed the dignity and statehood of Anglophones-not by the French-speaking community at large, but by the government that was led and dominated by Francophones.

Toward the end of 2016, the two Anglophone regions were rocked by demonstrations and strikes, initially led by lawyers, teachers, and students and eventually involving a wider section of the population. They protested against what they viewed as the growing marginalization of the Anglophone linguistic, cultural, educational traditions and systems in various sectors such as the failure to use the Common Law in courts and Standard English in classrooms, as well as the improvement of their representation in politics.

Many videos were produced showing their repressive response of the government, which were opposed to the official narratives produced by the main stream media. We collected 30 of them because they provide information that cannot be provided by other types of data. They are used as 'proofs of facts.' The videos show appalling images not just of how French-speaking soldiers tortured Anglophones but also their inability to communicate with them adequately although they share the same country.

The government response to the demonstration led to the violation of the following rights: the right to life, liberty, and security of persons; the right to be free from torture or cruel, degrading and unusual treatment; the right to be free from arbitrary arrest and detention; the right to association and peaceful assembly; the right to equality before and equal protection of the law; the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs; the right to have criminal charges and rights determined by a competent, impartial and independent tribunal (and in the case of civilians, a civilian court); the right to a fair trial, representation by a lawyer of choice, and (where the defendant does not have means to pay for legal representation) legal aid; the right to prompt, detailed notice of charges in a language understood by the defendant and adequate time and facilities to prepare a defense against them and communicate with counsel; the right to an interpreter where required; the right to appeal; the right not to be persecuted for any act or omission that was not a crime when committed; and the right to self-determination.

*Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development*


**7.2 Sine function scaling predicts the gain of 1.5**

The characteristic shape of the error functions we have observed somewhat resembles the first quarter cycle of a sine function. Such a function is plotted in Figure 11, scaled to 90°. Here we will first consider the features of the sine function that render it a promising model.

Fig. 11. Sine of slant, scaled to 90°. The sine function has a gain of essentially 1.5 over the range from 0 to nearly 45°. Means of pooled visual and haptic data are shown.

There are two features of particular note in Figure 11. First, the sine function captures the main shape of the bias functions we have been discussing: It appears fairly linear at the low end of the scale and compressive at the high end. The second point is made graphically by the line in Figure 11 representing a gain of 1.5 from horizontal. It turns out that the sine function produces a bias function with a gain of essentially 1.5 at the low end of the scale. Given the variety of empirically observed angular bias functions that have proven to have nearly exactly that gain near horizontal (e.g., visually perceived optical slant, haptically and visually perceived geographical slant, perceived gaze declination), this seems like either a striking coincidence or an impressive quantitative match.

A sine function represents the ratio between the surface length and the vertical extent of the surface. Unlike grade, which corresponds to the tangent function (rise over run), the sine function would seem to place priority on surface length, which has the virtue of being an ecologically relevant variable. For perceived gaze declination along a ground plane, where the relevant vertical extent is normally the observer's eye height, the sine of gaze declination corresponds to the reciprocal of the optical distance from the observer's eye to the point at the center of regard along the ground. If the optical distance from the eye to a target is held fixed, then the sine function is proportional to the frontal vertical extent created between the

Spatial Biases and the Haptic Experience of Surface Orientation 93

space is similar across visual and haptic modalities whether measured numerically with respect to vertical or with respect to horizontal or even when measured non-verbally using a horizontal-vertical bisection task. We have further suggested that the orientation bias

This research was supported by Award Number R15 EY021026-01 from the National Eye Institute. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Eye Institute or the National Institutes of Health.

Bhalla, M. & Proffitt, R.D. (1999). Visual-motor recalibration in geographical slant

Bridgeman, B. & Hoover, M. (2008). Processing spatial layout by perception and

Durgin, F. H.; Baird, J. A.; Greenburg, M.; Russell, R.; Shaughnessy, K. & Waymouth, S.

Durgin, F. H.; Hajnal, A.; Li, Z.; Tonge, N. & Stigliani, A. (2010). Palm boards are not action

Durgin, F. H.; Hajnal, A.; Li, Z.; Tonge, N. & Stigliani, A. (2011). An imputed dissociation

Durgin, F. H. & Li, Z. (2011a). Percepual scale expansion: An efficient angular coding

Durgin, F. H. & Li, Z. (2011b). The perception of 2D orientation is categorically biased.

Durgin, F. H.; Li, Z. & Hajnal, A. (2010). Slant perception in near space is categorically

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function in manual reaching space resembles the first quarter cycle of a sine function.

This work was also supported by a Swarthmore College Faculty Research Grant.

851-859, Available from doi: 10.1080/1747021070162371

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63, No. 3, pp. 367-384

**9. Acknowledgments**

**10. References**

Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 1076-1096

10.3758/PBR.16.5.964

target and the horizontal plane at eye level. It remains unclear why these specific ratios might be used as a scale of angle. It is possible that the sine function only incidentally matches the underlying bias function. Durgin and Li (2011a; see also Hajnal et al., 2011; Li & Durgin, 2009) have proposed that the shape of the bias function is driven by the utility of expanding the portion of the range used most frequently. At present we only propose that the sine function appears to capture the shape of the 3D angular bias function remarkably well.


*Edited by Danilo Godone*

Glaciers have always played an important role in human history, and currently, they are carefully observed as climate change sentinels. Glacier melt rate is increasing, and its mass balance is continuously negative. This issue deserves accurate and indepth studies in order to, adequately, monitor its state. This circumstance in fact endangers the water supply, affecting human settlements but also creating new environments allowing the colonization by pioneer communities and the formation of new landscapes. This book is subdivided into two main sections in order to deal with the two topics of worldwide research on glaciers and ecology in glacial environments. In the first one "Glaciers in the World," several reviews and studies are collected. It is an overview of glaciers, their state, and research carried out in different continents and contexts. The second section "Glacial Ecosystems" focuses, on the other hand, on glacier environments and ecological researches.

Photo by AvnerOferPhotography / iStock

Glacier Evolution in a Changing World

Glacier Evolution in a

Changing World

*Edited by Danilo Godone*


**4. Conclusions**

Based on the above, a sequence for DRGO bio-processing was proposed in **Figure 10**. After crushing and flotation, the biooxidation of the sulfide mineral should be performed under strongly acidic conditions to liberate the gold. Afterwards, the spent medium collected from a separate culturing bioreactor for P. chrysosporium will be applied to the residue from the sulfide biooxidation tank. This is to decompose the carbonaceous matter in the sample. The residue will then be sent for alkaline washing to remove the humic-like substances and break apart the C-Si-Al agglomerates before cyanidation to recover gold.

These steps need to be reviewed according to the content and localization of gold in the gold ore, the aromaticity of carbon, and the concentration of soluble iron components in the system. From the Raman spectroscopy analysis of the solid

**Figure 10.**

*Proposal of sequential biotreatment process of DRGO.*

residue, after the spent medium treatment and alkaline washing, the lignin-degrading enzymes are more effective at decomposing defective graphite, and alkaline washing is more effective in converting graphitic carbon to defective form. Now it is known that it is advantageous for DRGO, which has a high aromatic attribute, to be first alkali-treated before biotreatment.

In the future, the treatment process for various types of carbonaceous gold ore will be organized and targeted for development by utilizing the characteristics of bio-treatment and chemical treatment and will contribute to the production of gold. Additional investigations will be conducted into utilizing less harmful gold lixiviants like amino acids to compared their efficacy against the cyanide system for DRGO processing (**Figure 1**) [44, 45]. Such research, in addition to using lignindegrading enzymes for biooxidation, will greatly contribute to decreasing the environmental impact of processing DRGO.


**2.1 Fabrication of CNTs**

The preparation methods of CNTs include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), arc discharge (AD), and laser ablation (LA) [26]. CVD is the most commonly used method to prepare CNTs in the laboratory. Generally, CNTs are grown under the action of the catalyst after carbon source cracking at a certain temperature. This method has a series of advantages, such as simple equipment, fast preparation speed, large output, and controllable quality. The catalysts are generally transition metals such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, and the carbon sources are generally carbon-containing organics such as methane, ethylene, acetylene, ethanol, and xylene. The morphology (diameter, wall layer, length, density, curvature, crystallinity, etc.) of CNTs can be tuned by controlling the type and concentration of catalyst, the ratio of carbon source and injection speed, the temperature, pressure, and time of CVD [27–30].

#### **Figure 1.**

*Schematic diagrams of fullerene single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) and multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) [19].*

**65**

180 F · g−1

*Fiber Composites Made of Low-Dimensional Carbon Materials*

The AD method is also the main method to produce CNTs. Usually, in the lowpressure arc chamber of inert gas, hydrogen, or other gases, the graphite material is used as the electrode to generate a continuous arc between the electrodes, which makes the graphite react with the catalyst to generate CNTs. The AD method has a

Laser ablation is a method to prepare CNTs by bombarding the surface of graphite target doped with iron, cobalt, nickel, and other transition metals in an inert gas environment at 1200°C [33]. The advantage of this method is that the CNTs produced are of high purity and convenient for continuous production, but this method is not suitable for large-scale macro production due to its high energy consumption, complex equipment, and high preparation cost [34, 35]. In addition to the above three main preparation methods, CNTs can also be prepared by template method, flame method, solar energy method, and electrolytic alkali

Because of its special tubular structure and the strong binding force between

show good mechanical strength and fatigue resistance [10, 41].

the defect content, which leads to more phonon scattering.

of SWNTs can reach 240–1250 m2

a high specific surface area (about 430 m2

, a power density of 8 kW · kg−1

capacitance, 20 kW · kg−1

The carbon atoms in CNTs are arranged in a six-membered ring network structure, which is very conducive to phonon vibration. Therefore, CNTs have good thermal conductivity. Due to the anisotropy of the structure, the thermal conductivity of CNTs along the length direction is much higher than that in the vertical direction. Theoretically, the thermal conductivity of SWCNTs can reach 10,000 W/mK at room temperature. Due to the presence of impurities, the highest experimental values of SWCNTs and MWCNTs are 3500 and 3000 W/mK, respectively [42–44]. Theoretical calculation and experimental results show that with the increase of CNT diameter, the thermal conductivity of CNTs shows a downward trend (**Figure 2**) [45]. This is because the increase of diameter inevitably increases

CNTs are widely used in various electronic devices due to their high conductivity and chemical stability [46]. For SWCNTs, the specific surface area

the same time, high-temperature heat treatment can reduce the electrode impedance and increase the specific capacitance of SWNTs. The increase of capacitance is considered to be caused by the increase of specific surface area and a large number of 3–5 nm pore distribution [47, 48]. For MWCNTs, they usually have

CNTs of different shapes (such as direct growth, porous, array, and crimp) have

power density, and 6.5–7 Wh · kg−1

· g−1

, which can generate 180 F · g−1

specific

.

energy density. At

), a specific capacitance of up to

, and an energy density of 0.56 Wh · kg−1

· g−1

 hybrid carbon atoms, CNTs have high strength, fracture toughness, and elastic modulus, which are superior to any one-dimensional fiber [37]. The tensile strength of CNTs can reach 50–800 GPa, nearly 100 times of that standard steel, about 200 times higher than that of other polymer fibers, and its structure can be kept intact under 1 million atmospheric pressure. CNTs will not break obviously under large bending, while graphite fiber will break when bending 1% (volume fraction). The maximum elastic modulus of CNTs is 1 TPa, which is equivalent to that of diamond and about five times to that of steel. Due to defects, the actual elastic modulus of MWCNTs is in the range of 20–50 GPa [38–40]. Fiber is usually used to strengthen composite materials. In addition to its own strength, a high aspect ratio (>20) is also a key factor to obtain high-strength composite materials. The aspect ratio of CNTs is generally >1000. Therefore, through CNT-reinforced composite materials, it can

high yield, and the CNT's crystal structure is relatively complete [31, 32].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92092*

metal halide method [36].

**2.2 Properties of CNTs**

SP2

*Fiber Composites Made of Low-Dimensional Carbon Materials DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92092*

The AD method is also the main method to produce CNTs. Usually, in the lowpressure arc chamber of inert gas, hydrogen, or other gases, the graphite material is used as the electrode to generate a continuous arc between the electrodes, which makes the graphite react with the catalyst to generate CNTs. The AD method has a high yield, and the CNT's crystal structure is relatively complete [31, 32].

Laser ablation is a method to prepare CNTs by bombarding the surface of graphite target doped with iron, cobalt, nickel, and other transition metals in an inert gas environment at 1200°C [33]. The advantage of this method is that the CNTs produced are of high purity and convenient for continuous production, but this method is not suitable for large-scale macro production due to its high energy consumption, complex equipment, and high preparation cost [34, 35]. In addition to the above three main preparation methods, CNTs can also be prepared by template method, flame method, solar energy method, and electrolytic alkali metal halide method [36].

### **2.2 Properties of CNTs**

*Composite and Nanocomposite Materials - From Knowledge to Industrial Applications*

are summarized.

material made of SP2

**2.1 Fabrication of CNTs**

**2. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)**

CF, and GBFs, which are commonly used to assemble macro carbon composites. The preparation methods of GBFs and their composite fibers, as well as their applications in sensors, energy storage, energy conversion, and other aspects, such as supercapacitors, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), actuators, and solar cells, are mainly introduced. Finally, the existing problems and future development of carbon-matrix composites

CNTs were first discovered under TEM in 1991. It is a one-dimensional tubular

meters to tens of nanometers, and its length can reach centimeter-level at most. According to the wall layer, it can be divided into single-walled CNTs (SWCNTs) and multi-walled CNTs (MWCNTs) (**Figure 1**). It is the most commercialized nanofiber with the highest strength and the smallest diameter [19–21]. Moreover, CNTs have good toughness, which can withstand 40% of tensile strain without brittle behavior or fracture phenomenon, thus improving the toughness of matrix composite [22]. CNTs with super high aspect ratio and excellent mechanical and physical properties, such as high strength, high thermal conductivity, high conductivity, and low thermal expansion coefficient, are regarded as the ideal functional

modifier for preparing high-performance composite materials [23–25].

The preparation methods of CNTs include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), arc discharge (AD), and laser ablation (LA) [26]. CVD is the most commonly used method to prepare CNTs in the laboratory. Generally, CNTs are grown under the action of the catalyst after carbon source cracking at a certain temperature. This method has a series of advantages, such as simple equipment, fast preparation speed, large output, and controllable quality. The catalysts are generally transition metals such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, and the carbon sources are generally carbon-containing organics such as methane, ethylene, acetylene, ethanol, and xylene. The morphology (diameter, wall layer, length, density, curvature, crystallinity, etc.) of CNTs can be tuned by controlling the type and concentration of catalyst, the ratio of carbon source and injection speed, the temperature, pressure, and time of CVD [27–30].

*Schematic diagrams of fullerene single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) and multi-walled carbon nanotube*

hybrid carbon atoms. Its diameter ranges from several nano-

**64**

**Figure 1.**

*(MWCNT) [19].*

Because of its special tubular structure and the strong binding force between SP2 hybrid carbon atoms, CNTs have high strength, fracture toughness, and elastic modulus, which are superior to any one-dimensional fiber [37]. The tensile strength of CNTs can reach 50–800 GPa, nearly 100 times of that standard steel, about 200 times higher than that of other polymer fibers, and its structure can be kept intact under 1 million atmospheric pressure. CNTs will not break obviously under large bending, while graphite fiber will break when bending 1% (volume fraction). The maximum elastic modulus of CNTs is 1 TPa, which is equivalent to that of diamond and about five times to that of steel. Due to defects, the actual elastic modulus of MWCNTs is in the range of 20–50 GPa [38–40]. Fiber is usually used to strengthen composite materials. In addition to its own strength, a high aspect ratio (>20) is also a key factor to obtain high-strength composite materials. The aspect ratio of CNTs is generally >1000. Therefore, through CNT-reinforced composite materials, it can show good mechanical strength and fatigue resistance [10, 41].

The carbon atoms in CNTs are arranged in a six-membered ring network structure, which is very conducive to phonon vibration. Therefore, CNTs have good thermal conductivity. Due to the anisotropy of the structure, the thermal conductivity of CNTs along the length direction is much higher than that in the vertical direction. Theoretically, the thermal conductivity of SWCNTs can reach 10,000 W/mK at room temperature. Due to the presence of impurities, the highest experimental values of SWCNTs and MWCNTs are 3500 and 3000 W/mK, respectively [42–44]. Theoretical calculation and experimental results show that with the increase of CNT diameter, the thermal conductivity of CNTs shows a downward trend (**Figure 2**) [45]. This is because the increase of diameter inevitably increases the defect content, which leads to more phonon scattering.

CNTs are widely used in various electronic devices due to their high conductivity and chemical stability [46]. For SWCNTs, the specific surface area of SWNTs can reach 240–1250 m2 · g−1 , which can generate 180 F · g−1 specific capacitance, 20 kW · kg−1 power density, and 6.5–7 Wh · kg−1 energy density. At the same time, high-temperature heat treatment can reduce the electrode impedance and increase the specific capacitance of SWNTs. The increase of capacitance is considered to be caused by the increase of specific surface area and a large number of 3–5 nm pore distribution [47, 48]. For MWCNTs, they usually have a high specific surface area (about 430 m2 · g−1 ), a specific capacitance of up to 180 F · g−1 , a power density of 8 kW · kg−1 , and an energy density of 0.56 Wh · kg−1 . CNTs of different shapes (such as direct growth, porous, array, and crimp) have

#### **Figure 2.**

*The relationship between thermal conductivity and diameter of CNTs [45].*

been tested as electrodes. The array CNT is the most suitable electrode because of its small internal resistance, good reaction rate, regular gap structure, and stable conductive channel [49–51].


*Edited by Faheem Uddin*

The significance of environmental sustainability is undoubtedly important for life and survival of mankind. The emerging material and product world is now searching for material, structure, and processes that are supportive of the environment. The materials rendering the desired performance without harming the environment are viable for the sustainable growth of the industry. Therefore, montmorillonite clay becomes an attractive material in making various products. The book chapters are written to provide scientific understanding and knowledge to scholars, students, faculty members, and laboratory and industry workers of the subject of montmorillonite clay, including its structure and properties, use in composite, industrial application, and testing and evaluation using analytical techniques. The book's contents signify how important montmorillonite clay is in material and product development in the current industrial marketplace.

ISBN 978-1-83968-602-3

Montmorillonite Clay

Published in London, UK © 2021 IntechOpen © kazmulka / iStock


*2.4. The Value of 18F-FDG PET*/*CT in Minimal Residual Disease (MRD) Diagnostics*

A field that is constantly drawing more attention in MM therapy assessment is that of standardization and optimization of minimal residual disease (MRD) detection, which is becoming standard diagnostic care. This is driven by the need to improve the definition of disease remission due to the unprecedented rates of CR brought in recent years by the incorporation of novel agents in the treatment of MM patients. It is clear that in MM there is a direct correlation between the depth of response and prolonged survival rates [28]. At present, MRD is detected within the bone marrow, either by multicolor flow cytometry (MFC) or by next generation sequencing technologies [29].

Data on the potential role of 18F-FDG PET/CT in evaluation of the depth of response—beyond the level of conventionally defined CR- are limited but growing. Zamagni et al. retrospectively analyzed 282 MM patients who were evaluated at baseline and during posttreatment follow-up with serial PET/CT scans. They found that the modality could provide a more accurate definition of CR, allowing to stratify patients in conventional CR after up-front therapy into different prognostic subgroups, according to the persistence or absence of 18F-FDG metabolic activity. In particular, the achievement of PET-negativity after treatment was an independent predictor of prolonged PFS and OS for patients with conventionally defined CR [21]. Furthermore, the complementary role of PET/CT and MRD diagnostics with MFC in predicting patient outcome has been supported by some studies. A subanalysis of the IMAJEM trial in 86 patients before maintenance evaluated for both PET/CT and MRD, assessed by MFC, revealed a higher PFS for the group of patients with both a normalized PET/CT and a negative MRD versus patients with either PET positivity and/or MRD positivity before maintenance [12]. In line with these results, the Little Rock group showed in 83 MM patients in CR with available MRD and functional imaging data (in this case PET/CT and/or diffusion weighted MRI) that double-positive and double-negative features defined groups with dismal and excellent PFS, respectively [30]. Most recently, a retrospective study analyzed the prediction of outcome with the combination of 18F-FDG

PET/CT and MRD, assessed by MFC, in 103 patients with newly diagnosed MM. Apart from confirming the benefit—in terms of PFS—linked to the achievement of negativity by MFC and 18F-FDG PET/CT individually, the authors showed that the combination of negativity by both techniques conferred significantly higher PFS than each technique alone, also supporting the potential complementarity between PET/CT and MFC in MRD detection [31].


*3.2. ZnO Ripple Pattern*

Based on the idea that ZnO ripple pattern growth mechanism is analogous to the coffee ring effect [27,29,30] and the solvent annealing technique [31], ZnO films were dried in the air at ambient temperature over various time periods (from 0 to 3 h) before annealing. After that, they were placed on a hot plate for thermal treatment over 10 minutes at 125, 150, 175, and 200 ◦C, respectively. Peak-to-valley roughness values (RPtoV) of patterned ZnO films, measured by AFM, are summarized in Table 2. The highest RPtoV values for each annealing temperature were as follows: 110 nm at 125 ◦C, 122 nm at 150 ◦C, and 113 nm at 175 ◦C, achieved when the drying time was 60, 10, and 5 min, respectively. Devices with a short drying time require a high annealing temperature for the optimum pattern, i.e., the highest RPtoV value. This result is reasonable, because short dried samples has more remaining solvent [32]. The sample will need a higher temperature to remove the remaining solvent, and consequently, to form the pattern. During the drying process, the films will partially dry, and small ZnO particles (cross-linked ZnO precursors) begin to form inside the film. These particles will travel, following the convection current of the solvent during thermal annealing of the film. Changing the drying time affects the initial size of seed crystal particles and the amount of the remaining solvent, which modifies the convection flow and the coffee ring effect [29,32]. The device with the highest RPtoV was achieved at 150 ◦C after 10 min of drying time. The RPtoV values were abruptly decreased with a long drying time (3 h) and a high annealing temperature (200 ◦C). The lack of remaining solvent due to the long drying process or fast evaporation at high temperature hinders the convection flow, and consequently, the rearrangement of ZnO precursor to form a 3D pattern.

The AFM images of the best nano-ripple pattern fabricated by a low temperature process, and the pattern obtained by ramping method, are shown in Figure 3. Pattern sizes with the novel low temperature method (Figure 3a) showed similar RPtoV value to that achieved by the ramping method (Figure 3b). RPtoV value of ZnO film fabricated by ramping method was 135 and 120 nm for drying

time of 10 min followed by annealing temperature of 150 ◦C during 10 min. Finally, we succeed on the fabrication of 3D nano-patterned ZnO film, without using a high temperature, by introducing the drying step in the process.

**Table 2.** RPtoV value of ZnO films with different drying times and annealing temperatures (units in nm).


**1. Introduction**

Direct conversion of nuclear energy into light energy is of great interest as it provides for application of compact and energy-intensive nuclear energy sources to create high-power generators of coherent and incoherent optical radiation. Nuclear energy pumping into active laser medium was first proposed with the appearance of first lasers [1, 2]. At present, the research on nuclear-pumped lasers (NPL) has progressed to the stage where design and engineering developments of continuous and pulse nuclear laser equipment for various purposes have become possible, that is integrated units based on nuclear engineering and physics, quantum electronics, physics of low-temperature plasma, optics, gas dynamics, and other areas of science and technology [3].

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Nuclear-pumped lasers have potential in a wide range of applications, especially in cases requiring high-power and compact lasers to be placed on autonomous remote facilities. The most promising areas of nuclear-pumped laser application are as follows: laser thermonu‐ clearfusion, long-distance transmission ofradiant energy and information, rocketlaser engine, laser isotope separation and photochemistry, stratospheric ozone layer recovery, and space junk removal. Considerable interest in this area research is also associated with significant difference between the mechanisms of level population during nuclear pumping and population processes in conventional gas-discharge lasers. Application of nuclear energy for active laser medium pumping can be considered not as the way to create high-power laser, but as the way to obtain energy from nuclear reactor. This necessitates consideration of fundamentally new equipment—a reactor laser designed to spatially combine nuclear laser active medium and nuclear reactor core. This approach opens up opportunity to generate qualitatively new energy.

Attempts to achieve laser action during pumping of condensed media with nuclear radia‐ tion did not yield positive results. The main obstacle on the road of creating condensed media NPLs is their radiation damage: radiation defects of crystal lattice in solid-state laser, radiol‐ ysis, and gas bulb generation on the tracks of nuclear particles in liquid lasers. Presently known gas NPLs [3] radiate in spectral range 391–5600 nm in about 50 atomic transitions of Xe, Ar, Kr, Ne, C, N, Cl, O, I, Hg; Cd+ , Zn+ , Hg+ ions, CO molecules, and N2 + molecular ion.