About Genetic Variation

**3**

**Chapter 1**

**1. Introduction**

Introductory Chapter: Genetic

*Rafael Trindade Maia and Magnólia de Araújo Campos*

Genetic diversity is usually defined as the number of genetic characteristics (alleles and genotypes) in a species [1]. In this context, analyzing the genetic diversity in populations is essential to understand evolutionary and adaptative process for most species [2]. The genetic diversity is also very useful to implement conservation strategies and crop management. This is also the source of disease resistance of

Genes are DNA fragments that encodes some biological information, usually coding a protein or a RNA. Genes can be represented as a sequence of nucleotides that can be expressed in a living organism. Most genes have small nucleotide sequence differences among individuals. These differences are called genetic polymorphism [3]. Some of these polymorphisms may affects how proteins works and how the proteins interacts with subtracts and other proteins. The different gene

The genetic diversity has three different sources: mutation, recombination and immigration of genes. Mutation is the driving force of genetic variation and evolution. There are three types of DNA mutations: base substitutions (also called point

The point mutations are also subdivided in three groups: (1) Silent mutations: when the nucleotide substitution does not change the aminoacid in the polypeptide sequence; (2) Missense mutations: when occurs aminoacid change, that can be classified in conservative (when the change results in an amino acid from the same physical–chemical group) and non-conservative (when the change results in a different physicochemical aminoacid group); (3) Non-sense mutations: when the

Single mutations are very important in population genetics and evolution. They are the mainly source of DNA polymorphic sites, which provides information for many inferences and analysis such as nucleotide and haplotype diversity, allelic diversity, genetic distance, heterozygosity, etc. These parameters are very important to elucidate evolutionary process in populations across time and space. Genes with high levels of polymorphism can be applied to genetic population studies, while genes with moderate and low polymorphic levels can be used for phylogeographic

natural populations, as it is the font of drug resistance by many pathogens.

forms caused by genetic polymorphisms are called alleles.

nucleotide modification results in a stop codon (**Figure 2**).

mutations), deletions and insertions (**Figure 1**) [4].

**2. Base substitutions (point mutations)**

and phylogenetic inferences [5].

Variation - The Source of

Biological Diversity

## **Chapter 1**


*2.2. Preparation of Insect Protein Hydrolysates*

Control hydrolysate was prepared following the procedure described by Liceaga-Gesualdo and Li-Chan, with some modifications [38]. A mass of 500 g of insect meal was dispersed in deionized water at 5% (*w*/*w*) and magnetically stirred at 4 ◦C for 12 h. The temperature of dispersion was adjusted to 55 ◦C and the pH was adjusted at 8.5 with 0.66 N NaOH [39,40]. Alcalase® was then added to the dispersion at 3% (E/S). During the 2 h enzymatic hydrolysis, the dispersion was constantly stirred, and the pH was constantly adjusted with alkaline solution (NaOH, 0.66 N). After hydrolysis, Alcalase® was inactivated by heat treatment at 80 ◦C for 15 min. The hydrolysate was cooled to 20 ◦C and centrifuged at 4500× *g* for 45 min at 20 ◦C. Finally, the supernatant was filtered using a strainer to remove some lipids [41] and freeze-dried. For the high-pressure conditions, both insect dispersions were prepared as described for the control. Pressurization parameters (200 and 380 MPa for 1 min for cricket and mealworm meals, respectively) were based on results obtained by Boukil et al. [42]. All hydrolysates were stored at 4 ◦C between experiments.


**Cholesterol and the Heart**

**Chapter 6**

**Provisional chapter**

**Role of Cholesterol as a Risk Factor in Cardiovascular**

**Role of Cholesterol as a Risk Factor in Cardiovascular**

Cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of death in adult population in the world. The disease includes numerous problems, many of which are related to a process called atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a condition that develops when a substance called plaque builds up in the walls of the arteries.  If a blood clot forms, it can stop the blood flow. This can cause a heart attack or stroke. There are many risk factors associated with cardio vascular disease (CVD). While some risk factors cannot be changed, such as family history, some of them can be modified with treatment such as abnormal blood lipid and sugar levels, obesity, smoking, and high blood pressure. Research makes it clear that abnormal blood lipid (fat) levels have a strong correlation with the risk of coronary artery disease, heart attack and coronary death. Cholesterol plays detrimental roles in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and CVD. In this chapter, we aim to summarize the

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is a group of disease which contains coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, upper and lower extremity disease, and renal arterial diseases. The main cause of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases is the atherothrombotic process that occurs with atherosclerotic plaque rupture. Atherosclerosis is a chronic lipid-associated inflammatory disease concomitant with intimal thickening, especially involving bifurcation regions where endothelial damage is particularly high. Hypertension, hyperlipidemia,

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76357

Eyup Avci, Ahmet Dolapoglu and Didar Elif Akgun

Eyup Avci, Ahmet Dolapoglu and Didar Elif Akgun

relationship between blood cholesterol levels and CVD.

**Keywords:** cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76357

**Diseases**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

**Diseases**

#### **Role of Cholesterol as a Risk Factor in Cardiovascular Diseases Role of Cholesterol as a Risk Factor in Cardiovascular Diseases**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76357

Eyup Avci, Ahmet Dolapoglu and Didar Elif Akgun Eyup Avci, Ahmet Dolapoglu and Didar Elif Akgun

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76357

#### **Abstract**

Cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of death in adult population in the world. The disease includes numerous problems, many of which are related to a process called atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a condition that develops when a substance called plaque builds up in the walls of the arteries.  If a blood clot forms, it can stop the blood flow. This can cause a heart attack or stroke. There are many risk factors associated with cardio vascular disease (CVD). While some risk factors cannot be changed, such as family history, some of them can be modified with treatment such as abnormal blood lipid and sugar levels, obesity, smoking, and high blood pressure. Research makes it clear that abnormal blood lipid (fat) levels have a strong correlation with the risk of coronary artery disease, heart attack and coronary death. Cholesterol plays detrimental roles in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and CVD. In this chapter, we aim to summarize the relationship between blood cholesterol levels and CVD.

**Keywords:** cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis