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**Chapter 11**

**Abstract**

and eradication targets.

**1. Introduction**

*Plasmodium vivax* and

*Isaac K. Quaye and Larysa Aleksenko*

**Keywords:** *Plasmodium vivax* transmission, *Plasmodium ovale*,

asymptomatic transmission, sub-Saharan Africa

*Plasmodium ovale* in the Malaria

In recent times, several countries in sub-Saharan Africa have reported cases of *Plasmodium vivax (Pv)* with a considerable number being Duffy negative. Current efforts at malaria elimination are focused solely on *Plasmodium falciparum* (*Pf*) excluding non-falciparum malaria. *Pv* and *Plasmodium ovale (Po)* have hypnozoite forms that can serve as reservoirs of infection and sustain transmission. The burden of these parasites in Africa seems to be more than acknowledged, playing roles in migrant and autochthonous infections. Considering that elimination and eradication is a current aim for WHO and Roll Back Malaria (RBM), the inclusion of *Pv* and *Po* in the elimination agenda cannot be over-emphasized. The biology of *Pv* and *Po* are such that the same elimination strategies as are used for *Pf* cannot be applied so, going forward, new approaches will be required to attain elimination

Malaria elimination is defined as interruption of local transmission of malaria in a defined area [1, 2]. Within a geographical demarcation, malaria transmission is heterogenous ranging between high, intermediate or low [3, 4]. This means that elimination efforts must be defined with respect to the geographical area, and interventions targeted to specified strata to achieve elimination goals [5, 6]. Data for such targeted intervention can come from the use of sensitive and specific surveillance diagnostic tools that can discriminate between species, including asymptomatic infections. In Africa, current efforts of intervention by National Malaria Control Programs and recommendation by WHO and Roll Back Malaria (RBM) are focused mainly on *Plasmodium falciparum* (*Pf*) with little to no attention on non-falciparum species although the latter are established to be present in all of Africa [7, 8]. Clearly if elimination is envisaged based on the target of RBM, then inclusion of all human *Plasmodium* species in the elimination agenda is relevant. Non- falciparum *Plasmodial* species are more complicated in their transmission than *Pf* [9–11]. Especially, *Plasmodium vivax (Pv),* that is the most prevalent in the world and the two sympatric species of *Plasmodium ovale* (*Po*), *Plasmodium ovale curtisi* and *Plasmodium ovale wallikeri* both of which cause severe disease and have

Elimination Agenda in Africa

#### **Chapter 11**


**5. Conclusion**

The rapid evolution of resistance in *Staphylococcus aureus* toward almost every antibiotic makes it a most challenging threat for human health as well as for the microbiology scientists. This bacteraemia has been reported to possess resistance mechanisms on the exposure of antibiotics only. Staphylococcus aureus quickly develop the defense/survival mechanism for even the new antibiotics which probably due to their fast structural and genetical alterations. Keeping this in view, several novel compounds are in pipeline to combat the resistant strains of *Staphylococcus aureus*. Moreover, identification of additional drug targets, better stewardship and combination therapies are also in process for the treatment of resistant strains of *Staphylococcus aureus*.