*2.1.3 Synthesis of PAEKs in ILs*

PAEK was reported by Bonner of Du Pont, USA, in 1962 and Goodman of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), UK, but the molecular weight of products synthesised was the lower. Until 1979, Rose et al. of ICI reported that PEK with a high molecular weight was synthesised, laying the foundation for the synthesis of PAEK. Commercially available as VICTREX® PEEK™, it was introduced into the market by ICI. Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) is one of the most recently developed materials. PAEKs exhibit many outstanding characteristics including high thermal stability, excellent mechanical, thermo-oxidative, and chemical resistance

**105**

*Progress in Ionic Liquids as Reaction Media, Monomers and Additives in High-Performance…*

properties under diverse conditions, and good electrical insulation [45, 46]. The PAEK applications span across automotive, aerospace or chemical industries, orthopaedics and surgery, cable insulation, and membrane technologies. In addition, high temperatures, intense mechanical stress, and/or exposure to harsh chemical environments are required; thus, PAEK can be a lightweight replacement for metals. In 2013, PAEKs were successfully synthesised via SNAR mechanism using ILs [*i*-pmim][PF6] as the green reaction media. The optimised step polymerisation conditions were 50 wt% monomer concentration, dehydration at 150°C for 0.5 h and polymerisation at 180°C for further 1.5 h. The number-average molecular weights

interactions of bisphenol A with ILs were investigated, exhibiting a strong influence on the PAEK synthesis [11]. In the same year, PEEKs were also synthesised in IL [bmim][Tf2N], by polycondensation reactions of hydroquinone with 4,4′-dihalobenzophenones in the presence of K2CO3 at 320°C. The materials produced in IL were similar to those produced in the industrial solvent of choice, but the molecular weights were lower, possibly due to the lower solubility of the polymer. The advantage of using IL [bmim][Tf2N] over diphenyl sulphone as the solvent is that the separation efficiency significantly improved [3]. It is expected that more customdesigned ILs would be used for PAEK production, potentially widening the scope of

Microwave (MW) is a type of electromagnetic wave with frequency ranging from 300 MHz to 300 GHz, usually 2450 MHz for radiation chemical reaction; the temperature of the system depends on the power of MW and electrical properties of the medium. MW radiation can accelerate the reaction rate for a specific system and complete these reactions within a short period. Thus, as a non-conventional energy source, MW radiation has become an increasingly more practical and popular technology in organic chemistry, including polymerisation. Owing to their high ionic conductivity and polarisability, ILs act as excellent MW-absorbing agents and are, therefore, used in polymerisation. Mallakpour's research group is one of the most active research groups in this field. In 2007, poly(urea-urethane)s (PUU)s were prepared using IL 1,3-diallylimidazolium bromide and tetrabutyl-ammonium bromide (TBAB) under MW irradiation as well as conventional heating. The polymerisation reactions occurred rapidly, producing a series of PUUs in good yields and with moderate inherent viscosities of 0.21–0.46 dL/g. These PUUs showed a good solubility and could be readily dissolved in traditional organic solvents [47]. MW-assisted synthesis can provide higher yields and purer products than traditional heating; therefore, recently, MW radiation has been used for the synthesis of HPPs, especially PAIs. In 2010, poly(urethane-imide)s (PUIs) were prepared in the presence of IL TBAB under MW irradiation conditions. All the PUIs showed thermal stability and good solubility in various organic solvents. In in vitro toxicity studies, the prepared materials showed biological activity and non-toxicity to microbial growth and were classified as bioactive and biodegradable compounds [48]. In 2012, chiral-nanostructured PAIs were synthesised in TBAB IL under MW irradiation by the polymerisation reactions of several amino-acid-based chiral diacids with an aromatic diamine, 2-(3,5-diaminophenyl)-benzimidazole. The PAIs obtained were organo soluble, and the HPPs were obtained in high yields and with inherent viscosities in the range 0.40–0.52 dL/g. The materials synthesised were amorphous polymers with nanostructures containing nanosized particles in the range from 40 to 80 nm [49]. Chiral-PAI-nanostructures-bearing hydroxyphenyl pendant units in the side chain were also prepared using TBAB IL and TPP as the

with high yields. In addition, the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86472*

of PAEKs ranged from 10,000 to 18,000 g mol−1

the choice of solvents currently used.

*2.1.4 Synthesis of HPPs in ILs under microwave irradiation*

**Figure 3.** *Synthetic route for PSF in IL/ZI and structures of ILs and ZI.* *Progress in Ionic Liquids as Reaction Media, Monomers and Additives in High-Performance… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86472*

properties under diverse conditions, and good electrical insulation [45, 46]. The PAEK applications span across automotive, aerospace or chemical industries, orthopaedics and surgery, cable insulation, and membrane technologies. In addition, high temperatures, intense mechanical stress, and/or exposure to harsh chemical environments are required; thus, PAEK can be a lightweight replacement for metals.

In 2013, PAEKs were successfully synthesised via SNAR mechanism using ILs [*i*-pmim][PF6] as the green reaction media. The optimised step polymerisation conditions were 50 wt% monomer concentration, dehydration at 150°C for 0.5 h and polymerisation at 180°C for further 1.5 h. The number-average molecular weights of PAEKs ranged from 10,000 to 18,000 g mol−1 with high yields. In addition, the interactions of bisphenol A with ILs were investigated, exhibiting a strong influence on the PAEK synthesis [11]. In the same year, PEEKs were also synthesised in IL [bmim][Tf2N], by polycondensation reactions of hydroquinone with 4,4′-dihalobenzophenones in the presence of K2CO3 at 320°C. The materials produced in IL were similar to those produced in the industrial solvent of choice, but the molecular weights were lower, possibly due to the lower solubility of the polymer. The advantage of using IL [bmim][Tf2N] over diphenyl sulphone as the solvent is that the separation efficiency significantly improved [3]. It is expected that more customdesigned ILs would be used for PAEK production, potentially widening the scope of the choice of solvents currently used.

#### *2.1.4 Synthesis of HPPs in ILs under microwave irradiation*

Microwave (MW) is a type of electromagnetic wave with frequency ranging from 300 MHz to 300 GHz, usually 2450 MHz for radiation chemical reaction; the temperature of the system depends on the power of MW and electrical properties of the medium. MW radiation can accelerate the reaction rate for a specific system and complete these reactions within a short period. Thus, as a non-conventional energy source, MW radiation has become an increasingly more practical and popular technology in organic chemistry, including polymerisation. Owing to their high ionic conductivity and polarisability, ILs act as excellent MW-absorbing agents and are, therefore, used in polymerisation. Mallakpour's research group is one of the most active research groups in this field. In 2007, poly(urea-urethane)s (PUU)s were prepared using IL 1,3-diallylimidazolium bromide and tetrabutyl-ammonium bromide (TBAB) under MW irradiation as well as conventional heating. The polymerisation reactions occurred rapidly, producing a series of PUUs in good yields and with moderate inherent viscosities of 0.21–0.46 dL/g. These PUUs showed a good solubility and could be readily dissolved in traditional organic solvents [47].

MW-assisted synthesis can provide higher yields and purer products than traditional heating; therefore, recently, MW radiation has been used for the synthesis of HPPs, especially PAIs. In 2010, poly(urethane-imide)s (PUIs) were prepared in the presence of IL TBAB under MW irradiation conditions. All the PUIs showed thermal stability and good solubility in various organic solvents. In in vitro toxicity studies, the prepared materials showed biological activity and non-toxicity to microbial growth and were classified as bioactive and biodegradable compounds [48]. In 2012, chiral-nanostructured PAIs were synthesised in TBAB IL under MW irradiation by the polymerisation reactions of several amino-acid-based chiral diacids with an aromatic diamine, 2-(3,5-diaminophenyl)-benzimidazole. The PAIs obtained were organo soluble, and the HPPs were obtained in high yields and with inherent viscosities in the range 0.40–0.52 dL/g. The materials synthesised were amorphous polymers with nanostructures containing nanosized particles in the range from 40 to 80 nm [49]. Chiral-PAI-nanostructures-bearing hydroxyphenyl pendant units in the side chain were also prepared using TBAB IL and TPP as the

*Solvents, Ionic Liquids and Solvent Effects*

the development of membrane technologies such as hemodialysis, micro-/ultrafiltration membrane and gas separation. PSFs are usually synthesised via nucleophilic aromatic substitution polymerisation (SNAR) reactions [43]. For example, bisphenol-A PSF is synthesised from 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) propane (bisphenol A) and 4,4′-dichlorodiphenylsulphone (DCDPS) or 4,4′-difluorodiphenylsulphone (DFDPS). Poly(ether sulphone)s (PESs) are usually synthesised from 4,4′-dihy-

Liu's research group is one of the most active research groups in this field. In 2012, high-molecular-weight PSFs were synthesised in high yields by step polymerisation of bisphenol A with DFDPS for the first time in various ILs/zwitterions (ZIs) as the reaction media in the presence of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) using a one-pot green protocol shown in **Figure 3**. In this work, the dehydration time was shortened to 80% (2.5–8 to 0.5 h) compared to the conventional methods, and the weight-average molecular weights ranged from 30,000 to 130,000, with great potential for commercial applications. The polarity of ILs strongly affected the

were also successfully synthesised by the step polymerisation of bisphenol S with DFDPS in ILs/ZIs as the reaction media in the presence of K2CO3 using a one-pot green protocol. The dehydration time was shortened to 0.5 h compared to the conventional methods, and a high solubility of bisphenol-s dipotassium salt in IL/ ZI significantly lowered the reaction temperature (150°C) than the conventional temperature (220 − 300°C). The proposed method has clear advantages for synthesising PSF and PES compared to volatile organic solvents and, in principle, can be applied to the synthesis of other HPPs via nucleophilic aromatic substitution polymerisation reactions [13]. In 2017, the synthesis of poly(phenylene sulphide

PAEK was reported by Bonner of Du Pont, USA, in 1962 and Goodman of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), UK, but the molecular weight of products synthesised was the lower. Until 1979, Rose et al. of ICI reported that PEK with a high molecular weight was synthesised, laying the foundation for the synthesis of PAEK. Commercially available as VICTREX® PEEK™, it was introduced into the market by ICI. Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) is one of the most recently developed materials. PAEKs exhibit many outstanding characteristics including high thermal stability, excellent mechanical, thermo-oxidative, and chemical resistance

− were better [6]. Recently, PESs

droxydiphenylsulphone (bisphenol-S) and DCDPS/DFDPS [13].

molecular weight of PSF, and ILs containing PF6

sulphone) (PPSS) in ILs was presented [44].

*Synthetic route for PSF in IL/ZI and structures of ILs and ZI.*

*2.1.3 Synthesis of PAEKs in ILs*

**104**

**Figure 3.**

condensing agent under MW irradiation. The obtained PAIs had inherent viscosities in the range 0.32–0.49 dL/g; they were amorphous polymers with nanostructures in which the nanosized particles are in the range from 66 to 78 nm [50]. Soluble, thermally stable PAIs modified with siloxane linkages with a reduced dielectric constant were synthesised via the isocyanate method in TBAB, tetrabutyl-phosphonium bromide (TBPB), and 1-buthyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride ([bmim][Cl]) under MW irradiation [51].


**5. Conclusions**

A low-cost and low power IoT Sensor Node with advanced measurement precision for e-health application that enables continuous patient monitoring has been presented. The sensor node is based on the e-health kit from Libelium-Cooking Hacks, which can perform various medical checks ranging from temperature and glucose level measurement to ECG tests. We have enhanced the key characteristics of the operations of the Raspberry PI single-board computer (model B/B+), which constitutes the basis for the aforementioned e-health kit, by improving the accuracy, through the incorporation of filtering algorithms to sensors' values within the implemented Sensor Controller. A flexible communication mechanism, which enables the definition of any type of sampling of sensors at the desired frequency, is also employed for successful data transmission and Sensor Node control. Furthermore, a power consumption minimization scheme has been developed by imposing suitable sleep intervals to the IoT Sensor Node (corresponding to the associated idle intervals between sensors' successive measurements) and periodically deactivating specific functions of the node (thus, expanding its battery life-time and autonomy from hours to days). A representative medical test-case was demonstrated and explored, elucidating the efficiency of the presented key features of the e-health IoT Sensor Node. These features, in combination with the successful testing/evaluation of most of its sensor functions, paves the way for further evolvement of the developed system to a low-cost e-health monitoring platform with capabilities comparable to high cost commercial counterparts. In this regard, future improvements encompass the utilization of the MQTT protocol that employs shorter TCP header and thus in turn will lead to even more lower power consumption and communication overhead for the IoT Sensor Node.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, N.P., F.G. and M.B.; methodology, N.P., M.B. and F.G.; Software, N.P.; validation, N.P., M.B. and F.G.; project administration, M.B., writing—original draft preparation, N.P.; writing—review and editing, N.P., F.G. and M.B.; investigation, N.P., F.G. and M.B.; resources, F.G.

**Funding:** This research was partially funded by ELTAB project, grant number 46543.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.