At national level the creation of guide groups is recommended, complemented by a European observatory in which all interested parties are represented (public administrations, companies, schools, students, etc.). The role of the observatory would be to determine the objectives of entrepreneurship education, taking into consideration its different elements.

The European Commission, again according to these conclusions, should take the initiative when assessing programmes and activities to ensure that the outcomes can be compared. In particular, it should support research into the impact of activities based on student minicompanies and specific business projects.

All of this was included in the Oslo Agenda for Entrepreneurship Education in Europe 2006*,* which is a proposal to take a step forward in fostering entrepreneurship in education through systematic and effective actions. The agenda contains a rich menu of educational options addressed to those in charge at different levels of action so that they can choose the most suitable options for them from among those proposed and adapt them to their specific situation.

These proposals were drawn up around six spheres of action: the framework of political development, support for schools, support for teachers and educators, entrepreneurship activities in schools and higher education, building networks and opening up education to the outside world, and communication activities [19].

The Recommendation of the European Parliament and Council of 18 December 2006, regarding the key competencies for permanent education [20] follows the Oslo Agenda chronologically.

According to this Recommendation, the key competencies for life-long learning comprise a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes that are necessary for personal development, social integration, active citizenship and employment. They are essential for the knowledge society as a whole, and guarantee greater flexibility in the labour market, allowing it to adapt to the constant changes taking place in a globalized world. Young people should acquire these competencies by the end of their compulsory education and training, such that they are capacitated for adult life and the working world.

The Recommendation defines eight key competencies [21], and describes the knowledge, skills and attitudes that each of them comprises. They are listed below:

All of these competencies are interdependent and all of them stress critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem-solving, risk-assessment, decision-making and the constructive manage‐ ment of emotions. Number seven, the sense of initiative and entrepreneurship, is defined as the ability to put ideas into action. It presupposes creativity, innovation and risk-taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to attain objectives. The subject is aware of his or her work environment and is able to take advantage of the opportunities that arise*.*

Another outstanding milestone in the EU context is the Small Business Act (SBA) of June 2008 [22]. In a Communiqué, the European Commission includes ten principles to guide the formulation and execution of policies for improving the legal and administrative framework of small and medium sized businesses in the EU and its member States. Its full title is "*Think Small First – "A Small Business Act" for Europe: An initiative in favour of small enterprises*". The Communiqué recognizes that the role of SMEs in our society is becoming more and more important, as they create employment and are key protagonists in guaranteeing the prosperity of local and regional communities.

Among its ten principles it first highlights precisely the one that involves actions relating to entrepreneurship education: *"Create an environment in which entrepreneurs and family businesses can thrive and entrepreneurship is rewarded".* In this sense the EU and member States wished to provide more support for future entrepreneurs, especially by stimulating entrepreneurial talent and interest, above all in women and young people.

After adoption of the SBA, The European Commission is making a new effort to improve the introduction of entrepreneurial initiative in the educational systems of all the member States. To do so, the DG Enterprise/Industry and the DG Education /Culture jointly organized a series of high level panels to bring together representatives from member States' Ministries of Education and Industry. These panels met in 2009 by groups of countries.

Our review of the principal milestones, events and reports from the European Union in this matter concludes with the report and assessment of the pilot action by the four high-level panels held in 2009. The report commissioned by the European Commission and entitled "Towards Greater Cooperation and Coherence in Entrepreneurship Education from March 2010, includes the successful outcomes attained and the goals that still remain to be achieved in order to develop this subject matter in a uniform way throughout all EU territory.

As can be seen, the European debate regarding policies supporting SMEs and entrepreneur‐ ship is conceding well-deserved importance to education and training, and in the near future new European actions and programmes will be proposed to provide them with more momentum.

## **2. Promoting entrepreneurship education in Spain**

**1.** Communication in one's native language

**3.** Mathematical competencies and basic competencies in science and technology

All of these competencies are interdependent and all of them stress critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem-solving, risk-assessment, decision-making and the constructive manage‐ ment of emotions. Number seven, the sense of initiative and entrepreneurship, is defined as the ability to put ideas into action. It presupposes creativity, innovation and risk-taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to attain objectives. The subject is aware of his or her work environment and is able to take advantage of the opportunities that arise*.* Another outstanding milestone in the EU context is the Small Business Act (SBA) of June 2008 [22]. In a Communiqué, the European Commission includes ten principles to guide the formulation and execution of policies for improving the legal and administrative framework of small and medium sized businesses in the EU and its member States. Its full title is "*Think Small First – "A Small Business Act" for Europe: An initiative in favour of small enterprises*". The Communiqué recognizes that the role of SMEs in our society is becoming more and more important, as they create employment and are key protagonists in guaranteeing the prosperity

Among its ten principles it first highlights precisely the one that involves actions relating to entrepreneurship education: *"Create an environment in which entrepreneurs and family businesses can thrive and entrepreneurship is rewarded".* In this sense the EU and member States wished to provide more support for future entrepreneurs, especially by stimulating entrepreneurial

After adoption of the SBA, The European Commission is making a new effort to improve the introduction of entrepreneurial initiative in the educational systems of all the member States. To do so, the DG Enterprise/Industry and the DG Education /Culture jointly organized a series of high level panels to bring together representatives from member States' Ministries of

Our review of the principal milestones, events and reports from the European Union in this matter concludes with the report and assessment of the pilot action by the four high-level panels held in 2009. The report commissioned by the European Commission and entitled "Towards Greater Cooperation and Coherence in Entrepreneurship Education from March 2010, includes the successful outcomes attained and the goals that still remain to be achieved

in order to develop this subject matter in a uniform way throughout all EU territory.

**2.** Communication in foreign languages

**7.** Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship

**8.** Cultural awareness and expression

**4.** Digital competency **5.** Learning how to learn

46 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

**6.** Social and civic competencies

of local and regional communities.

talent and interest, above all in women and young people.

Education and Industry. These panels met in 2009 by groups of countries.

Spain's Ministry of Education is charged, among other things, with the general programming of the educational system, the minimum curricular contents, and defining educational standards. For its part, the Ministry of Industry, responsible for policies supporting SMEs and enterprise creation, is charged with the dissemination and follow-up of Community directives for policies in support of entrepreneurship; it also carries out actions for fostering and promoting entrepreneurial initiative, sometimes in collaboration with the Ministry of Educa‐ tion, in fulfilment of Spain's 2006 Plan for Business Promotion. Added to these difficulties in coordination is the fact that, in Spain, powers in education have been transferred to the corresponding Autonomous Communities into which the country is divided (Figure 1), making it even more difficult to establish joint and unified programmes in regard to entre‐ preneurship education.

**Figure 1.** Autonomous Communities of Spain

In 2003 Spain's DG for SMEs held a series of institutional contacts with the Ministry of Education with the idea of including entrepreneurial initiative as a basic competency to be attained in education, and to name experts from that Ministry to the work groups and meetings on the matter organized by the European Commission's DG of Enterprise and Industry. Likewise, Spain's DG for SMEs informed the EU of the best practices that, in this aspect, were beginning to be developed in Spain, underscoring the case of *Valnalón* in Asturias.

Since then, this DG has continued systematically to disseminate the European directives in this matter in order to incorporate this European objective as a basic aspect of Spanish public policies, both in the General State Administration and in the Autonomous Communities, and has continued to keep the EU informed of the most important Spanish experiences in this sense. With the reform of Constitutional Act 2/2006, of 3 May, of Education (LOE), the DG for SMEs again worked together with the Ministry of Education to ensure that entrepreneurial initiative was included in the Act as one of the major basic goals of the educational system, a matter which in the end was indeed included in the LOE. Both Ministries have also collaborated on the development of curricular contents in the different types of education. Since then, and up until now, the different laws and regulations relating to education have tried to spotlight the importance of this topic, which has now been officially introduced into the Royal Decrees on Teaching.

Nonetheless, even before the LOE was passed, quite a few enterprise-creating initiatives had been developing for some years in secondary and vocational schools in many of Spain's Autonomous Communities: Asturias, Extremadura, Galicia, etc. Some of them collaborate with each other and share educational methodologies and materials, as is the case of the EJE and EME programmes created by Valnalón in Asturias and implemented in many other Autonomous Communities.

Other important work that must be mentioned is that carried out by the Junior Achievement Foundation [23] since its establishment in Spain in 2001. Junior Achievement collaborates directly with schools all over Spain to prepare and inspire young people to be successful in a global economy by generating an entrepreneurial mind-set through different educational activities and competitions.

The compilation of these and other experiences is based on the publication, "Fostering an Entrepreneurial Mind-set in Schools" (Spanish Higher Council of Chambers of Commerce and the Ministry of Education, Social Policy and Sport - 2009), which contains an analysis of the situation in Spain, reflecting certain experiences and best practices in education, and the works by Sánchez, et al [1, 4]*.* These references have helped to identify existing best practices and they have been thoroughly and systematically updated, taking into account the new normative framework. For this task, the information used was provided by the different Regional Ministries of Education, Industry and Labour of Spain's Autonomous Communities, as well as information supplied by Chambers of Commerce and European Centres for Enterprise and Innovation.

We now move on to the entrepreneurship initiatives carried out in Spain by its Autonomous Communities. Some projects had to be left out because they are just getting started, and there may be others that as yet we have been unable to detect. This first sample of programmes and activities, however, can serve as a summarized and synthesized approach to the situation of entrepreneurship education in Spain, classified by Autonomous Regions. Table 2 lists the main entrepreneurship education programmes that are still currently in force in each of the Auton‐ omous Communities. The column marked "Results" specifies the number of schools involved and the number of students that participated during the last year for which data is available, usually 2010.

In 2003 Spain's DG for SMEs held a series of institutional contacts with the Ministry of Education with the idea of including entrepreneurial initiative as a basic competency to be attained in education, and to name experts from that Ministry to the work groups and meetings on the matter organized by the European Commission's DG of Enterprise and Industry. Likewise, Spain's DG for SMEs informed the EU of the best practices that, in this aspect, were

Since then, this DG has continued systematically to disseminate the European directives in this matter in order to incorporate this European objective as a basic aspect of Spanish public policies, both in the General State Administration and in the Autonomous Communities, and has continued to keep the EU informed of the most important Spanish experiences in this sense. With the reform of Constitutional Act 2/2006, of 3 May, of Education (LOE), the DG for SMEs again worked together with the Ministry of Education to ensure that entrepreneurial initiative was included in the Act as one of the major basic goals of the educational system, a matter which in the end was indeed included in the LOE. Both Ministries have also collaborated on the development of curricular contents in the different types of education. Since then, and up until now, the different laws and regulations relating to education have tried to spotlight the importance of this topic, which has now been officially introduced into the Royal Decrees on

Nonetheless, even before the LOE was passed, quite a few enterprise-creating initiatives had been developing for some years in secondary and vocational schools in many of Spain's Autonomous Communities: Asturias, Extremadura, Galicia, etc. Some of them collaborate with each other and share educational methodologies and materials, as is the case of the EJE and EME programmes created by Valnalón in Asturias and implemented in many other

Other important work that must be mentioned is that carried out by the Junior Achievement Foundation [23] since its establishment in Spain in 2001. Junior Achievement collaborates directly with schools all over Spain to prepare and inspire young people to be successful in a global economy by generating an entrepreneurial mind-set through different educational

The compilation of these and other experiences is based on the publication, "Fostering an Entrepreneurial Mind-set in Schools" (Spanish Higher Council of Chambers of Commerce and the Ministry of Education, Social Policy and Sport - 2009), which contains an analysis of the situation in Spain, reflecting certain experiences and best practices in education, and the works by Sánchez, et al [1, 4]*.* These references have helped to identify existing best practices and they have been thoroughly and systematically updated, taking into account the new normative framework. For this task, the information used was provided by the different Regional Ministries of Education, Industry and Labour of Spain's Autonomous Communities, as well as information supplied by Chambers of Commerce and European Centres for Enterprise and

We now move on to the entrepreneurship initiatives carried out in Spain by its Autonomous Communities. Some projects had to be left out because they are just getting started, and there

beginning to be developed in Spain, underscoring the case of *Valnalón* in Asturias.

Teaching.

Autonomous Communities.

48 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

activities and competitions.

Innovation.

**Autonomous**

50 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

**Community Project name Began Educational level Results**

Jóvenes Productoras Cinematográficas

Creación y gestión de microempresas

Canary Islands Una empresa en mi escuela, EME y EJE

> Escuela juventud emprendedora

Jornadas de creación de

Vitamina E-Iniciativa Emprendedora

empresas

Cataluña Seminarios de generación de ideas

Secondary

Simulación de Empresas 2002 Vocational 15 schools, 640 students

Secondary, Vocational

2003 Compulsory

2003 100 students per year

2004 Upper Secondary 400 students

2006 600 students

Secondary, Vocational, Upper Secondary

Secondary (4th yr.)

1999 Upper Secondary, FP 240 workshops, 6667

attendees

123 schools, 2420 students.

119 seminars, 53 workshops

37 schools

Eje profesional 2005 Vocational 3400 students Taller de Empresarios 1994 17-25 years of age 9000 students

Balearic Islands Jornadas de autoocupación 2002 Vocational 25 schools, 850 students

Crea Institut Empresa 2008 Vocational

Simulación de empresas Vocational

Innova Junior 2007 Compulsory

Programa emprendedores 2007 Compulsory

Estada a l'empresa Upper Secondary

Cultura emprendedora Compulsory Secondary

Castile-Leon Vitamina E-Primaria 2007 Primary 26 schools, 236 students

2004 Compulsory

2007 Compulsory

Aprende a emprender 2002 Vocational 193 schools, 14000 students

Secondary, Upper Secondary

Secondary

Vitamina E-Upper Secondary 2007 Upper Secondary 293 schools

Cantabria Labor ESO 2005 Compulsory Secondary

Castile-La Mancha Emprender en el aula 2006 Compulsory Secondary

**Table 2.** Entrepreneurship Education Projects in Spain's Autonomous Communities

## **3. Discussion**

Having taken into account the contents and scope of the actions taken in all of Spain's Autonomous Communities, we are now able to approach a diagnosis of the state of the art of entrepreneurship education in Spain, a diagnosis that in turn we should be able to compare with the activities being carried out in this sense by other countries in our context. This assessment will provide some perspective and bring to light some of the best practices.

Until the latest University Act (LOE) came into force, only a few of the Autonomous Com‐ munities had included entrepreneurship education in their curricula as an elective subject. The pioneers in this sense were Asturias, Navarre and Castile-Leon. Since the University Act was passed, it has gradually and systematically been introduced into the curricula of all the Autonomous Communities, particularly in Vocational education (Ciclos Formativos and Formación Profesional).

Among the activities included in Table 2, sometimes the initiatives came from the schools themselves, which sought out different organizations and agencies (e.g. Chambers of Com‐ merce or Young Entrepreneurs Associations-YEA) for help in developing part of the curricu‐ lum. Certain other initiatives had their origin in the educational authorities departments of the regional administrations, which made different projects and programmes available to schools to complement already existing educational projects. Other initiatives, such as the case of *Valnalón* (Asturias), have been public initiatives carried out through private entities that have embarked on a new integral project to combat (and very successfully so) the deteriorated economic and employment situation of their region, and that have managed to transfer their experience to other regions.

**Autonomous**

52 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

**Community Project name Began Educational level Results**

Guía-activa FP Vocational

Hasi eta hazi secundaria 2007 Compulsory Secondary Hasi eta hazi Bachillerato 2007 Upper Secondary Kosmodisea 2006 Primary, Compulsory

Gaze 2008 University 1000 students

Urratsbat 2008 Vocational 40 schools

Having taken into account the contents and scope of the actions taken in all of Spain's Autonomous Communities, we are now able to approach a diagnosis of the state of the art of entrepreneurship education in Spain, a diagnosis that in turn we should be able to compare with the activities being carried out in this sense by other countries in our context. This assessment will provide some perspective and bring to light some of the best practices.

Until the latest University Act (LOE) came into force, only a few of the Autonomous Com‐ munities had included entrepreneurship education in their curricula as an elective subject. The pioneers in this sense were Asturias, Navarre and Castile-Leon. Since the University Act was passed, it has gradually and systematically been introduced into the curricula of all the Autonomous Communities, particularly in Vocational education (Ciclos Formativos and

Among the activities included in Table 2, sometimes the initiatives came from the schools themselves, which sought out different organizations and agencies (e.g. Chambers of Com‐

Empresa joven educativa 2004 Compulsory

**Table 2.** Entrepreneurship Education Projects in Spain's Autonomous Communities

Sensibilización 2008 Vocational 30 schools, 3000 students

Concurso ideas de negocio 2004 Vocational 104 ideas presented

Vocational

Secondary, Upper Secondary

Vocational, Upper Secondary

Secondary, Vocational

40 schools, 5430 students

13 cooperatives, 165

students

Navarre Empresa Joven Europea Compulsory Secondary

Concurso Jóvenes Emprendedores

emprendedores

Rioja Olimpiada de

**3. Discussion**

Formación Profesional).

Basque Country Hasi eta hazi primaria 2007 Primary

The programmes and projects mentioned here are the result of efforts made by individuals, educators, non-profit organizations and policy-makers to improve the outlook of the educa‐ tional system in Spain and to open up vital prospects for students facing an ever more competitive labour market. Some projects have not been included because they are only in the very early stages, and there may be others that we were unable to detect, but all in all this is a fairly good sampling of the programmes and activities taking place and as a first approach to entrepreneurship education in Spain.

In all, there is a good number of both curricular and extracurricular activities in all of Spain's Autonomous communities, even though in a few cases they are a matter of initiatives linked to regional strategies for fostering an enterprising culture, most of which are isolated actions that would require more scope, systematization and support in the future. With a few exceptions in which the different regional ministries involved (usually those of Education, Industry and Economy) cooperate and channel their effort through an agency charged with implementing all the entrepreneurship education activities (Asturias with *Valnalón*, Andalusia with the *Fundación Red Andalucía Emprende*, the *Gabinete de Iniciativa Joven* in Extremadura, or in the Basque country with *Tknika*), there is usually scarce coordination and cooperation among the different regional ministries with responsibilities in this matter.

One reason for this lack of coordination is that entrepreneurship education requires a multi‐ disciplinary and cross-sectional approach that leaves it without a consolidated identity. We could say that it has an "image problem" that makes it a subject matter that is difficult to pin down, even in the areas of Education.

Until now one of the best practices observed is that of creating a public entity governed by private law (the case of *Valnalón*) which brings together financing and knowledge from the competent regional ministries and which acts as a valid interlocutor for municipalities and schools to collaborate in the implementation of activities that should be deployed at the different levels of local administrations. In several Autonomous Communities with more than one province this kind of activity is sometimes promoted by the town councils.

It has also been observed that in places where the actions taken by the regional ministries responsible have not yet been developed adequately, initiatives come into play from Chambers of Commerce, Young Entrepreneurs Associations (YEA), and the European Business and Innovation Centre Network (EBN). Often it is the schools themselves that directly look to these entities, as well as other private ones such as Junior Achievement, when seeking an educational offer of this type. And what on occasion is specific cooperation can sometimes turn into full collaboration, involving the institutional authorities and achieving a consistent programming of educational activities.

In the Autonomous Communities in which the collaboration between the regional ministries is optimal, the Chambers of Commerce, YEA and EBN do not usually address their training programmes to non-university students owing to a lack of demand. However, they do support entrepreneurs who wish to set up a business regardless of their age, such that any student seeking help and guidance to implement a business project will find it even though there are no programmed activities addressed to students as such.

In addition, it was found that not enough information is being shared horizontally (among schools or among Autonomous Communities) in relation to existing experiences in matters of entrepreneurship education; there is no centralizing agency to disseminate the best practices or encourage cooperation among the Autonomous Communities in this area.

This information deficit could be approached through a system that evaluates the outcomes of the educational system. Likewise, best practices could be reported and exchanged through the organization of forums or periodical seminars among those responsible for the areas of education and industry in the different Autonomous Communities. This type of forum could also be promoted or fostered jointly from the Ministries of Industry and of Education. Recall that political commitments were made, including the evaluation of the progress made by member States in entrepreneurship education, as a the result of the 2006 Oslo Agenda, as well as other EU documents.

In regard to the dissemination of information, the impulse in horizontal information about experiences in entrepreneurship education has come from *Valnalón* in Asturias, which has taken the initiative on numerous occasions to transfer their educational project to other Autonomous Communities. This has meant that their own programmes (EME, EJE, JES, etc.) can be found in other Autonomous Communities (Andalusia, Canary Islands, Extremadura, Navarre and the Basque Country) where they have been successfully applied. The DG for SMEs has also contributed to making known these and other best practices in European and national contexts.

Another positive aspect to be highlighted in this review is the creation of entrepreneurship "seedbeds" in schools, in EBNs, and exceptionally in some Chambers of Commerce (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria). The seedbeds are one of the best ways to bring the business world together with education. They not only play an important role as a vehicle for the "demon‐ stration effect" but also a follow-up can be made of the businesses created within them, facilitating assessment of the activities carried out according to their business performance, especially in the context of vocational training.

There are indications that point to these seedbeds as a great success in regard to student participation (especially in vocational training), because students can experience first-hand the creation of an enterprise, and find support from their tutors for launching it if the prospects for success are favourable. The economic success obtained by many of these companies serves to encourage other students to follow their example and put aside their fears about creating an enterprise, not to mention the economic benefit it provides for the region.

The itinerary for entrepreneurship education should begin in Early Childhood and Primary Education, and culminate in an entrepreneurial seedbed, where students who so desire can launch a business project and count on the necessary support until the enterprise has reached maturity. Entrepreneurial seedbeds exist in all of Spain's Autonomous Communities, although not all of them are linked to the educational system. The experience of *Tknika* and the *Urratsbat* program in the Basque Country, where companies started from seedbeds have been followed up since 2007, found that 136 of these enterprises are not only still in business but in 2007 had a turnover worth €5,000,000. This experience shows the profitability that can come from institutional investment in entrepreneurship education, and the production and employment that can result from these companies born of entrepreneurial seedbeds.

In short, the ability to launch entrepreneurial projects has gradually been gaining much deserved prominence in recent years, both on the national and international economic agendas, for two reasons: on one hand, owing to its vital importance in fostering the compet‐ itiveness of human capital, and therefore the productive fabric of the country, and on the other, because of its ability to create employment. Enterprises not only create employment but also social stability, and therefore entrepreneurship should be stimulated from all possible angles if we wish to fight unemployment and generate wealth in a modern economy. It is well known that enterprising individuals tend to perceive market opportunities in their environment that they can develop successfully where others may see only risk.

Thus, given the context of the globalized knowledge economy we find ourselves immersed in, it seems logical to enrich its field of action for the benefit of all. The attitude we take towards entrepreneurship education will have a large impact on economic growth in Spain, because it promotes both individual creativity and economic dynamism. The creation of new enterprises, the commercialization of new ideas and innovation are essential for the economy.

It is therefore necessary to coordinate the financial and personal efforts of the different Administrations involved; they in turn must also improve communication and structures among themselves with periodic meetings and/or specialized publications. It is also necessary to devote greater effort to motivating, training and rewarding teachers and schools, because the specification of the curriculum and the inclusion of this type of subject matter in the school's educational project depends on the will of the teaching staff. Teachers should therefore be the first objective of entrepreneurship education because they really are the first and most important link in the educational chain.

## **Author details**

collaboration, involving the institutional authorities and achieving a consistent programming

In the Autonomous Communities in which the collaboration between the regional ministries is optimal, the Chambers of Commerce, YEA and EBN do not usually address their training programmes to non-university students owing to a lack of demand. However, they do support entrepreneurs who wish to set up a business regardless of their age, such that any student seeking help and guidance to implement a business project will find it even though there are

In addition, it was found that not enough information is being shared horizontally (among schools or among Autonomous Communities) in relation to existing experiences in matters of entrepreneurship education; there is no centralizing agency to disseminate the best practices

This information deficit could be approached through a system that evaluates the outcomes of the educational system. Likewise, best practices could be reported and exchanged through the organization of forums or periodical seminars among those responsible for the areas of education and industry in the different Autonomous Communities. This type of forum could also be promoted or fostered jointly from the Ministries of Industry and of Education. Recall that political commitments were made, including the evaluation of the progress made by member States in entrepreneurship education, as a the result of the 2006 Oslo Agenda, as well

In regard to the dissemination of information, the impulse in horizontal information about experiences in entrepreneurship education has come from *Valnalón* in Asturias, which has taken the initiative on numerous occasions to transfer their educational project to other Autonomous Communities. This has meant that their own programmes (EME, EJE, JES, etc.) can be found in other Autonomous Communities (Andalusia, Canary Islands, Extremadura, Navarre and the Basque Country) where they have been successfully applied. The DG for SMEs has also contributed to making known these and other best practices in European and

Another positive aspect to be highlighted in this review is the creation of entrepreneurship "seedbeds" in schools, in EBNs, and exceptionally in some Chambers of Commerce (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria). The seedbeds are one of the best ways to bring the business world together with education. They not only play an important role as a vehicle for the "demon‐ stration effect" but also a follow-up can be made of the businesses created within them, facilitating assessment of the activities carried out according to their business performance,

There are indications that point to these seedbeds as a great success in regard to student participation (especially in vocational training), because students can experience first-hand the creation of an enterprise, and find support from their tutors for launching it if the prospects for success are favourable. The economic success obtained by many of these companies serves to encourage other students to follow their example and put aside their fears about creating

an enterprise, not to mention the economic benefit it provides for the region.

or encourage cooperation among the Autonomous Communities in this area.

of educational activities.

54 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

as other EU documents.

national contexts.

especially in the context of vocational training.

no programmed activities addressed to students as such.

José C. Sánchez-García\* and Brizeida Hernández-Sánchez

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Chair of Entrepreneurship, Salamanca University, Salamanca, Spain

## **References**

[15] European Commission. Enterprise and Industry. Entrepreneurship. http://ec.euro‐ pa.eu/enterprise/entrepreneurship/support\_measures/training\_education/mini‐ comp.htm (accesed 6 February 2015)

**References**

56 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

*ricula and Learning Outcomes*

*nal, (7*), 239-254

February 2015)

ruary 2015)

[1] Sánchez, J.C., Aldana R., & Hernández B.R. (2013) Activities and programs of entre‐ preneurship education in Spain. *American Journal of Entrepreneurship, 6(2)*, 73-93.

[2] Eurodyce (2012). *Entrepreneurship education at school in Europe: National Strategies, Cur‐*

[3] Dirección General de Política de la Pequeña y Mediana Empresa (2010). *El fomento de*

[4] Sánchez, J.C. (2011). University training for entrepreneurial competencies: Its impact on intention of venture creation. *International Entrepreneurship and Management Jour‐*

[5] Sánchez, J.C. (2013) The Impact of an Entrepreneurship Education Program on Entre‐ preneurial Competencies and Intention. *Journal of Small Business Management, 447-465*

[6] Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. GEM. http://www.gemconsortium.org (accesed 9

[7] European Commission.Enterprise and Industry. http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/entre‐

[8] European Council. Council of the European Union. Presidency Conclusions. Lisbon European Council. http://consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms\_Data/docs/

[9] European Commission. Enterprise and Industry. Industrial competitiveness. http:// ec.europa.eu/enterprise/enterprise\_policy/charter/docs/charter\_es.pdf (accesed 5 Feb‐

[10] Direction Generale de Entreprises. DGE. http://www.industrie.gouv.fr/pratique/

[11] European Commission. Enterprise and Industry. Industrial Policy communication.

[12] European Council. Council of the European Union. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ uedocs/cms\_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/104692.pdf (accesed 5 February 2015)

[13] European Commission. Enterprise and Industry. Industrial Policy communication http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/entrepreneurship/support\_measures/training\_educa‐

[14] European Commission. Enterprise and Industry. Industrial Policy communication. Training Education. http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/entrepreneurship/support\_meas‐

ures/training\_education/primsecedu.htm (accesed 6 February 2015)

http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/enterprise\_policy/mult\_entr\_programme/

*la iniciativa emprendedora en el sistema educativo en España. Madrid*

preneurship/training\_en.htm (accesed 6 February 2015)

format/colloq/sp\_coll-es.htm (accesed 5 February 2015)

programme\_2001\_2005.htm (accesed 5 February 2015)

tion/archives.htm (accesed 5 February 2015).

pressData/en/ec/00100-r1.en0.htm (accesed 5 February 2015)

**Experiences in Entrepreneurship Education**


*3.2. Environmental Impact*

In FIDELIO, the monetary value of energy that is consumed by firms and households is linked to energy consumption and is then used to compute emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) related to energy production and consumption (see [23] for a description of the conversion factors from primary energy consumption to emissions). To describe the environmental impact of the proposed stricter energy efficiency requirements, we look at the variation of GHG emissions. In particular, for a synthetic measure of the GHG effect, the emissions are converted into CO2-equivalent units while using the Global Warming Potential (GWP), as in [34]. Conversion factors are 1 for CO2, 265 for N2O and 28 for CH4.

The emissions increase is, in absolute terms, smaller than the emission reduction that is driven by stricter energy efficiency requirements (as expected), and the net effect is a decrease in GHG emissions equal to 1.5 million tonnes. This reduction is driven by the industry producing electricity that is responsible for the 70% of the total reduction, followed by mining and quarrying (15%), sewerage and waste collection and treatment (10%), and the manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products (3%).

Figure 3 shows the industries that are responsible for the resulting increase in emissions and those industries that are responsible for emission reductions.

The three main industries showing the biggest shares of emission increases are the agriculture industry, the manufacture of food and beverages, and accommodation services. Together, they would cause GHG emissions to increase in around half a million tonnes, out of which 95% would correspond to the agriculture industry. This effect might be considered as rebound effects, a reduction in the expected environmental gains of the regulation caused by behavioral responses.

Figure 4 shows the distribution of emissions decrease among EU countries. Germany, Poland, and the United Kingdom are responsible of half of the total reduction of GHG emissions that are caused by the proposed stricter energy efficiency requirements on dishwashers, washing machines, and washer dryers.

**Figure 4.** Distribution of CO2-equivalent emissions decrease among EU countries (unit: percentage).


**6. Conclusions**

In the calibration test, the pressure applied to the measuring ring by the rubber collar imitates the load caused by the shrinkage of concrete. Measurement of the air pressure with the digital manometer determines the graph of the circumferential strain–radial stress function. The calibration test additionally eliminates the error caused by the geometry and elastic modulus of the material. Pneumatic calibration allows compensating for errors due to improper strain gauge installation by the application of a test-determined calibration coefficient, which translates registered strains into calibrated circumferential strains closely aligned to theoretical values.

The calibration procedure allowed for simuntanous strain measurements under given stress for all rings of the test bench. Acquired calibration functions are used to calculate the mean values of the results, which can be used in further studies. Calibrated strains help determine the stresses occurring at the moment of cracking of concrete ring samples using a standard rigid measuring ring. This enables the classification of concrete's susceptibility to cracking.

Short-term and long-term tests confirm the effectiveness of calibration to correctly interpret the test results on concrete susceptibility to cracking using restrictive rings. The applied calibration method extends the scope of tests with the correct analysis of the average deformability of steel rings and determination of the value of tensile stress in concrete at a given level of steel ring deformation.

In the future, it is planned to carry out research on the impact of the percentage of mineral additives on the time of cracking of concrete ring samples caused by the effect of autogenous shrinkage.