**1. Introduction**

In 2017, the transportation sector accounted for 28.9% of the total energy consumption in South Korea [1]. Due to a heavy reliance on petroleum products, the transportation sector was the most CO2-emitting sector among all end-use sectors in the country [2]. The South Korean government has implemented various policies for reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector. Since the road sector accounted for 79.7% of the total transportation energy consumption in 2017, excluding that of bunkering [3], many policies focus on the road sector in South Korea. As many countries have adopted the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards, South Korea also implemented CAFE standards in 2008. However, CAFE standards only deal with a tank-to-wheels analysis which is a part of a comprehensive analysis of vehicle energy use and emissions [4], thus restricting the annual average fuel economy (km/L) or greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (g/km) of automobiles for automakers. To facilitate automakers in selling fuel-efficient cars and satisfying CAFE standards, there is a credit system in the CAFE standards in South Korea. According to this credit system, a sale of one fuel-efficient car can earn multiple credits. For example, the sale of one battery electric vehicle (BEV) is counted as three car sales by calculating the annual average fuel efficiency performance and annual average GHG emission performance. Even the sale of one gasoline vehicle which has a fuel efficiency of more than 23.4 km/L is counted as two car sales. It is worth introducing the U.S. CAFE standards here in which automakers are able to trade credits [5]. For instance, an automaker with a CAFE performance lower than what is required can opt to buy some credits in the credit market (that is, from other automakers). This flexibility in the U.S. CAFE standards allows automakers to lower costs for achieving CAFE standards. U.S. CAFE standards are calculated based on the wheelbase (length) and footprint (area) [6], causing larger cars to be less affected than smaller cars, while the South Korea CAFE standards consider a vehicle's curb weight.

Fuels emit GHG emissions through their life cycle—well-to-wheels process (WtW)—which can be disaggregated into well-to-tank (WtT) (extraction, refining, and transportation) and tank-to-wheels (TtW) (combustion). CAFE standards regulate only TtW emissions. The results of Khan et al.'s [7] WtW study in Pakistan show that TtW emissions accounted for 73–86% of the life cycle of GHG emissions for internal combustion vehicles (ICEVs). Song et al.'s [8] WtW study in Macau showed that for a gasoline vehicle, TtW emissions accounted for 87% of its life-cycle GHG emissions. Jang and Song's [9] WtW study in South Korea showed that TtW emissions accounted for 82.8% and 83.4% of the life cycle GHG emissions for gasoline and diesel vehicles, respectively. Previous studies have found that TtW GHG emissions are a major contributor to life-cycle GHG emissions. Hence, this study focuses on an analysis of TtW GHG emissions and assesses CAFE standards in South Korea using the Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM) with a sensitivity analysis.

#### **2. Current Status of Passenger Cars in South Korea**

As shown in Figure 1, the total number of cars in South Korea has increased rapidly. This increase has primarily been led by sales of passenger cars. Over the last ten years, the number of passenger cars and trucks has increased by 47.2% and 13.5%, with a current total of 19.17 million passenger cars and 3.59 million trucks, while vans sales decreased by 24.9% with a total of 0.81 million vans in 2019. That is, passenger cars will be a crucial target for reducing transportation energy consumption and GHG emissions in the road sector.

**Figure 1.** Number of cars in South Korea.

Figure 2 shows historical trends of the share of passenger cars by engine size and average energy intensity (EI). During 2000–2019, the share of large-sized passenger cars (more than 2000 cc) noticeably increased from 8.6% to 28.5%, while the percentage of small-sized passenger cars (1000 cc~1600 cc) sharply decreased from 49.3% to 21.2%. Considering that the energy intensity of large-sized cars is usually higher than that of small-sized cars [10], this shift in consumer preferences for large-sized cars must have had a negative impact on the overall energy intensity of passenger cars. The increase in average energy intensity from 2.71 MJ/km to 3.37 MJ/km during 2001–2016 (Figure 2) provides empirical evidence of such an impact.

**Figure 2.** Share of passenger cars by engine size and weighted average energy intensity (EI) (source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport [11], Korea Transport Institute [12], Korea Energy Economics Institute [13]). Note: MOLIT [11] changed the statistical classification of passenger cars in 2009.

While the shift in consumer preferences for large-sized passenger cars tends to increase energy intensity, the promotion of energy-efficient cars such as BEVs and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) could lower passenger cars' energy intensity. South Korea has implemented various policies for promoting BEVs, for example, providing a subsidy for buying a BEV. As a result of this policy, for the transportation sector, BEVs' market share in South Korea increased from 0.05% to 1.95% during 2013–2018 (Figure 3). Even though the number of BEVs in 2018 was small, it is expected that BEVs can be a primary technology for improving energy intensity in the transportation sector in the near future.

**Figure 3.** Market share of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) (source: International Energy Agency [14]). Note: Market share means share of new BEV registrations as a percentage of total new passenger car registrations.


**Abstract**

Climate is changing in an accelerating pace. Climate change occurs as a result of an imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiation in the atmosphere. The global mean temperatures may increase up to 5.4°C by 2100. Climate change is mainly caused by humans, especially through increased greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change is recognized as a serious threat to ecosystem, biodiversity, and health. It is associated with alterations in the physical environment of the planet Earth. Climate change affects life around the globe. It impacts plants and animals, with consequences for the survival of the species. In humans, climate change has multiple deleterious consequences. Climate change creates water and food insecurity, increased morbidity/mortality, and population movement. Vulnerable populations (e.g., children, elderly, indigenous, and poor) are disproportionately affected. Personalized adaptation to the consequences of climate change and preventive measures are key challenges for the society. Policymakers must implement the appropriate strategies, especially in the vulnerable populations.

 Introduction**

Climate change has always happened on Earth but its rapid rate and important magnitude occurring now are of great concern. Climate change occurs as a result of an imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiation in the atmosphere. The global warming associated with climate change is different from past warming in its rate. It is anticipated that there will be a rise in global mean temperatures of up to 5.4°C by 2100. There is overwhelming evidence showing that human activities have contributed to climate change over the past century while changes in solar activity and volcanic eruptions have played a minor role. Over the last several decades, humans have engaged in large-scale transformation of natural systems causing a net accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere [1–5].

Climate change is recognized as a serious threat to ecosystem, biodiversity, and health. It is associated with alterations in the physical environment of the planet Earth and affects life around the globe [1–37].

Adaptation to the consequences of climate change and prevention of aggravation of climate change are key challenges for the society. Policymakers must implement personalized strategies, especially in the vulnerable populations [1, 2, 5, 30–32, 35–37].

### **2. Climate**

Climate, from Ancient Greek "klima" (meaning inclination), is defined as the weather averaged over a long period (the standard period is 30 years).

The instrumental record of climate change is based on thousands of temperature and precipitation recording stations around the world.

### **3. Climate change versus global warming**

Climate change and global warming are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings and refer to different physical phenomena. Climate change includes warming and side effects of warming (e.g., heavy precipitation and increased wind speeds) while global warming refers only to long-term Earth's rising global mean surface temperature.

#### **4. Climate change causes**

Climate change occurs as a result of an imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiation in the atmosphere. The increase in heat-trapping greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere raises Earth's mean surface temperature. The levels of greenhouse gases are higher now than at any time in the last 800,000 years. As temperature increases, more water evaporates from the oceans and other water sources into the atmosphere, causing further increase of the temperature [1–5].

Atmospheric carbon dioxide comes from two primary sources, natural and anthropogenic (human-induced). Natural sources of carbon dioxide include most animals which exhale carbon dioxide as a waste product. Anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide have been primarily driven by human activities since the early 20th century (industrial revolution), mainly fossil fuel burning (e.g., burning coal, oil, and natural gas), but also agricultural emissions and deforestation. The top 5 countries responsible for emissions of carbon dioxide are China, United States of America (USA), India, Russia, and Japan [4]. In 2017, the USA emitted approximately 5.1 billion metric tons of energy-related carbon dioxide for a global worldwide emission of approximately 32.5 billion metric tons. Deforestation of the Amazon in Brazil (loss of the equivalent of almost one million soccer fields of forest cover each year), mainly for agricultural purposes, is significantly contributing to climate change.

#### **5. Climate change consequences**

Climate change causes a cascade of side effects for the physical environment of the planet Earth and the living organisms on the globe (**Figure 1**). All the changes in the physical planet Earth's environment affect the life of plants, animals, and humans. Coral reefs, forests, and coastal human communities are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Some of the effects of climate change may be through the enhancement of the susceptibility to chemical pollution [1–37].

Although most impacts of climate change are likely to be adverse, some health benefits may result in some regions. For example, warmer winters may reduce the number of temperature-related health events and death.

**201**

*Impact of Climate Change on Life*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94538*

**5.1 Physical planet Earth's environment**

*Climate change causes global changes of the planet.*

(interglacial), on 100,000-year cycles.

tures of 0.9 to 5.4°C by 2100 [4].

solar nebula [38].

**Figure 1.**

*5.1.1 Temperature*

disasters [1, 4, 6–13, 19].

According to the core accretion theory, planet Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago (approximately one-third the age of the universe) by accretion from the

Planet Earth has faced climate change throughout its long history. The current climate change has multiple negative impacts on the physical planet Earth's environment. It affects the frequency and severity of extreme events and natural

Temperature records from modern thermometers (with temperature scales) have been available only since early 18th century. By studying indirect parameters (chemical and structural signatures), scientists can infer past temperatures.

At the creation of the universe, the temperature of the universe at 10−35 second old was around 1 octillion°C. Within less than 2 minutes, the universe temperature cooled down to around 1 billion°C. Over at least the last several million years, planet Earth shifted between ice ages facing long cold periods (glacial) and warm periods

The current climate change is associated with increased Earth's temperature (land surfaces and upper layers of the ocean) (**Figure 2**) [1, 4]. Land surfaces are heating faster than ocean surfaces. A warmer atmosphere can hold more water vapor, leading to increased overall average precipitation [4]. Over the past 70 years, the Earth's temperature has increased by approximately 0.7°C [4]. Since 1950, the number of cold days and nights has decreased while the number of warm days and nights has increased. Since 1976, the rate of warming has been greater than at any other time during the last 1,000 years. For any given period, there are extreme temperatures. In the past 20 years, Earth's lowest air temperature was −94.7°C (recorded in Antarctica in 2010) and hottest air temperature was 70.7°C (recorded in Iran's Lut Desert in 2005). The present global mean temperature is around 15.0°C. Currently, the surface temperatures are rising by approximately 0.2°C per decade [6]. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and based on different emissions scenarios, there will be a rise in global mean tempera*Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development*

Climate, from Ancient Greek "klima" (meaning inclination), is defined as the

Climate change and global warming are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings and refer to different physical phenomena. Climate change includes warming and side effects of warming (e.g., heavy precipitation and

increased wind speeds) while global warming refers only to long-term Earth's rising

Climate change occurs as a result of an imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiation in the atmosphere. The increase in heat-trapping greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere raises Earth's mean surface temperature. The levels of greenhouse gases are higher now than at any time in the last 800,000 years. As temperature increases, more water evaporates from the oceans and other water sources into the atmosphere, causing further

Atmospheric carbon dioxide comes from two primary sources, natural and anthropogenic (human-induced). Natural sources of carbon dioxide include most animals which exhale carbon dioxide as a waste product. Anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide have been primarily driven by human activities since the early 20th century (industrial revolution), mainly fossil fuel burning (e.g., burning coal, oil, and natural gas), but also agricultural emissions and deforestation. The top 5 countries responsible for emissions of carbon dioxide are China, United States of America (USA), India, Russia, and Japan [4]. In 2017, the USA emitted approximately 5.1 billion metric tons of energy-related carbon dioxide for a global worldwide emission of approximately 32.5 billion metric tons. Deforestation of the Amazon in Brazil (loss of the equivalent of almost one million soccer fields of forest cover each year), mainly for agricultural purposes, is significantly contributing to

Climate change causes a cascade of side effects for the physical environment of the planet Earth and the living organisms on the globe (**Figure 1**). All the changes in the physical planet Earth's environment affect the life of plants, animals, and humans. Coral reefs, forests, and coastal human communities are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Some of the effects of climate change may be through

Although most impacts of climate change are likely to be adverse, some health benefits may result in some regions. For example, warmer winters may reduce the

the enhancement of the susceptibility to chemical pollution [1–37].

number of temperature-related health events and death.

The instrumental record of climate change is based on thousands of temperature

weather averaged over a long period (the standard period is 30 years).

and precipitation recording stations around the world.

**3. Climate change versus global warming**

global mean surface temperature.

increase of the temperature [1–5].

**5. Climate change consequences**

**4. Climate change causes**

**2. Climate**

**200**

climate change.

#### **Figure 1.** *Climate change causes global changes of the planet.*


*Article* **Exploring Cognitive Dissonance on a Ski Mountaineering Traverse: A Personal Narrative of an Expedition to ISHINCA (5530 m) in PERU**

#### **Melissa Hart**

Carnegie School of Education, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds LS6 3QS, UK<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Received: 27 March 2019; Accepted: 27 November 2019; Published: 11 December 2019

**Abstract:** Through a personal narrative account, this paper explores the nature of the author's cognitive dissonance experienced during a traverse of a high-altitude ski mountaineering objective (Nevado Ishinca 5530 m) in Peru's Cordillera Blanca. The author experienced psychological discomfort in the ascent and a role of self in determining a continued commitment with the ski mountaineering challenge. Distraction, trivialization, act rationalization and finally attitude change were all used in attempt to reduce negative levels of cognitive dissonance. The lack of consonant cognitions to support abandoning the climb, the notion of free choice, the role of self-concept and self-esteem values motivated continued commitment until the negative levels of arousal subsided. Through a challenging mountaineering experience, I developed a greater self-awareness of the role of commitment to an objective which could be applied to other life events and experiences.

**Keywords:** cognitive dissonance; strategies of dissonance reduction; characteristics of dissonance arousal and modes of reduction; consonant cognitions; attitude and behaviour change; autophenomenology

#### **1. Introduction**

High motivation, commitment and effort are required to achieve a mountaineering objective [1–6]. However, investigation into the process of continued engagement with, and maintenance of commitment to, a mountaineering objective is less widely investigated. In analysis of mountaineering autobiographies, the role of cognitive dissonance is considered in the construction of self and retrospective self-justifications for actions or decisions made whilst climbing mountains. Cognitive dissonance is experienced by a person when they have internal mental inconsistency of beliefs, values, goals or knowledge about the world [7]. As a result of the inconsistent nature of two or more pieces of related knowledge a person holds, individuals suffer from a form of mental discomfort or negative arousal. However, it is not clear how and why this is the case [7]. In order to rectify mental discomfort experienced as a result knowledge inconsistency, a person is motivated to make changes [7] to either justify a set of thoughts or actions or avoid situations that increase levels of discomfort. Broadly changes are therefore either attitudinal [8,9] or behavioural. In some previous studies the level of dissonance experienced is claimed to determine whether an attitude or behaviour change is likely [9]. However, it is difficult to consider mental and behavioural changes as separate or distinct as they are inextricably linked and form part of one another within a person. In addition, complex motivational and emotional traits influence decision making in the process of dissonance reduction suggesting it is not just a case of attitudinal or behavioural change [10].

Whilst most studies agree that the motivation for dissonance reduction is directly proportional to the level of discomfort experienced [11], 'no research has unambiguously demonstrated the direction of this motivation—whether it is approach or avoidance orientated' ([12], p. 1) Therefore, an action-based model of dissonance was proposed [13] 'perceptions and cognitions can serve as action tendencies' and decisions are made according to an approach-related process, so that thoughts are brought in line with goal-directed behaviours ([13], p. 36). However paradoxically, effective action can be interrupted by inconsistent cognitions, suggesting that sometimes thoughts cannot be brought into line with goal-directed behaviours [13]. In addition, the action-based model [14] is aligned to work on behavioural commitment [15], suggesting that people are approach-motivated to behave congruently (in actions and mindset) to a given commitment or goal and that this then reduces levels of dissonance. However, this does assume all people, in all contexts, would desire a reduction in dissonance.

The motivation to think or act differently may persist to reduce the levels discomfort associated with cognitive dissonance but the strategy of change is also important in understanding the process. There are several possible mental and behavioural approaches or strategies (in action or mindset) that could be used to reduce cognitive dissonance. Two reviews of other studies on dissonance [10,11] determine the types of strategies that may be adopted in cognitive dissonance reduction. These cognitive dissonance reducing strategies can be seen in the model in Figure 1.

**Figure 1.** Dissonance reducing strategies.

Research in dissonance reducing strategies has focused on attitude change [8,9] and behaviour change [16,17], but neither considers the use of multi-strategies [11]. In addition, the simple strategies of distraction or forgetting [18] may be more efficient than attitude change [11], and trivializing the dissonant cognition though increasing salient values or self-affirmation [19] may reduce dissonant cognitions. However, if responsibility is needed for dissonance to develop [11], then a denial of responsibility [20] can be more effective than trivialization for reducing negative sensations. From a behaviour perspective, rationalizing inconsistent behaviour by adding consonant cognitions that support continued behaviour [21,22], or choosing action that is closer to the aspiring behaviour in a form of act rationalization [15], can reduce dissonance. However, the choice of strategy to reduce dissonance is difficult to predict [23], and there are limited studies into the state of emotional dissonance as opposed to the process of reduction and the role of attitude importance and trivialization [10,11,14,17,24]. Therefore, more contextually based study is required.

Based on other studies [11], some characteristics of dissonance arousal and the mode of reduction proposed may help to predict and analyse the process of dissonance reduction. Firstly, the magnitude of experienced dissonance is important in determining the nature of the mental or behavioural response, as well as secondly whether the dissonant inducting scenario it is freely chosen or requires compliance and finally the associated effort involved for completion [7,10,24]. In addition, the availability of a possible mode of dissonance reduction [11], and secondly the likelihood of success in achieving dissonance reduction [7], are factors affecting people's choice of strategy. But none of the studies explain how individuals determine the effort required for dissonance reduction nor the chance of success. The effort required [7,9] can also limit possible change in attitude [8,9] or behaviour [16,17]. If the current behaviour is satisfying [7] then habits formed over a long period of time can be resistant to change [25]. 'Studies have yet to compare how these paradigms potentially differ in (a) the level of dissonance magnitude aroused and (b) the selection of dissonance reduction modes' [11:11], hence the need for further contextual studies. In addition, the impact of the affective emotional state of the individual [26] and whether it is a reoccurring level of discomfort [27] and the nature of the context [23] in which dissonance occurs, may influence the adoption of a mode of reduction [11].

#### **2. Background**

In 2018, following two winters living and skiing in the French Alps, I decided to travel to and complete a ski mountaineering expedition to the Cordillera Blanca, Peru with one climbing partner. The Cordillera Blanca is the most western part of the Peruvian Andes, north of the Peruvian Capital Lima. One of our ski mountaineering objectives was Nevado Ishinca (5530 m). Climbing Ishinca involves a day's trek to its respective base camp. We used an Arriero (a person who transports goods using animals) and his two donkeys to carry our equipment to the basecamp. After at least a day of rest and a reconnaissance along the start of the route, an early start of 01:00 for Nevado Ishnica was required. A traverse of Ishinca was completed in 13 h. During the initial part of the ascent, I experienced periods of cognitive dissonance in starting and continuing with the climb. It is this initial commitment to the objective which is of interest as opposed to whether the summit was achieved. The strategies of dissonance reduction adopted along with the nature of dissonance arousal and modes of reduction are explored in this study.

#### **3. Methodology**

This broadly phenomenological [28] study uses autobiographical memory [29] to construct narratives (presented as vignettes) to explore a personal experience of cognitive dissonance and associated strategies of reduction in a specific ski mountaineering context. Not surprisingly, autobiographical memories have previously been used in analysis of high-altitude mountaineering studies or other outdoor activities to analyse actions and decision making, relationships with risk and other related psychological, social or environmental elements [1,5,6,30–34]. However, many of these examples involve analyses of others, as opposed to personal, experiences. Whilst readers may make some inherent comparison with other mountaineering stories, primarily I do not aim to situate personal experiences ethnographically within a culture of mountaineers. Instead these 'recollections of specific, personal events' ([35], p. 17) and the associated cognitive dissonance experienced are used by those that they pertain to in meaning making and construction of self [36], to understand acceptance of, and commitment to, experiences as they unfold. The context of a ski mountaineering experience stands as a metaphor for challenging life events and the successful completion of the objective is not important in the study. Hence, the research is autophenomenographical [37] in that it studies the phenomena of cognitive dissonance and associated strategies of reduction of the author as first participant rather than a cultural place or group, but with the added benefit of an understanding of cultural norms. It 'is the study of the lived experience from the unique position of the individual that is engaged in the experience' ([37], p. 3).

Two important phenomenological properties of autobiographical memory are 'the sense of recollection and the belief that autobiographical memories are accurate', both of which are heightened the more vivid the visual imagery in the remembered event ([38], pp. 79–80). There is high visual imagery in these autobiographical memories which also refer to specific places, times and events.

However, they are also constructed within a discourse of other memories of similar events and life experiences, so memory boundaries and content are fluid. Whilst these autobiographical memories are long term, accessed from mental stores of information, they still involve significant assigned emotional and personal importance [35,39]. Emotions can change over time, through personal reflection [40], they can still exhibit stability over longer amounts of time [41] and this gives value for personal learning. In addition, as actor, agent and author [36], there are benefits of being able to see and feel the event as well as try to make sense of it that is not possible from the study of biographical accounts [42]. 'Our stories are left incomplete if we omit the metaphoric and symbolic codes we use in narrating our subjective and personal realities' ([43], p. 498). But this also means I am both a storyteller and a story analyst concurrently, as the narrative is constructed, the sequence and consequence offering an insight into my experiences [44] of cognitive dissonance in a specific ski mountaineering event. Informed consent was gained from my climbing partner to include their presence in my autobiographical memories. I used dissonance reduction strategies, characteristics of dissonance arousal and mode of reduction [11] as a framework for analysis.

#### **4. Narrative Findings and Discussion**

The negative psychological discomfort associated with cognitive dissonance [1], involves feelings of unease or tension [7,8,20]. However, there are few studies exploring the nature of dissonance arousal [1] or the characteristics of reduction [11]. In my ski mountaineering ascent of Ishinca (5530 m), I experienced a period of increasing cognitive dissonance before it abruptly dispersed. The greatest emotional discomfort was experienced in the first hour of the ascent after leaving the camp. However, prior to this the nature and magnitude of cognitive dissonance built as I prepared mentally and physically for the day ahead [7,10,24]:

*I wake to hear other climbers passing the tent. It is about midnight. They are reasonably quiet, but my sleep is light and disturbed due to the knowledge that I must get up soon. My mind is already disturbed. Our alarm is set for 1am. I hate these early starts.  It is as if starting is the greatest problem.*

'Fear of the unknown' is defined as 'an individual's propensity to experience fear caused by the perceived absence of information at any level of consciousness or point of processing' ([45], p. 39). Intolerance of that uncertainty [46] can create cognitive, emotional and behavioural reaction, suggesting that cognitive dissonance could also be created by a *lack* of one set of information as opposed to inconsistency between sets of information [7]. However, the first hour of the climb had been completed the previous day, as a reconnaissance to a lunch spot, before returning to camp. Therefore, the first part of the ascent was '*known*', even if the rest of the climb was not, further complicating analysis. A reaction to the cognitive dissonance might be to avoid the situation or ruminate [45], with a focus on both in this context. My attitude was focused around the uncertainty of what came next, the physical discomfort of lack of sleep, the context of an early start and venturing into the cold; attempting to accumulate cognitive reasons that would be consonant with not starting the climb [21,22,47]. Yet these consonant cognitions [21,22] were not salient enough in that moment to warrant abandoning the climb or even to voice concerns with my climbing partner.

My attitude was negative [10], which is a personal habit of recurring dissonance [25] in relation to mountain climbing objectives. Throughout all aspects of my life, I have regularly chosen to initiate new challenging objectives, but paradoxically I find committing to the actual start of some difficult to achieve. At the beginning of this ski mountaineering objective my level of cognitive dissonance was present but relatively low in magnitude [11], perhaps because I felt I was still able to make a choice about whether to commit [47]. I struggle with decision making in general, always wanting to keep options open or stop and think about it, and this manifests as greater cognitive dissonance in the mountaineering context given the requirement for immediacy of decisions. Within the simplicity of mountaineering context, the available choice of behaviour is often very limited—try to ascend or retreat, even if the nature of completing those actions is more complex. Paradoxically, therefore the limited choice of associated behaviour or available actions could create some greater levels of cognitive dissonance in my case, given my desire for lots of options. Yet the simplicity and adversity created by the mountaineering context does allow the opportunity to challenge self and transition through periods of cognitive dissonance which is often touted as a benefit for personal development and mental restoration [48]. Although, mental restoration had to wait as my cognitions were focused on mountain preparation in a somewhat anxious manner:

*I want to sleep as I need the rest before the huge physical e*ff*ort but it is limited in this situation as my mind is busy with checking and changing what has already been decided and considering every eventuality – have I packed the right equipment, what clothes will be best to wear, what will the ascent be like? I wonder how I was going to manage the ascent with ski boots on my feet and skis on my back. I think about the risk of falling somewhere on the climb, which has always been my main source of concern.*

The dissonant condition is greater when real-life consequences exist to counter attitudinal behaviour [49]. In that sense the behaviour of carrying on with the climb is potentially counter attitudinal to a sense of survival and gives specific focus for further rumination [45] about risk levels, equipment and clothing. However, in the reconnaissance to a lunch spot the day before, I did not experience any environments in which I might fall, so this contextual thought could be trivialized [19]. I also had some confidence from having met others at the base camp and on the mountain—so it felt safer in terms of support or possible rescue. In order to consider whether the level of route was compatible with my ability there was opportunity to examine the appearance and discourse of others' competence and compare it to my own [50] which proved favourable. So, whilst there were consonant cognitions [21,22] for not starting the climb, the magnitude of each was kept low and hence there was likelihood of successful motivating action [7]. I still had no salient nor valued consonant cognitions to provide me with reason to stop climbing, despite trying to find them, as further illuminated by the following narrative:

*I slowly and methodically get dressed. Once outside the tent I discover it was not too cold. [The temperature did not get very cold till just before dawn when you were on the brink of wondering if you could cope with it and then the sun came up.] My climbing partner already had the stove going—hissing its way towards boiling water for tea and rehydrating breakfast cereals. I consider refusing to go—but I have no reason. I am angry with myself which makes matters worse. I drink and eat in thoughtful silence and busy myself by putting the final equipment in my rucksack. We are o*ff*.*

My behaviour now mirrors my attitude to getting up and getting started in a slow procrastinating manner. I did not want to start the effort and was worried about potential risk I might encounter but none of these were salient enough justifications (consonant cognitions) for avoiding the climb [21,22] so any counter attitude was trivialized [19]. Deciding not to climb is the 'easier' physical choice, yet I do not make this easier choice, contrasting with the theory that the attitude [8,9] or behaviour adopted would be the one involving least effort to reduce dissonance [7]. Given my previous mountaineering experiences I had some tolerance to levels of cognitive dissonance [7] built through successful habits [25] of perseverance and resilience in these contexts. I knew I just needed to start. Therefore, I did not change behaviour [16,17] to match the attitude of not having to climb but aligned it to a more salient value, despite it giving me increased emotional discomfort [10]. The salient value for me is to persevere and the importance of this attitude [24] is great in the mountaineering context [2] but also secondly to reduce any negative emotional effects of *not* climbing.

I have implicit belief that whilst I do not want to start the climb, that any other behaviour would cause disappointment, regret and paradoxically resultant negative dissonance. Dissonance usually emerges when individuals perceive that they are free to engage in or refuse the counter-attitudinal

behaviour and feel responsible for the negative consequences of their behaviour [10]. In this sense the decision to ascend is one of free will giving a counter attitudinal behaviour to the one requiring least effort. Having a high level of choice means attitudes are more likely to be consistent with behaviour [12]. Therefore, I avoided the potential negative dissonance by *not climbing* through taking responsibility for myself and my actions, indicating both a level of self-awareness and perhaps self-accountability in behaviour and attitudinal response [9]. In this sense my cognitions and behaviour are compatible, yet the mental tension remains which seems to oppose the traditional thinking on cognitive dissonance [7] or imply that there is greater complexity in the number and magnitude of inconsistent cognitions and behaviours occurring in this context. The nature of the number and salient value of these inconsistent cognitions (involving conflict with self) and behaviour increased the levels of cognitive discomfort as the following narrative illustrates:

*The first hour was hard. I struggled to commit to and accept the objective, the action, the involvement. I knew it was about an hour to the place where we had had lunch the day before. This felt like a significant point in my mind, but I do not know why. I knew I had to just keep going to this place – literally one foot in front of the other. My head banged with the desire to stop, but not because I was finding it particularly hard work physically. I also did not really try to stop the thoughts but somewhat wallowed in the self-pity, and the perceived pain. I felt like an angry teenager, who could not explain or understand this sense of self. I was frustrated by my own thoughts and behaviour. But I could at least move my body forward at a consistent and even pace, although my head throbbed with negative black thoughts. I am not sure if my thoughts a*ff*ected the nature of my pace, but I just wanted to get to that lunch spot.*

It has been suggested that the magnitude of dissonance is related to the number of discrepant cognitions and the degree of importance of the cognitive elements [7,11,24]. Therefore, I was experiencing multiple inconsistent cognitions, they were of high importance, or both elements contributed to heightened negative arousal. This was our first ski mountaineering objective in Peru, which was less challenging in terms of height and difficulty of access and climb than other planned objectives. Yet I did not relish the easier challenge and perhaps put more cognitive pressure on myself to complete it successfully in order to boost self-affirmation [19]. In this sense the decision to ascend or retreat was further complicated by the resultant sense of self I would experience. It is therefore not just about committing to and accepting the objective but also about accepting self. As the level of emotional discomfort was so high, the magnitude of attitude change required was comparable [10] and so acted as a barrier to reducing the dissonance.

I attempted to strategically distract myself [18] and reduce the emotional discomfort associated with high levels of cognitive dissonance, through a form of 'act rationalization' [15]. I supported the conduct of physically moving, in order to create the most likely continued behaviour once past the lunch spot. I may have chosen *action* because similar actions have been successful in the past–a recurring habit which successfully reduced cognitive dissonance as a positive force, as opposed to a habit which is resistance to attitude change [25]. I find moving the body is something I can do when my mind is turbulent, especially if the action is simple and methodical. It is almost a release from the cognitive dissonance. It is meditative and calming. The repetition gives my body something to do, it occupies it, so I have space and time to think. I know I find swimming, running and walking all helpful in this manner. In addition, I acknowledge that the physical act was not as difficult as the mental act or attitude alignment. In that sense, the physical behaviour of starting the climb required the least effort so the counter attitudinal behaviour was not that negative after all [49]. Yet I experienced cognitive dissonance of extremely high magnitude at the time and theoretically responded by trying to reduce dissonance [10]. However, I experienced continued, if not increased dissonance, contrasting with dissonance theory [7], or showing a greater complexity to the process. It seemed that was sensed by my climbing partner:

*Maybe my climbing partner sensed my emotional discomfort, as he asked if I was ok. I did not need or want his questions and that made matters worse! I could not stop the thoughts or put them to rest (although I did not particularly try any mindful techniques or meditative exercises). It made me irritated that he thought I was not ok, although I did not actually know if this was what he was thinking. His questions made me think he questioned my strength, my ability to manage and achieve the goal. Did I question these things about myself? I tried to explain the struggle to him and the need to just keep going for now.*

Sometimes I consider mountaineering objectives to be the ambition of other climbers more than mine, perceiving a lack of free choice [47] and thereby inhibiting attitude alignment with behaviour. In addition, if I perceive a partners' ease with the objective, as I struggle with my inconsistent cognitions, the greater my emotional discomfort, 'your gain is my pain' [50]. If I perceive I am subjected to some climbing partners' assessment and critique, my emotional discomfort is further increased. And whilst I am struggling with my inconsistent cognitions, if I perceive their disappointment with me, in addition to my own, then my negative arousal escalates. Prosocial behaviour is correlated with comfort [49] and the increased social turmoil, even if it was just perceived by myself, contributed further to the magnitude of my cognitive dissonance, into feelings of anger, frustration and resentment.

However, anger and frustration can lead to increases in effort [26] which had a positive motivating effect in changing my attitude in this context [10]. Dissonance and motivation occur in the same brain zone and could explain the connection [12]. In this context, the cognitive dissonance contributed to an increased sense of stimulated alertness with a sense of associated increased energy which was paradoxically focused initially on further negative arousal rather than action. In addition, the heightened emotions and sense of arousal is a learned habit [25], making the goal physically and emotionally more rewarding if the cognitive dissonance is extreme and overcome. The high level of negative arousal in both personal and social aspects when combined with resilient action and the reaching of the previous lunch spot location led to a 'bursting' of tensions:

*Once we were at the lunch stop from the day before the pain, anger and struggle strangely subsided, it disappeared suddenly. The dark crushing thoughts lifted spontaneously. I could now accept the challenge and started the ascent properly. Why did I have to go through this process of resistance of fighting with myself? What a waste of energy. Why was the first part the climb the hardest to achieve or was it passing this known line that I had to do to start for real? I had to keep going until I surrendered to the moment. I did not resist the task at this point, I accepted it.*

Whilst self-concept or self-esteem may moderate dissonance processes, they may not cause dissonance [13]. Yet my sense of self was clearer, more motivated and self-esteem enhanced once I had arrived and passed the lunch spot, implying that whilst I had made the decision to physically move, I had not made the decision to emotionally commit to the climb until that point. 'Once the individual decides on a course of action or makes a behavioural commitment, it enhances the value of the chosen course of action and reduces the value of the rejected course of action' ([51], p. 36). Therefore, in contrast to some research [13] my attitude had to align to behaviour more than behaviour aligning to attitude, in order to create abrupt conflict resolution [52]. Viewing the course of action in a more positive manner will help the individual align action more effectively [51], which occurred here. The free choice paradigm in combination with act rationalization [15] processes emerged in a quick and almost automatic manner in this context [49]. However, I find it hard to explain why the lunch spot was key to the change in attitude and commitment to the climb, other than perhaps being the 'true' start to the unknown elements of the climb and any uncertainty induced fear [45]. The ski mountaineering objective did not start till we had moved beyond this location and it was where the negative arousal dispersed. Therefore, I would also argue that the nature of commitment and any associated action are fluid and not as simplistic as theoretical models [7,51] would suggest.

The original cognitive dissonance model [7] did not explain why cognitive discrepancy caused a negative emotive state [51] and the negative state I experienced was not easily explained by two opposing or contrasting cognitions. I experienced multiple inconsistent cognitions and attitudes to the knowledge, as well as behavioural actions at one time giving complexity to the cognitive dissonance. Like this context, individuals rarely just have just two inconsistent cognitions at one time, and it is more complex pattern than the original dissonance model [7] envisages. But what is interesting is the abrupt nature of attitude change I experienced and perhaps the energising force that was redirected from negative attitude to positive behaviour [10]. This implies the mountain environment can generate a context for life-affirming events that are congruent with personal change, resultant positive self-image and health.

Finally, the original cognitive dissonance theory [7] implies that behaviour and attitude are separate and can be changed independently from one another. Whilst my attitude to climbing did eventually become congruent with my behaviour and values, the notion that attitudes can be inferred from behaviour as consistent with self-perception theory [46] is too simplistic to explain my experiences in this context. Attitude is continually shifting according to context and so the importance of an attitude is only relevant at that one time and probably explains why the results of studying post dissonance attitudes have been contradictory [24]. Any attitude or behavioural change [16,17] as a result of reducing cognitive dissonance are dependent on the availability of new information (e.g., change in mountain weather, difficulty of the climb, or physical tiredness of the participant in this context) and the attitude salience [24]. Although post event analysis has enabled a greater self-awareness and understanding of my salient attitudes, the exact relationship between attitude and behaviour to reduce cognitive dissonance remains difficult to separate out and ascertain.

#### **5. Conclusions**

In the expedition to make a ski mountaineering traverse of Ishinca (5530 m) I experienced a range of cognitive dissonance reducing strategies: distraction [18], trivialization [19], act rationalization [15], and finally attitude change [8,9]. However, there was less behaviour change. My behaviour appeared more learned, stable and constant [38] than my attitude. Therefore, in contrast to some findings [13] attitudinal change aligned to behaviour. The lack of consonant cognitions [21,22] for abandoning the climb meant that negative cognitive arousal increased as the climb started. Yet even in the simplicity of the mountain environment, there was more than two inconsistent cognitions, so it is difficult to assess how attitudes and behaviour change as a result of one specific conflict. Attitudes are multidimensional and have affective, cognitive and behavioural dimensions [10].

In terms of the characteristics of dissonance, arousal, and modes of reduction, a variety of outcomes were experienced and explored. Firstly, the magnitude of dissonance arousal experienced during the ascent increased to a high point before abruptly disappearing altogether [49]. It is difficult to ascertain whether the negative arousal experienced was habitual, as a form of recurring dissonance, or to what extent the final attitude change played a part in the ultimate successes on the mountain. Could I have continued to climb with the same level of negative arousal? Affective state, through feelings of anger and frustration, was found to have a motivating role [26,49,52], although paradoxically the energy focused on negative arousal would have been more beneficial if it was directed at completing the climb itself. Reflection on previous experience (as a result of a recurring dissonance) allowed the author to use and build habitual behavioural strategies [25] which whilst offering some distraction paradoxically increased the levels of negative cognitive arousal experienced. My behaviour aligned to the salient values of tolerance and perseverance increasing the likelihood of a successful outcome. Thereby removing negative arousal associated with abandoning the climb and allowing self-affirmation [19]. However, less experienced mountaineers or individuals in similar dissonant contexts may not be able to draw upon reflective, stable and rational behaviour approaches [15] that operate in a contradictory manner to cognitions.

Whilst the notion of free choice in whether to climb had a role in attitude response, the contextual experiences alluded to a real complexity in how choice is perceived and acted upon. Attitudes, behaviours, social background, and values all affect how we see freedom of choice that is specific to

contextual elements and the individual involved. So, it is difficult to ascertain the exact role of free choice in dissonance arousal or reduction in this case. However, the reduced decision-making choices or lack of available options that come from the simplicity experienced in a mountain context allows for individuals to reflect, examine and develop greater self-awareness to use in related experiences. Although in my case, the lack of available options might cause greater emotional discomfort. Paradoxically, the behaviour chosen was not the one requiring least effort, which further magnified cognitive dissonance. This suggests that neither attitude nor behaviour simply changes to reduce negative cognitive arousal.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

#### *Article*


*2.2. Eggshells Contamination with Salmonella spp.*

Fresh eggs of class M (medium eggs, with weight ranging from 53 to 63 g) were wiped with a fine damp cloth to remove visible soil. Next, eggs were sterilized with a high-energy electron beam (20 kGy) in the Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology in Warsaw, Poland. The efficacy of disinfection was confirmed by taking swabs from the egg surface and plating them onto Columbia Agar with 5% blood sheep (bioMérieux, Marcy-l'Etoile, France) (37 ◦C, 24 h).

This study used bacterial suspensions of three different densities, 108 CFU/mL (ranged from 8.43 log CFU/mL to 8.60 log CFU/mL), 105 CFU/mL (ranged from 5.68 log CFU/mL to 5.76 log CFU/mL) and 103 CFU/mL (ranged from 2.70 log CFU/mL to 2.83 log CFU/mL), representing heavy, medium and light contamination, respectively. This step was used to establish the initial number of bacteria in prepared suspensions with which the eggs were contaminated, therefore the number is referred to as CFU/mL.

The 0.5 McFarland's bacterial suspension (8.43 log to 8.60 log CFU/mL) was prepared as 108 CFU/mL (initial bacterial contamination level). Then, this initial suspension was diluted to obtain the inoculum of 103 or 105 CFU/mL. Another variant of the experiment was the contamination of the egg with organic pollution. The microbial suspensions were mixed in a volumetric ratio (v/v) 1:1 with fresh poultry manure (from a hen farm in Poland, collected in March 2021). Poultry manure was stored at 4 ◦C until testing.

Each side of the egg surface was contaminated with hundred drops (5 μL each) of bacterial suspension and dried (20 min in a laminar chamber (1 m3) per one side of the egg). The drops did not flow freely down the egg. Experiments were conducted at 4 ◦C (fridge, standard size) and 20 ◦C (hermetic chamber, 1 m3). We used 324 eggs for each strain, including all variants and repetitions.

Figure 1 shows the design of the experiment.

**Figure 1.** Scheme of experiment variants.


Contents

#### **Preface XI**

Preface

est managers across the globe.

Tropical forests occupy only one-tenth of the world's land area but are home to more than half of the world's flora and fauna. They comprise extremely complex labyrinth of ecological interactions. In the last few decades, their astounding richness and biodiversity are rapidly dwindling as they are deforested, fragmented, burned, logged, and converted to agricultural lands and pastures, and their forest products are being indiscriminately extracted at an alarming rate. The destruction of plants, animals, soil, and ultimately the global biodiversi‐

There is a fear that the burgeoning human population and industrialization of developing countries, where a majority of these tropical forests are found, may lead to the clearing or modification or may be a complete disappearance of the remaining tropical forests within few decades. Of the 25 "hot spots" that are identified across the globe, 19 have human populations growing more rapidly than ever across the earth's surface. Vital biogeochemical cycles of car‐ bon, phosphorus, nitrogen, and so on have been severely altered and have led to the change in global climate and pristine natural ecosystems. Hence, there is an urgent need to protect, re‐

In this second edition of the book *Tropical Forests*, the chapters differ noticeably in the geo‐ graphic focus, diverse ecosystems, time, and approach; they share the above issues and help in understanding, educating, and creating awareness on the role of "tropical forests" for the very survival of mankind, climate change, and the diversity of biota across the globe. We truly believe that the readers will appreciate the contributions each of the researchers has made and will recognize the value of each chapter. We also hope that this book will be of great use to students, scientists, ecologists, population and conservation biologists, and for‐

> **Dr. Padmini Sudarshana** Monsanto Research Center Hebbal, Bangalore, India

> > Department of Biology

Department of Entomology

**Dr. Jaya R. Soneji**

**Dr. Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao**

New Mexico State University, USA

Plant Pathology and Weed Science New Mexico State University, USA

ty, due to the clearance of these tropical forests, has not been taken into account.

store, conserve, and improve the forest resources before they are irrevocably lost.


**7. The role of STAT3 signaling during reprogramming**

### **7.1. STAT3 is a master reprogramming factor**

**6. Functional role of the JAK/STAT pathway in stem cells**

10 Pluripotent Stem Cell Biology - Advances in Mechanisms, Methods and Models

**6.1. Stat3 maintains naïve pluripotency in mouse embryonic stem cells**

cy is conserved among species and includes OCT4, SOX2 and NANOG [174].

maintenance and their inhibition during cell differentiation [193].

**6.3. STAT3 signaling in immune cells**

**6.2. The LIF-IL6-STAT3 circuitry**

ESC pluripotency is regulated by transcriptional networks that maintain self-renewal and inhibit differentiation [172-174]. Stat3 and Myc are necessary to maintain mouse ESC (mESC) self-renewal andbindtomanyESC-enrichedgenes [175].Theirtargetgenes includepluripoten‐ cy-related transcription factors, polycomb group repressive proteins, and histone modifiers [176, 177]. The transcription factor Stat3 is a key pluripotency factor required for ESC selfrenewal [178, 179]. Mouse ESC require LIF-Stat3 (leukemia inhibitory factor) and Bmp4 (bone morphogenic protein 4) to remain pluripotent in *in vitro* cultures, whereas human ESC require FGF2/MAPK (fibroblast growth factor / mitogen-activated protein kinase) and TGFβ/Activin/ Nodal (transforming growth factor β) [180-183]. Nevertheless, the core circuitry of pluripoten‐

LIF belongs to the IL-6 family of cytokines and acts in parallel through the Jak/Stat3 and PI3K/ Akt (Phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase) pathways to maintain *Oct4, Sox2* and *Nanog* expression viaKruppel-like factor 4 (Klf4) andT-box factor 3 [184, 185].Lif andIL-6 arenecessaryfor STAT3 phosphorylation mediated by Jak1 [186]. Stat3 phosphorylation positively regulates *Klf4* and *Nanog* transcripts andfacilitatesLif-dependent maintenance ofpluripotency in a signaling loop [106].Stat3directlybinds togenomic sitesof*Oct4*and*Nanog*,regulates theOct4-Nanogcircuitry and is necessary to maintain the self-renewal and pluripotency of mESC [187-189]. Overexpres‐ sion of *Stat3* maintains mESC self-renewal even in the absence of Lif [190]. Withdrawal of LIF up-regulates the NFκB pathway and results in ESC differentiation as well as STAT3 disrup‐ tion [191-193]. The interleukin 6 (IL-6)response element (IRE) is activated by STAT3, vice versa IL-6 stimulation leads to STAT3 phosphorylation and transactivation of IRE- containing promoters providing a positively regulated STAT3-IL6 loop. STAT3 directly associates with c-Jun and c-Fos in response to IL-6 [194]. c-Jun and c-Fos are DNA binding proteins and compo‐ nentsoftheAP-1 (activationprotein-1)transcriptionfactor complex [195].AP-1 canbe activated by TLR2/4, IL-10 or STAT3 to regulate inflammatory responses or drive keratinocyte differen‐ tiation in interplay with STAT3 and c-MYC [196]. Tlr2 also plays an important role in the maintenance of mESC [107]. STAT3 is important to tune appropriate amounts of AP-1 pro‐ teins requiredforproperdifferentiation.DNAbinding sites for both*AP-1* and*STAT3*have been found in many gene promoters [194, 197]. It is important to note that c-Jun is able to capture or release the NuRD (nucleosome remodeling and deacetylation) repressor complex, an impor‐ tant epigenetic modulator of gene silencing [198, 199]. STAT3 is able to bind to bivalent histone modifications enabling a quick switchbetweenthe activationofpluripotency genesduringESC

STAT3 also has complex functions during hematopoietic development, immune regulation, cell growth, and leukemic transformation [200-202]. It is critically important for the survival and differentiation of lymphocytes and myeloid progenitors [171]. STAT3 signaling can be Activation of Stat3 is a limiting factor for the induction of pluripotency, and its over-expression eliminates the requirement for additional factors to establish pluripotency [233]. These key properties have positioned Stat3 signaling as one of the master reprogramming factors that dominantly instructs naïve pluripotency [175]. Elevated Stat3 activity overcomes the pre-iPSC reprogramming block and enhances the establishment of pluripotency induced by SOKM [234]. Stat3 and Klf4 co-occupy genomic sites of *Oct4, Sox2* and *Nanog*. Klf4 and c-Myc are downstream targets of Stat3 signaling and part of the transcriptional network governing pluripotency. The Stat3 effect is combinatorial with other reprogramming factors, which implies that additional targets of Stat3 play a pivotal role [235].

#### **7.2. STAT3 is an epigenetic regulator**

Stat3 activation regulates major epigenetic events that induce an open-chromatin state during late-stage reprogramming to establish pluripotency [236-238]. For example, Stat3 signaling stimulates DNA methylations to silence lineage commitment genes and facilitates DNA demethylations to activate pluripotency-related genes [106, 239, 240]. Other chromatin modifications include histone acetylation and deacetylation, which are catalyzed by enzymes with histone acetyltransferase (HAT) or histone deacetylase (HDAC) activities. Histone acetylation is associated with an open chromatin state that allows active gene transcription. HDAC inhibitors are known to significantly improve the efficiency of iPSC generation by allowing promoter accessibility [128, 241, 242]. STAT3 suppresses HDAC expression and repressive chromatin regulators to establish an open-chromatin structure giving full access to transcriptional machineries. The key pluripotency factor Nanog cooperates with Stat3 to maintain ESC pluripotency [173]. Interestingly, HDAC inhibitors but not *NANOG* overexpression rescues complete reprogramming in the presence of STAT3 inhibition.

NFκB signaling and inflammation during infections, whereas extensive ITAM activation inhibits JAK/STAT signaling to limit the immune reaction [256, 257]. Pleiotropic cytokines like interferons and IL-6 regulate the balance of pro-and anti-inflammatory functions by activating

The Role of an NFκB-STAT3 Signaling Axis in Regulating the Induction and Maintenance of the Pluripotent State

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57602

13

NFκB and STAT3 are also part of an important stem cell pathway axis [259, 260]. A functional link between NANOG, NFκB and LIF/STAT3 signaling was shown in the maintenance of pluripotency [228]. Non-canonical NFκB signaling is activated by STAT3 through activation of IKKα and p100 processing [58]. Conversely, STAT3 inhibits TLR-induced canonical NFκB activity probably through up-regulated SOCS3. C-terminal binding of NANOG inhibits the pro-differentiation activities of canonical NFκB signaling and directly cooperates with STAT3 to maintain ESC pluripotency. NANOG and STAT3 bind to each other and synergistically

The STAT3 pathway also interacts with many signaling pathways that are critically involved in the reprogramming process. For example, STAT3 signaling activates the MYC transcriptome and signals in loop with LIN28 [229]. LIN28 is expressed in undifferentiated hESC and is able to enhance the reprogramming efficiency of fibroblasts. It is down-regulated upon ESC differentiation [262-265]. Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src activation triggers an inflammatory response mediated by NFκB that directly activates *IL6* and *Lin28B* expression through a binding site in the first intron. IL6-mediated activation of STAT3 transcription is necessary for monocyte activation and tumorigenesis. IL6 itself further activates NFκB, thereby completing a positive NFκB-STAT3-IL6 feedback loop that links inflammation to cell trans‐ formation [229]. Constitutive STAT3 signaling maintains constitutive NFκB activity in tumors by inhibiting its nuclear export through p65 acetylation, although STAT3 signaling inhibits

**9. The role of epigenetic regulators during the induction of pluripotency**

A panoply of chromatin remodelers play active, regulatory roles during the reprogramming process [266, 267]. For example, the Mbd3/NuRD complex is an important epigenetic regulator that restricts the expression of key pluripotency genes [268]. MBD3 (Methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 3) is part of the NuRD (nucleosome remodeling and deacetylation) repressor complex, which mediates chromatin remodeling through histone deacetylation via HDAC1/2 and ATPase activities [269-271]. The NuRD complex interacts with methylated DNA to mediate heterochromatin formation and transcriptional silencing of ESC-specific genes. Whereas MBD2 recruits NuRD to methylated DNA, MBD3 fails to bind methylated DNA as it evolved from a methyl-CpG-binding domain to a protein–protein interaction module [272]. Mbd3 antagonizes the establishment of pluripotency and facilitates differentiation [273].

variable levels of STAT1 and STAT3 [258].

**8.2. NFκB and STAT3 synergies in stem cells**

activate STAT3-dependent promoters [106, 261].

NFκB activation during normal immune responses [52].

**9.1. The NuRD complex**

Finally, DNA demethylation is regulated in mammalian cells by Tet proteins (tet methylcyto‐ sine dioxygenase), which convert 5-methylcytosine (5mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). Tet1 suppresses ESC differentiation and Tet1 knockdown leads to defects in ESC selfrenewal. Tet1 up-regulation is positively regulated by Stat3 during the late-reprogramming stage [243-246].


6.Special considerations:

The Renal Association Clinical Practice Guideline on Hemodialysis indicated that once patients get accustomed to exercising during dialysis, they be encouraged to do it on non-dialysis days [46].


**Author details**

Type A: Partial articular, one column involved.

required to evaluate the utility of the proposed classification [25].

In a review of 229 patients with acetabular fractures by Herman et al. found certain fracture patterns, which cannot be included in any one of the Judet and Letournel classification. They have proposed a newer classification system based combination between the displacement vector of the fractures and the specific fracture architectural structures. But further studies are

The aim of treatment of any acetabular fracture is to get anatomical reduction and stable fixation and early mobilization and delayed weight bearing. This can be achieved either by operative or non-operative treatment. In displaced fracture more than 2 mm, the roof arc angle <30°, Failure to achieve and maintain concentric reduction by closed methods, incarcerated or impacted intra-articular fragments are indication for open reduction. If there is vascular or sciatic nerve injury developing following a closed manipulation such situation warrants emergency ORIF. In patients with poor bone quality, late presentation, medical contraindication, severely communited fracture, secondary congruency can be treated non operatively. Most of the fractures are reduced using the principle of ligamentotaxsis. Interfragmentary screws are used for rigid fixation which should be protected using reconstruction plate in the neutralization mode [26].

All authors helps in collecting data, analysis, statistics, writing and editing the manuscript. We have no conflict of interest for this manuscript and we have not accepted any financial assistance from within or outside of our institution for collecting data,writing manuscript and

Type B: Partial articular fracture.

Type C: Complete articular fracture.

**8. Principles of treatment**

**Contributions**

for its publications

A1

50 Trauma Surgery

A2

A3

B1

B2

B3

C1

C2

C3

Balaji Zacharia\*, Dhiyaneswaran Subramaniyam and Muhammed Ayyub

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Orthopedics, Govt. Medical College, Kozhikkode, Kerala, India


**Possible Contribution of the Basal Ganglia Brainstem System to the Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease**

Kaoru Takakusaki1, Kazuhiro Obara1 and Toshikatsu Okumura2 *1Research Center for Brain Function and Medical Engineering, 2Department of General Medicine, Asahikawa Medical University, School of Medicine, Japan*

### **1. Introduction**

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current evoked by dopamine in rat subthalamic neurones in vitro.

Insight into the organization of the motor and non-motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease (PD) is critical for understanding the role of basal ganglia in the control of behavioral expression. Motor symptoms are generally characterized by hypokinesia-bradykinesia, resting tremor, muscular rigidity and posture-gait disabilities (Morris et al., 1994; Murrey et al., 1978). Sleep disturbances are major non-motor symptoms, which include insomnia, narcolepsy-like sleep attack and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavioral disorder (RBD) (Ferini-Strambi & Zucconi, 2000; Iranzo et al., 2006; Postuma et al., 2010; Schenck, 1996), in addition to disturbances of emotional expression and impairments of cognitive and executive functions (Aarsland et al., 2010).

It has been well established that the cortico-basal ganglia loops (C-BG loop) contribute to the volitional and intentional control of movements (Delong & Wichmann, 2007). Basal ganglia outflow directly toward to the midbrain of the brainstem (basal ganglia-brainstem system; BG-BS system) has been recently recognized with respect to the regulation of muscle tone and posture-gait synergy (Takakusaki et al., 2003a, 2004c). It has been suggested that the BG-BS may also contribute to the modulation of vigilance states (Takakusaki et al., 2004c, 2005). Fundamental structures involved in the control of posture and locomotion and those in the muscle tone regulation during awake-sleep states exist in the brainstem and spinal cord (Chase & Morales 1990; Takakusaki et al., 1993, 1994, 2004a, 2006). The importance of the midbrain area including the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPN) has been particularly recognized in relation to these functions (Palphill & Lozano 2000; Datta, 2002; Rye 1997). The PPN and a vicinity of this nucleus (PPN area) receive excitatory projections from the cortical motor areas (Matsumura et al., 2000) and the limbic system via the hypothalamus. The PPN is also a major target of GABAergic projections from the basal ganglia output nuclei (Moriizumi et al., 1988; Rye et al., 1987; Span & Grofova, 1991; Lavoie & Parent 1994).

The purpose of this review is to facilitate understanding the pathophysiological mechanism of motor and non-motor functions in PD. For this, we first refer general framework in the central nervous system for movement control in relation to volitional, emotional and

Possible Contribution of the Basal Ganglia

Brainstem System to the Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease 435

behaviors therefore may require following the three processes; "*volitional process"* (Fig.1A(1))*,* "*emotional process"* (Fig.1A(2)) and "*automatic processes"* (Fig.1A(3))*.* The volitional process is derived from intentionally-elicited motor commands arising from the cerebral cortex based on volitional and cognitive references. This process requires cortical information processing and is executed by the corticoreticular and corticospinal projections. The emotional process is elicited by emotional reference via projections from the limbichypothalamus to the brainstem. This contributes to the emotional motor behaviors including fight or flight reactions. Regardless of whether the locomotion is volitional or emotional, it is accompanied by the automatic processes that are evoked by sequential activation of basic motor programs in the brainstem and spinal cord. The cerebellum regulates volitional and automatic processes by acting on the cerebral cortex and the brainstem, respectively. Sensory feedback via spinocerebellar tract plays an important role in this operation. The basal ganglia control these processes via loops with the cerebral cortex, brainstem and the limbic system. Because output of the basal ganglia is altered in

basal ganglia disorders, all these movement processes can be disturbed.

**2.2 Mechanisms of integrating posture and locomotion by subcortical structures**  In animal experiments, decerebrate cat preparation has been used to examine subcortical mechanisms of controlling posture and locomotion. When the decerebration was made at the precollicular-postmammillary level (x in Fig.2A), a cat maintained reflex standing posture due to decerebrate rigidity (mesencephalic cat). Repetitive microelectrical stimulation (50 Hz, 30 μA) applied to the cuneiform nucleus (CNF; a blue point in Fig.2B) bilaterally increased the level of extensor (soleus) muscle tone, and then elicited stepping movements which were developed to locomotion by moving a treadmill (an arrowhead in Fig.2Ba). However the same type of stimuli applied to the ventral part of the PPN (red point in Fig.2B) induced muscular atonia, which lasted even after termination of the stimulation (Fig. 2Bc). Stimulation between these two sites (a green point in Fig.2C) evoked stepping movements followed by muscular atonia (Fig.2Bb). Stimulation of the locus coeruleus (LC, an orange point in Fig.2B) bilaterally increased extensor muscle tone (Fig.2Bd). Generally the locomotion evoking sites (blue circles in Fig.2D), i.e. the midbrain locomotor region (MLR), were located in the CNF, while the inhibitory region was located in the PPN (red circles in in Fig.2C). Neurons between these regions may be involved in both locomotion and muscular atonia. As show in Fig.2D, cholinergic neurons were abundantly distributed in the area corresponding to the inhibitory region, indicating that an activation of

cholinergic neurons requires muscle tone suppression (Takakusaki et al., 2003a).

Our current perception of neuronal mechanisms of controlling postural muscle tone and locomotion is shown in Fig.3A on the basis of previous studies (Grillner 1981; Mori 1987; Rossignol 1996; Takakusaki et al., 2004b, 2006). Three locomotor regions are identified. They are the MLR, the subthalamic locomotor region (SLR) and the cerebellar locomotor region (CLR). Signals from the MLR may activate "muscle tone excitatory system" and "locomotor system or rhythm generating system". The former is composed of monoaminergic descending pathways such as the coerulospinal and raphespinal tracts, and excitatory reticulospinal tract arising from the ventromedial medullary reticular formation (v-MRF) which approximately corresponds to the nucleus reticularis magnocellularis. The latter is composed of the excitatory reticulospinal tract and central pattern generators (CPG) in the spinal cord. Cortical projections to the MLR have not yet been identified. It is possibly

automatic aspects. In the second section we demonstrated recent findings obtained in animal experimentation how BG-BS system controlled postural muscle tone and locomotion. Then we propose hypothetical models that can provide rational explanations of motor disturbances in PD. In the third, final, section, we consider the role of the BG-BS systems in non-motor functions with special reference to the regulation of arousal state and awakesleep states.


*4.3. RNA Extraction and qRT-PCR*

Seeds of Williams 82 was cultivated in a 10 × 10 cm flowerpot (vermiculite: nutritious soil is 1:3), fresh leaf tissue of 10-day-old soybean seedlings were used for RNA extraction of different stress treatment. For drought treatment, soybean seedlings were dried on filter paper then sampled 0.1 g of leaf on different periods (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 8, 12 and 24 h), for salt, ABA and SA treatment, the roots of soybean seedlings were soaked in 100 mM NaCl, 100 µmol·L −1 ABA and 100 µmol·L −1 SA solution, respectively [68]. Then sampled 0.1 g of leaf on different periods (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 8, 12 and 24 h), all samples were submerged immediately in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80 ◦C for RNA extraction using RNA prep plant kit (TIANGEN, Beijing, China); cDNA was synthesized using a Prime Script First-Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (TransGen, Beijing, China) following the manufacturer's instructions. cDNA of treatment for 0 h was used for screen one highly expressed gene from seven GmWRKYs that response to both drought and salt treatment (Figure S1B). qRT-PCR was performed with Super Real PreMix Plus (TransGen, Beijing, China) on an ABI Prism 7500 system (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). Specific primers of *GmWRKY3*, *12*, *14*, *21*, *28*, *35*, *43*, *49 and* soybean actin primers are listed in Table S4. Three biological replicates were used for qRT-PCR analysis. The 2−∆∆*C*t method was used for quantification.


*Article* **Blending Irrigation Water Sources with Different Salinities and the Economic Damage of Salinity: The Case of Israel**

**Yehuda Slater 1, Ami Reznik 1, Israel Finkelshtain 1,2 and Iddo Kan 1,2,\***

**\*** Correspondence<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
**Abstract:** Israel's water and vegetative agriculture sectors are interdependent, as the latter constitutes the solution for wastewater disposal. We employ a dynamic mathematical programming model that captures this interdependence for evaluating the economic damage of irrigation water salinity under two strategies of blending water sources with different salinities: field blending, which enables farmers to assign water with a specific salinity to each crop, and regional blending, under which all crops experience similar water salinity. Relative to field blending, the buildup rate of desalination under regional blending is slightly expedited; nevertheless, reallocations of water sources across sectors and crops increase the average irrigation water salinity, and the overall welfare decreases by USD 0.08 per cubic meter of irrigation water—about 20% of the water's average value of marginal product. Salinity-sensitive crops will face the largest per hectare production reduction if regional blending replaces field blending; however, the combined variations in the prices of irrigation water and agricultural outputs may motivate farmers to move irrigation water to these crops. Under equilibrium conditions in the two sectors, a 1% increase in the average salinity of the irrigation water supplied to a region reduces the value of the marginal product of that water by 2.4% and 1.6% under field and regional blending, respectively.

**Keywords:** irrigation; salinity; agriculture; policy; water; economics; model