Cintli quinequi ma cualli timohuicacan huanya ya huan ma oncah tlatlepanittaliztli ipan tlaltepactli para cualli cueponiz. Nochi campeca quipiya chicahualiztli tlen monehpanoa ica tlaltepactli para yehyectizn eliz cintli. Iuhcatzan pan nochi campeca yohui para cintli, pan nemaihtolli tlen cehce campeca calaqui miac tlamantli tlen tlaltepactli huan tlen ce macehualli inemiliz. Miltlatlacualtiliztli ni ce campeca campa motlahtlaniah cualli ma mozcaltihtiuh piltoctzin huan cualli ma mochicahuilli. Quiihtoa tlahtolli quitl tecuanimeh quiihtlacoah tlatoctli. Huentli tlen quimactiliah millah ni quitl para tecuanimeh axcanah tlahuel ma quitlanahuican huan ma quiihtlacocan tlacualiztli tlen ica motemachiah chaneh ica iteixmatcahuan. Ipan campeca tlen tlatlacualtiliztli, macehualmeh tlahtlanih ma moxoxohuilli (xihuitl tlen mocua, xihuitl tlen pahtli, xihuitl) ininnentlan. Tlahtlani cualli atl, ma tlacehui, zampampa axcanah ma nelquipanohuili. Nochi nemaitolli yohui ica Chicomexochitl huan cequinoc totiotzitzin, quintlahtlaniliah cualli ma tlaelto. Quemman axmochihua campeca, macehualmeh zan quitemoah tlamantli (quence ce cualli calli, tomin torohmeh) tlen ica quipiyazceh quicahualiztli huan axquinehnehuiliah monohnotzazceh yehyectzin para cualli itztozceh pan ininnemiliz.

Pan cehce campeca oncah tlatlepanittaliztli ica ce chaneh, ica macehualmeh, ica altepetzin zo altepetzitzin. Ipan campeca, piltequitzitzin tlen tenanan huan tetatah cehca. Nouhquiya achi cehca ica campeca tlen mochihua xochicalco quence Elotlamanah, tequitl moxehxelhuiliah ica tlacameh huan cihuameh. Nochi tequitl cehca ipatiuh. Quemman altepetzitzin mozancehcotiliah huan monemiliah quichihuazceh Tlatlacualtiliztli, cehce alpetetl quitlalia itlahtol. Altepetzin tlen monechcahuia huan tequipanoa quipiya cehca tlatlepanittaliztli ica tlen axmonechcahuia xichucalco. Ni ome campeca quichihua chicancoehuanih ma monohnotzacan yehyectzin huan axma oncah cualantli; tlan axmochihua, huacca yoli tequipacholli huan mohueilia xicoliztli tlen quiihtlacoa tlatlepanittaliztli huan tlaneltoquilli.

Ce itequiuh Elotlamanaliztli huan Tlatlacualtiliztli, ya quitl monequi quichicahuiliz tomacehualtlallamiccauh huan totlachiyaliz. Quemman ce acahya tequipanoa ipan xochicalli, quichihua ce huei tequitl huan quichicahuilia quen timonehpanoah huanya ce acahya. Tequipanoanih quimachiliah chicahualiztli quemman quimatih oncah macehualmeh tlen ica huelih monechcahuizceh quemman quipiyah ce tlamantli cualli zo axcualli pan ininnemiliz, quence quemman ehua ce conetzin zo quemman miqui ce toteixmatcauh. Quemman ixpoliuhtiuh campeca, macehualmeh ayocquipiyah inintequixpoyohuan huan motemachiah zan pan ininteixmatcahuan, quence mopatla initlanehnehuiliz ica cequi.

Quemman ixpolihui cintli itlaneltoquil quichihua ma moahcomanacan altepetzitzin. Ica itlaneltoquil cintli tlen quipiya macuilli campeca, hueliz ce macuilli generaciones ticpolohqueh itlaneltoquil huan iixtlamatiliz Cintlatlacualtiliztli. Totatahhuan ayocmiltlatlacualtihqueh; itlaneltoquil tlen queniuhcatzan mochihua hueliz ixpoliuhqui nimantzin ica tototatahhuan. Togeneracion tlen naman, ayocquichihua Tlatlacualtiliztli yon Elotlamanaliztli. Ticchicoquixtiah inintlahtol huehuentzitzin huan ayoctinehnehuiliah ticchihuazceh campeca. Cequin tlen nocca quichihuah Elotlamanaliztli, quichihuah para quinextizceh tlen tlamantli quipiyah quence chicahualiztli huan quiilcauhtoqueh comontequitl huan itlaneltoquil zo itlacuamachiliz campeca. Naman zan ticchihuah tlen xinachtli, ce campeca tlen cintli itlaneltoquil. Tlan axtimotlalanah huan axtictlepanitta cintli itlaneltoquil, ipan ce omeh generaciones tlen huallauh, hueli ayocmochihuaz ipan Chicontepec. Naman quen moixnextihtiuh campeca, eliz quence zan ce tlamahuizolli. Monequi ticyoltilizceh cintli itlaneltoquil, tiquinnotzazceh tepolcameh, ichpocameh ma monehpanocan ica ni tlaneltoquilli.

### **Ixcopintlaltecpanalli**

### **Amoxtlatecpanalli**

Argüelles Santiago, J. N. (2012). El maíz en la construcción y transmisión de una identidad cultural de la Huasteca Veracruzana. In Pan A. van't Hooft & J. A. Flores Farfan (Eds.), *Estudios de lengua y cultura nahua de la huasteca* (pp. 11–29).

De la Cruz Cruz, E. (2015). *Tototatahhuan ininixtlamatiliz*. Amoxmecayotl Totlahtol (J. Olko & J. Sullivan, Eds.). Huei Caltlamachtiloyan Varsovia.

De la Cruz Cruz, E. (2017). *Cenyahtoc cintlo tonacayo: huahcapatl huan tlen naman*. Amoxmecayotl Totlahtol (J. Olko & J. Sullivan, Eds.). Huei Caltlamachtiloyan.

Gómez Martínez, A. (2002). *Tlaneltoquilli: La espiritualidad de llos nahuas chicontepecanos.* Ediciones del Programa de Desarrollo Cultural de la Huasteca/CONACULTA.

Gómez Martínez, A., & van't Hooft, A. (2012). Atlatlacualtiliztli: La petición de la lluvia en Ichcacuatitla, Chicontepec. In Pan A. van't Hooft & J. A. Flores Farfan (Eds.), *Estudios de lengua y cultura nahua de la huasteca* (pp. 100–118).

IDIEZ. (2010). Curso de Lengua Nahuatl Avanzado II. Instituto de Docencia e Investigación Etnológica de Zacatecas A.C.

Nava Vite, R. (2012). El costumbre: ofrendas y música a chicomexochitl en Ixhuatlan de Madero, Veracruz. In Pan A. van't Hooft & J. A. Flores Farfan (Eds.), *Estudios de lengua y cultura nahua de la huasteca* (pp. 31–65).

## **Ceremonial Practices Relating to Corn in the Region of Chicontepec: Local Aspects of Wellbeing**

## **The Maize Ceremonies: An Act of Faith**

This chapter discusses maize ceremonies and how they relate to *cualli nemiliztli*. *Cualli nemiliztli* is a way of life where one commits to keeping joy and beautiful things in one's life. We show our commitment daily in our attitude while working and interacting with others. Material possessions are accessories to a good life. Respect, friendly social interactions, and the local belief system ensure a good life. This chapter also touches on the relationships across different generations in the Nahua communities and the transmission of knowledge.

I am a *macehualli*. 1 I was born and raised in Lindero 2, Chicontepec, Veracruz. My childhood and adolescence are full of memories of working in the fields alongside my mother and other men from the community. I always showed interest in maize and its ceremonies. When I turned 18, I emigrated to larger cities in search of economic and educational opportunities. Currently, I teach Nahuatl at several universities in the United States. I am a postdoctoral candidate at the University of Warsaw and Director of the Institute of Teaching and Ethnological Research in Zacatecas (IDIEZ). Despite my heavy presence in academia, my primary focus is language and cultural revitalization through local initiatives that directly impact the villages of Chicontepec. I approach my research from an emic standpoint in dialogue with academia.

This chapter is primarily in Nahuatl because my target audience are Nahuas; we lose concepts in translation and show that we, too, have a voice in academia. Translation in English is included to allow for conversation with those interested in this topic. The English translation includes background information mostly as footnotes and is omitted in Nahuatl.

1 Nahua; indigenous person.

**Fig. 12.1** Maize ceremonies. This figure shows the five maize ceremonies and the order they occur

Nahuas practice five maize ceremonies, *Xinachtli*, *Miltlacualtiah, Elotlamanah*, *Cintlacualtiah*, and *Tlatlacualtiah*. *For* this, see Fig. 12.1.

There are works pertaining to the maize ceremonies, most written by Nahua scholars from the Huasteca Veracruzana. Their research focuses on one ceremony rather than all five maize ceremonies. In the case of Jazmín Nayelly Argüelles Santiago (2012) in her article "Maize in the Construction and Transmission of a Cultural Identity of the Huasteca Veracruzana," talks about *Elotlamanaliztli* (Corn feast). She briefly describes the ceremony and argues that the discontinuity of the ceremony is caused by the influence of government policies. Nava Vite (2012) in his article "El Costumbre: Offerings and Music to Chicomexochitl in Ixhuatlán de Madero, Veracruz," talks about offerings to Chicomexochitl, emphasizing that Nahua families plea and pray to the elements of nature to strengthen the crops. In a short paragraph, Nava Vite defines maize ceremonies: *Cintoquiztli (Xinachtli)*, *Miltlacualtiliztli*, *Miyahuacalaquiliztli*, *Elotlmanaliztli*, and *Cintlacualtiliztli*. He then includes an extensive explanation about *Atlatlacualtiliztli (Tlatlacualtiah)*, rain petition ceremony. Gómez Martínez and Van't Hooft (2012) in their article "Atlatlacualtiliztli: Rain Petition in Ichcacuatitla, Chicontepec," speak of an extensive ethnographic description of rain petition and pilgrimage to the sacred mountain Postectli. Gómez Martínez in the book *Tlaneltoquilli: The Spirituality of the Nahauas from Chicontepec*, under the Agricultural Rituals section, makes a broader description of *Atlatlacualtiliztli*  (*Tlatlacualtiah*) and a brief explanation of the rest of the ceremonies of the cycle (Gómez Martínez, 2002, pp. 180–113).

Information contained in this chapter is from personal experience, fieldwork in 2011 and 2019, and interviews with four elders in 2013 and 2014. I started to work in the fields at the age of seven. The men I worked alongside noticed my interest in maize and passed down their knowledge and wisdom as their fathers had. The quotes I include throughout the chapter are theirs, quoting from their fathers' words. These words are from our ancestors; thus, I cannot credit a person. As a child, I attended *Xochicalli* 2 regularly until early 2000, when our community stopped practicing communal ceremonies. In 2011 I attended an *Elotlamanah* celebration in El Dorado in the municipality of Ixhuatlan de Madero and learned how to make flower adornments. In 2019 I attended *Tlatlacualtiah* in Tecomate, Chicontepec. I interviewed four elders who actively participated in or organized communal ceremonies. First is a healer of 60 years old from La Pahua, Chicontepec. Second is her 60-year-old husband, who continues to practice *Miyahualcalaquiah*. The third is a 50-year-old musician from Tepecxitlan, Chicontepec. The fourth is an 80-year-old man from Tecomate, Chicontepec, who was the main organizer of *Elotlamanah*  and *Tlatlacualtiah* for 30 years until early 2000, when there was no community support.

#### **Maize as** *Xinachtli***,** 3*Miyahuatl***, and** *Chicomexochitl*

The people of Chicontepec have three terms to refer to maize in a ceremonial context. These are *xinachtli* (seed), *miyahuatl* (tassel/male inflorescence), and Chicomexochitl (maize deity). Nahuas use each term in different spaces.

*Xinachtli* represents the seed and planting season. For a dry corn kernel to become a seed, *xinachtli*, the parents select it, give it breath, and leave it to soak overnight. The following morning the kernels are

2 House designated as a sacred place to give offerings to Chicomexochitl and perform other communal ceremonies.

3 Maize kernels picked to give offerings to and then plant.

transformed into *xinachtli*; they are sacred and must be handled as you would a newborn baby. Before holding the *xinachtli,* you must cup your hands and exhale one breath into them. This is a way of giving reverence. Children are not allowed to handle *xinachtli*. The family gives the *xinachtli* offerings; the men head off to the field to sow it. The *xinachtli* holds the family's hopes and livelihood.

*Miyahuatl* is the corn's flower, tassel (male inflorescence), and announces the upcoming harvest season. Once it sprouts, the corn immediately silks and starts to mature. At this stage, the elders say, "just as one went to plant *xinachtli*, one must fetch it," meaning that corn should only be taken from the milpa if preceded with an offering; it must be watered and incensed. Only after observing local beliefs should it be harvested and shared with neighbors.

*Chicomexochitl* is a term that indicates respect for maize or implies that a ceremony will be held for the deity in a sacred place called *Xochicalli*. Chicomexochitl is the maize deity with whom the people of Chicontepec interact daily at the table while having a meal. When parents talk about a maize ceremony, they call him Chicomexochitzin. The ancestors describe Chicomexochitl as a boy and a girl. Chicontepec and the surrounding municipalities share Chicomexochitl's origin story, widely known as *Chicomexochitl huan tenantzitzimitl*, "Chicomexochitl and the angry grandmother." Narrations passed through oral tradition share the same plot (De la Cruz Cruz, 2015; Nava Vite, 2012; IDIEZ, 2010). The tale tells of a grandmother whose daughter gives birth to a son, Chicomexochitl. This boy is always cheerful and never causes any trouble. The grandmother is not fond of her grandson. She devises games to kill him, such as playing in an oven; however, she never succeeds and goes on to die during one of the games. Chicomexochitl lives happily, with no worries, and always does as he is told.

Many who know and narrate the story of Chicomexochitl say it is true, that it recounts what happened long ago. Today, when the Nahuas carry out a local ceremony according to their customs, such as the rain petition or the corn ceremony, they represent Chicomexochitl in two ways:

**Fig. 12.2** Paper cut out representing Chicomexochitl. De la Cruz Cruz, 2017 [Chicomexochitl][Photograph])

Nahuas place both representations on the altar and present offerings such as food and drinks.

### *Xinachtli***: Offering to the Corn Seed**

*Xinachtli* is the ceremony's name, and the kernels are selected as seeds. To become *xinachtli,* the grain undergoes a process. The parents pick out corn from past season's *cintli tlen petlayoh*, 4 looking for those with a

4 Dry mature corn harvested and stored without removing the husk.

**Fig. 12.3** Ears of corn representing Chicomexochitl. From Cenyahtoc cintli tonacayo: huahcapatl huan tlen naman, by Eduardo de la Cruz, 2017, Warsaw, University of Warsaw, Faculty of "Artes Liberales." Alan Sandstrom took the photograph during his fieldwork about the rain petition ceremony in Cacahuatengo, Ixhuatlan de Madero, in March 2007

whole ear of large intact kernels. Together they husk and shuck the corn. Then, they examine the kernels closely, selecting and placing in a pile kernels that are wide, flat, heavy, and have an intact seed coat and tip cap. Both parents pick up a handful from the pile of kernels, cup their hands together, bring them inches from their mouths, and exhale a short breath over the kernels. Exhaling a short breath into one's cupped hands symbolizes sharing one's breath with the seeds and represents one's wholehearted commitment. The parents gently drop the seeds into a bucket half full of water. The kernels soak overnight. In the early morning, the mom pours the bucket over two woven baskets to catch the now *xinachtli*.

The family prepares to give *xinachtli* an offering, a meal before the men set off to sow the seeds. The mother clears the family altar5 and

5 It is customary for each family to have an altar in their homes. The altar is a wooden table, ranging in size, up against the wall, with a plastic or embroidered tablecloth. Due to religious syncretism most families have Catholic imagery and statues on the table or hung up on the

lays out the offerings, including tortillas, boiled eggs, bread, *rozca*, 6 coffee, and liquor made from anise. She prepares the food before dawn. Children help by fetching items such as flowers or food and handing them to their parents to place on the altar. The mom lights the candles and brings the *popochcomitl* 7 with embers to burn the copal incense. She places one basket with *xinachtli* on the floor, slightly in front of the table or next to the table leg. Then, she places a cup of coffee next to or inside each basket with a piece of bread. The cup handle must face toward the wall. Chicomexochitl sits with his back against the wall facing the family.

Once the altar is set, all household members gather in front of the altar. The head of household makes reverence by exhaling into their cupped hands and slightly bowing on the right front corner of the table and then the left. Here exhaling a short breath into one's cupped hands is an act of reverence representing one's wholehearted commitment. The head of household takes the *popochcomitl* in their right hand and passes it above and around all offerings to incense them. One by one, all family members incense the offerings, silently asking the *xinachtli* to grow well and not forget its people; it ought to sprout where they plant it; it must grow lush and mature. The ancestors' words taught us to let go of envy, anger, or resentment to give offerings to *xinachtli*  wholeheartedly. Otherwise, the *xinachtli* feels our lack of respect and commitment; it may grow sad. A saddened *xinachtli* grows poorly, wilts, withers, and does not bear fruit. Upon receiving the offerings, the *xinachtli* leaves the house fed and watered. It will return, brimming with flavor as fresh corn for immediate consumption or maize to be stored and last until the following harvest.

When the *xinachtli*, or any crop, breaks through the soil one must tend to it with high frequency. The care includes weeding the field, scaring off thrushes, birds, or other animals, and even talking to the

wall. The altar is in the common room. Most families' homes are made of two structures. One structure has a opens into a large common space room, similar to a living room, that connects to several bedrooms. The other structure is a kitchen space where most meals are cooked and consumed. The bathroom is an outhouse, near the edge of the property.

6 Crisped bread, intertwined strands in a torus shape, can be salty or sweet.

7 A clay chalice.

plants as one works in the fields. If one forgets these responsibilities the plants' growth stunts; the stalk may dry before flowering, stop growing, or continue to grow and not bear fruit. At times, the stalks do flower, grow, and bear fruit, but the ears of corn partially fill or lack kernels altogether. When this happens, the elders say, "The crop no longer wants to grow compah."

Those who have faith in their milpas joyfully rise to check on their crops at dawn. They walk along the outer edge of the milpa, examining the plants closely. Between nine and ten in the morning, they return home, have a meal, and return to the milpa to complete that day's tasks. That daily routine starts on the day of sowing until harvest. A month or two after planting the maize, farmers make an offering, *Miltlacualtiah*, to the milpa and the maize plants growing in it. This practice is almost nonexistent today.

### *Miltlacualtiah***: Offering to the Milpa**

*Miltlacualtiah* is an offering to the milpa/crops that provides the corn plants with nutrition, strength, and protection to produce a good crop. This ceremony is not widely known compared to the other corn ceremonies. Elders mention it when listing corn ceremonies. Nahua scholars Arturo Gómez Martinez and Rafael Nava Vite mention it in their work (Gómez Martínez, 2002, p. 83; Nava Vite, 2012, p. 38). Jesus Alberto Flores Martínez, another Nahua scholar includes it in his forthcoming film. Loss of practice is one reason for the lack of documentation. As a Nahua, I consider *Miltacualtiah* one of the most important rituals because a good harvest depends on it.

Elders narrate that when the corn stalks are about a meter and a half tall, the head of the house starts the ceremony preparations. First, to lead the ceremony, they seek out a *huehuehtlacatl* . 8 The *huehuehtlacatl*  specifies what items they will need to gather and bring on the agreed date. On the day of the ceremony, the family and *huehuehtlacatl* gather

8 A wise old man with vast ancestral knowledge, also known as a healer, responsible for directing ceremonies such as weddings, the handwashing of godparents, among others.

in the center of the milpa. In the middle of the milpa, they make a table from bamboo that functions as an altar where they place offerings to worship Chicomexochitl, *Totonanan tlaltepactli*—mother earth—and the deity of water. They place bread and coffee on the surrounding corn plants.

As this practice started to decline, the father began to lead the ritual. As a child, I recall seeing my mother carry out this ritual in our milpa as her father taught her. Our parents and grandparents often told us, "Watch how it is done because when you grow up and get married, this is what you will do. You will continue this practice to have quality maize, and your food will suffice." That was their advice; we have forgotten their advice. Our generation does not practice this ceremony.

When people neglect their milpa, when they neglect to practice this ritual, there is a low crop yield. Around the time this ceremony takes place, the plants are close to reaching their final height, the tassel and ears emerge, and the kernels start to form. At this stage, keeping watch is crucial so raccoons, coyotes, or other animals do not harm the crop. Practicing *Miltlacualtiah* ensures that the corn obtains necessary nutrients from the soil without using fertilizers. The corn will withstand strong winds and rain if a hurricane occurs on a nearby coast. Animals will also not excessively take from or harm the crops. Today farmers rely on insecticides and fertilizers. The products were effective in the short term but are increasingly ineffective.

### *Elotlamanah***: Blessing of the Corn and Feast**

Nahuas gather as a community at the *xochicalli* to celebrate *Elotlamanah* before harvesting or consuming the season's corn, regardless of the crop yield. Not everyone plants corn at the same time; often, there is a difference of two weeks to a month. If a wealthy family needs to harvest before or after the communal celebration, they organize their *Elotlamanah* and invite the community to participate. If a family does not have economic capital for a large celebration, they practice *Miyahuacalaquiah* (explained in the following section). Nahuas celebrate *Elotlamanah* to thank Chicomexochitl for the season's yield and welcome the harvest season. They show respect and gratitude through offerings that include flower arrangements, drinks, food, sacrificial chickens, music, and dance*.*

This ceremony requires many hands. Community members volunteer as lead organizers and seek help (monetary, in-kind, and time) from relatives and neighbors. Planification is key. They must seek a *huehuehtlacatl* to guide the ceremony, hire a huapango trio,9 and find *coyol* (palm-like) plantling leaves and marigold flowers for adornments. They purchase a *popochcomitl*, candles, copal, paper for cutouts, bananas, sweet potatoes (to make compote), oranges, limes, peanuts, apples, and sweets (e.g., cookies and chocolate bars). They preorder some food items. They make *tintinez*, *pemolez*, and *alfahorez*. 10 They prepare or purchase drinks: coffee, hot chocolate, a liquor made from anise, soda, and atole. They make two types of enchiladas with freshly cooked tortillas, one slathered in tomato sauce and the other with refried beans. Sometimes, they buy rocket fireworks (launched into the air, exploding with a loud bang) to light when they welcome the corn.

The labor division between men and women is essential for this ceremony. Men form several groups, each taking on a different task. One group decorates the altar with *limonaria*. 11 Another makes an arch in front of the house where they will welcome the corn. A third group makes adornments such as *coyol* , *maxochitl* , 12 necklace flowers, and star-shaped flowers with marigolds and *coyol* . A fourth group takes sacks or baskets to harvest enough corn for the ceremony and a few corn stalks with an ear of corn attached. They place these in the corridor outside the *xochicalli* while the rest wrap up the preparations to welcome the corn.

Similarly, the women divide into groups to complete tasks of equal importance. The duties include dressing the deities, preparing the sacrificial chickens, making tortillas, cooking, and serving food and

9 A trio that consists of a violin, huapanguera, and jarana characterized by its rhythmic structure that mixes duple and triple meters. Ceremonial music includes only the melody with no lyrics. 10*Tintinez, pemolez, and alfahorez* are desserts whose principal ingredients include maize flour and *chancaca* (unrefined brown sugar sold in solid cone shapes).

11 Small green leaves used only as decoration.

12 hand-like adornment.

drinks to all participants. The *huehuehtlacatl* coordinates all these activities, ensuring everything is done correctly and on time.

The musicians are another vital element. Their presence is essential to appease Chicomexochitl. As soon as the musicians arrive, they begin to play and stop when the *huehuehtlacatl* concludes the ceremony of corn. When they start to play, those present, men and women, dance in front of the altar. Those who arrive later greet everyone and start to dance; they all take turns dancing. The musicians play a specific song when sacrificing the chickens, welcoming the corn, and placing the offerings on the altar. They know which piece corresponds to each stage of the ceremony. If they play the wrong melody, the *huehuehtlacatl* reminds them of the correct piece.

Around noon, the *huehuehtlacatl* announces it is time to welcome the corn at the arch. Men grab the corn and wait outside in front of the arch facing the *xochicalli*. Women take the corn stalks, stand facing the men, and welcome the corn. Women, men, and children gather by the arch; as the music plays, everyone dances. They adorn the corn with flowers and incense it. The musicians must not cease to play, even for a second those carrying the corn dance continuously. At the *huehuehtlacatl's* signal, they conclude the first part of the ceremony by bringing the corn inside. Everyone stands by the altar.

As some continue dancing, the men empty the corn in the center of the room. They stack it to form a cylinder about half a meter high. The stacked corn's top layer serves as a table where women and men lay out the offerings. First, they place the necklace and *coyol* arrangements; then, they offer food, fruit, and drinks (non-alcoholic). Meanwhile, the rest continue dancing. Once they place all the offerings and incense, everyone dances for an extended period. Then they eat, laugh with joy, and share anecdotes that have happened to them in the milpa. The children eat and talk about games. Everyone is joyful. They are happy and grateful to Chicomexochitl; they will have maize again.

When everyone finishes eating, women and men prepare sweet tamales with tender corn (kernels in the milk stage). Some carefully remove the green corn husks they will use to make the tamales. Others cut the kernels from the cob and grind them using a metate or mill. They collect the corn dough in one container and the juice separately to make special atole, *eloatolli*. Everyone gathers around the table to make tamales. Once all the tamales are wrapped, they cook them in a clay pot and some fresh corn over the fire. Over another fire, they prepare and cook the atole. While the corn tamales and the atole are cooking, the adults talk about the work they still need to do in the fields. Once again, they share a meal; they eat tamales and drink atole. To conclude, they divide any leftovers equally among all.

*Elotlamanah* is transitioning from a communal practice to a private practice. The shift is significant in Chicontepec; Nahuas only celebrate *Elotlamanah* with their kin. The communal practice dropped as fewer community members were willing to organize the ceremony, contribute economically, and volunteer. Wealthy families who believe in Chicomexochitl practice *Elotlamanah* in their homes only when they have a high crop yield and limit invitations to their extended family. Celebrating it only when there is a high crop yield makes the practice folkloric. The switch from a communal to a private celebration weakens harmony in the community and creates divisions and rivalries. *Elotlamanah*, a celebration that honors and thanks Chicomexochtl, passes to signal family wealth and exclusion. Those who cannot afford to celebrate *Elotlamanah* yet maintain strong faith in Chicomexochitl celebrate *miyahuacalaquiah*, an offering to the tasseled plant.

### *Miyahuacalaquiah***: Offering to the Tasseled Plant**

The offering to the tasseled maize plant is a small ceremony practiced at home when a family needs to harvest before/after the communal *Elotlamanah*, they do not have the capital to organize their own, or there is no *Elotlamanah* celebration in their community. The meaning of *Miyahuacalaquiah* is the same as *Elotlamanah*. The family demonstrates their gratitude for the season's yield by giving offerings to Chicomexochitl.

All members of the household participate; everyone helps with the task. Some purchased items are bread, *rozca*, soft drinks, candles, a vase, and a copal. At dawn, before anyone has even a cup of coffee, a member

of the family, usually the father, sets out to bring the corn stalks. They cut stalks from each corner and one from the center of the milpa. If the ears are ripe, they bring five. The father divides the stalks into two bunches and adorns them with marigold flowers. Upon arriving home, he waits outside the common room. The master of the ceremony, usually the mother, gathers everyone inside the house to welcome the maize. The family meets the maize at the door and greets it reverentially. Each person takes the *popochcomitl* and incenses the stalks. The father brings the stalks inside, placing one on each side of their alter.

To conclude, the family places food offerings on the table including coffee with *rozca* and chicken soup with freshly made tortillas (see Fig. 12.4). The family waits between 5 to 8 minutes for the corn deity to take the offering. The ceremony then ends, and the family eats their first meal of the day together. After *Miyahuacalaquiah*, the family can start harvesting or wait for the corn to dry.

**Fig. 12.4** Miyahuacalaquiah. De la Cruz Cruz. 2017 [Miyahuacalaquiah][Photograph])

### **380 E. de la Cruz Cruz and English translation by Brisa S. Zavala**

Domestic rituals' protocol varies by household. Parents do not narrate the process, give instructions, or explain the meaning of each action. Children must carefully observe and remember every detail to practice when they marry and pass it down to their children. The altar is an example of this. Each household has an altar, a table against the wall in the common room. Table size can vary from 1 meter by 0.5 meters to 2 meters by 0.75 meters. Most families have catholic imagery (cross, saints) due to syncretism. The amount of imagery varies from a few to having a whole wall/table plastered with imagery. Parents may teach their children to make the sign of the cross when approaching the altar and other parents teach them only to give reverence (explained in the *Xinachtli* section).

Today, few Nahuas of Chicontepec people practice this ceremony. When it is corn season, they harvest and eat it; they do not even offer a candle to the maize as gratitude for corn. Many elders say, "Chicomexochitzin is sad. They have not fed or given him a drink, and now he wants to abandon us." Elders express that the decline in corn production, droughts, and suffering in the region is because the people have forgotten Chicomexochitl, *cualli nemiliztli,* and the ways of our ancestors. If we take no action, *Miyahuacalaquiah* will be lost, as has happened with *Miltlacualtiah* and *Cintlacualtiah.*

### *Cintlacualtiah:* **Offering to Maize Grain**

*Cintlacualtiah* is a ceremony to ask that the season's harvest lasts until the next harvest. In Chicontepec, there is no record of anyone actively practicing this ceremony. Elders I interviewed recounted that their grandparents spoke of this ceremony; however, they do not recall witnessing it. Interviewees stated that families should feed and water the maize where they store it. The explanation did not extend beyond that. *Cintlacualtiah* was likely lost in the region of Chicontepec four to five generations ago.

A possible remnant of *Cintlacualtiah* is the *cintetl*, maize stone. This stone is about the size (length, width, and thickness) of a *piquiz*. 13 A person can find one when they are tilling their milpa. The front of the stone has engraved grooves lengthwise, resembling furrows. The back is smooth. People say that the *Ahuahquez* 14 drop them when it rains. Only the chosen will stumble upon these rocks; when they do, so long as they tend to their milpa, they will always have an abundance of corn.

When Nahuas harvest maize, they collect dry whole ears of corn with and without intact husks. Larger, heavier corn that animals have not picked at are left with the husk. These are stacked and stored inside the house/shack or against an outside corridor. If the family has a *cintetl,*  they put this in the center of the stack. The *cintetl* will help the corn last until the next harvest. Any dry corn left when the next harvest arrives passes to be *xicintli*, which means old corn. The dry corn harvested without husks is either small, rotten, or has birds pecked it. The family consumes this corn first, then the dry corn with husks.

In 1996, when I was ten, I last recall my mom doing this. Although we still have a *cintetl,* she no longer stores it with the maize. Perhaps several generations ago, families made offerings to the maize after storing it. They may have expressed gratitude for having corn to harvest and bring home and thanked Chicomexochitl for being in their home with them. Today, only this ceremony's name is known; Nahua scholars such as Arturo Gómez Martínez and Rafael Nava Vite also mention it in their work (Gómez Martínez, 2002, p. 83; Nava Vite, 2012, p. 39). There is no evidence of its practice.

### *Tlatlacualtiah:* **Rain Petition**

*Tlatlacualtiah* is a sacred ceremony of great cultural value to ask for a good rain season and social and life relations. Several villages gather to organize and carry out this tradition over four days. The first three days are preparation of the offerings, and on the last day, they pilgrimage to

13 Bean tamal.

14 Water entities.

*Postectli*, a sacred mountain also known as *Ichcacuatitla*. Elders say we must practice *Tlatlacualtiah* every two years and give an offering to the village wells every year to ensure sufficient rain each year.

A person from the community must self-appoint as the lead organizer. During one of the community meetings, the led organizer steps up to remind everyone of the need to celebrate *Tlatlacualtiah*. The community must express willingness to help, and a handful of people must volunteer to organize the ceremony; this group becomes the ceremony committee. The ceremony is not held if there is not enough support. Then the led organizer and the committee invite nearby villages to participate. Each participating village forms its committee. The committees of participating villages gather to bring together all necessary items and participants, including the *huehuehtlacatl* and the musicians.

The first three days of *Tlatlacualtiah* include cleansing all participants, making flower arrangements, cutting paper representations of deities, dancing, and gathering all offerings (e.g., sacrificial chickens/ roosters, bread, soda, beer, cookies). On the fourth day, before dawn, everyone gathers at the *xochicalli*. Each person takes an offering (pack of drinks, basket of bread, chicken) and is responsible for carrying it to the top of the sacred mountain without setting it down or asking for help.  Undertaking the hike is an immense sacrifice. Pilgrims fast from the previous night until the end of the ceremony (late afternoon). They must abstain from eating, drinking, and going to the bathroom.

When they arrive at the mountain base, they stop at a well at the foot of the mountain, leave an offering for the water deity, and start up the mountain. They pass two sacred sites on their way to the mountain's peak. The first site is near the start of the base, and the second is halfway up the mountain. Both are referred to as the old/ancient table, referencing the table there. The table is made from bamboo. They place part of the offerings at each table; everyone dances while praying for a good rain season. Prayers are directed to Chicomexochitl, the deity of the sun, fire, water, earth, and *tlahueliloc*. 15 They place the remainder

15 A deity of both good and evil. It can bestow and take wealth, health, and overall wellbeing.

of the offerings at the summit, dance, pray, and conclude the rain petition. Various details and rules regarding this ceremony are omitted.

The *huehuehtlacatl* throughout the ceremony, starting on the first day, gives the community advice on how to live a good life. He reminds them of the importance of the family unit, the responsibility each person has, and advice on how to handle disagreements with each other. He points out problems he sees within the community and how they should resolve them. This is an integral part of his role during the ceremony to ensure the restoration of harmonious social relations.

Today the villages of Chicontepec only gather to practice this ceremony after multiple years of drought that cause extreme water rationing (a bucket of water per day per person), little to no corn production, and dying livestock. Only then do concerns arise. The last ceremony was in Tecomate in 2019, after over ten years. That year they hiked Tepecxitlan instead of *Postectli.* The local government banned anyone from hiking *Postectli* because people died while hiking due to a lack of maintenance. This ceremony requires an act of great faith, effort, and respect for the deities, bringing together different villages of the region to participate. Its lack of practice reflects declining faith in the local religion, the shift from community union to personal greed, and the loss of cultural capital (knowledge and environment).

### **Maize Ceremonies and** *Cualli Nemiliztli*

*Cualli nemiliztli* is a Nahua concept of wellbeing rooted in being joyful across all aspects of one's life and projecting a good attitude when undertaking daily tasks. Those who practice *cualli nemiliztli*  demonstrate a high degree of coexistence, respect people and nature alike, and unite in stressful situations. The maize ceremonies echo these principles.

A joyful and faithful heart is the center for any of the maize ceremonies. Everyone participating must be free from feelings of sadness, fear, envy, jealousy, anger, and resentment. If even one person holds such feelings or is doubtful of the practice the deities manifest their displeasure by causing candles to fall, items to break, and that

person to feel dizzy; the ceremony is not as effective. The *Xinachtli*  ceremony sets the tone for the season within each family unit. Everyone starts the agricultural cycle practicing the core values of cualli nemiliztli. They start joyfully placing their hope and faith in the seed together*.*  The frequency of ceremonies pushes people to resolve and let go of negative feelings, thus maintaining social harmony. The loss of even one ceremony allows for disagreements and conflicts to cement into rivalries that start to weaken kin, community, and regional ties.

Corn needs coexistence and balance in nature to flourish. All ceremonies have elements plea for balance in nature so that the corn may flourish. Although the ceremonies are centered around maize, prayers during each ceremony include various aspects of nature and human life. *Miltlacualtiah* is a ceremony asking that the crop continue growing and reach maturity. There is an understanding that wild animals will eat from the crop. Offerings to the milpa are so that animals do not excessively damage the crop and jeopardize the family's food security. During *Tlatlacualtiah,* Nahuas ask that the surroundings return to their lush state (edible plants, medicinal plants, weeds). They ask for sufficient rain, for the heat to subside but not for it to be gone. All pleas to Chicomexochitl and other deities ask for a balance, not an excess. The lack of practice of these ceremonies results in individuals focusing their energy on accumulating goods (large houses, money, livestock) rather than reflecting on how they can live a more balanced life.

Respect among family, community members, and across villages is incorporated into each ceremony. In domestic rituals, the mother's and father's roles are of equal importance. Similarly in communal ceremonies, such as *Elotlamanah*, labor is divided among men and women. All tasks are of equal importance. When villages gather to organize *Tlatlacualtiah* each village has an equal voice. The hosting village is not privileged or prioritized. These two ceremonies allow community members to interact in a conflict-free space; the lack of practice allows conflicts to fuel rivalries that, in turn, deteriorate respect.

One of the functions of *Elotlamanah* and *Tlatlacualtiah* is to strengthen the sense of belonging and group identity. Participating in a group ritual develops and strengthens camaraderie. Participants feel a sense of security knowing that they have a network of friends to fall back on during stressful life situations such as the birth of a child or the loss of a family member. The decreased practice results in individuals feeling excluded, relying only on kin, and shifting toward an egotistical mentality.

The loss of these practices has resulted in the destabilization of communities. Out of the five maize ceremonies, about five generations ago, we lost practice and knowledge of *Cintlacualtiah*. Our parents stopped practicing *Miltlacualtiah*; knowledge of how to carry it out may soon be lost with our grandparents. Our generation stopped practicing *Tlatlacualtiah* and *Elotlamanah.* We ignore elders' advice to resume these practices. Those who practice *Elotlamanah* do so to display their wealth and have forgotten the community aspect and the ceremony's true meaning. We only practice *Xinachtli*, one out of the five maize ceremonies. If there is no intervention, over the next two to three generations, the corn ceremonies will cease to be practiced in Chicontepec. The celebration of these ceremonies will become folkloric at best. We need to try to revive these ceremonies and involve the younger generation.

Page 21 Figure 1. Maize Page 24 Figure 2. Paper cut out representing Chicomexochitl Page 24 Figure 3. Ears of corn representing Chicomexochitl

Page 30 Figure 4. Miyahuacalaquiah.

### **References**

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## **Index**

**A**

Academia Literaria de la República del Paraguay 181 Acaponeta 134 Acaray-mí 153 African people 168, 169 Africa, West 268 agave (*Agave* sp.) 4, 76, 199, 205 AGN, Archivo General de la Nación, Lima 44 Aguero, María Dorotea 168 Aguiay, Fermín 167, 168 Aguirre, Leonor de 114 Agustín y Nomamea, Oní 139 *Ahuahquez* 360, 381 *akat* 284 Álamos district 129, 130 Álamos, Real de los 135, 142 Justicia Mayor of the 142

alcalde 81, 117, 176. *See also alcalde mayor alcalde mayor* 67, 115 *Alianza Mexicana contra el Fracking*  238 All Saints' Day. *See* Day of the Dead *altepetl* 57, 60, 68, 70, 71, 79, 81, 231 Alto Culebras. *See* Pariacllanque Alto Paraná 153 Alvarado, Francisco de 330 Amalinalco 70, 71 amaranth (*Amaranthus* sp.) 69 Amarilla, Juan José 129 Amazonian region 154 America, Central 4, 259, 265, 266, 282 American carob tree (*Prosopis pallida*) 28, 44

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2024 J. Olko and C. Radding (eds.), *Living with Nature, Cherishing Language*, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38739-5

American cherry tree (Prunus serotina) 64 America, North 8, 199, 266 America, South 3, 5, 8, 154, 266, 267 *amparo* 109, 116 ancient knowledge 24 Andean area 28 Andean cordillera. *See* Andes Andean societies 9, 23 Andes 3, 9, 24, 27, 46 Andes, Central 25 Andes, Central, region 26, 46 Añengara, Norberto 167 Anguis, Manuel 130 Añil Punta 36 anise (*Pimpinella anisum*) 373, 376 anthropogenic disasters 25 anti-fracking 14, 224, 225, 237–244, 247, 249–251 Antilles 227 Anuamea, Ignacio 139 Anzures, Doña Ana de 80, 82 Apache people 303 Aparipí 168 Apizaco 70 Apóstoles 173–175 apple (*Malus domestica*) 205, 206, 376 Aquismón 229 Arandí, Margarita 161 Araquí, María Solome 174 Araro, Andrés 174 Archivo General de la Nación (Mexico) 168 Archivo General del Estado de Sonora (AGES) 129, 130 Archivo Histórico de Jalisco 137

Archivo Histórico General del Estado de Sinaloa 137 Arcos y Rivera, Diego de 75 Argentina 153, 161, 180, 181 Arias de Saavedra, Hernando 160 Aripuy, María Rosa 161 Arizona 134 Arizpe, Intendancy of 137 Arze, Juan Ignacio 139 asparagus (*Asparagus officinalis*) 29 Asunción 158–160, 168, 179, 180 Asunción Nochixtlán 103 *Atlatlacualtiliztli*, ceremony. *See*  Tlatlacualtiah Atoyac River 77, 83 Audiencia court 73 of Guadalajara 138, 142, 143, 147 of Mexico 101 Augustinian order 227 Augustinians. *See* Augustinian order Avá-Chiripá people 12, 153, 154 Avila, Martina 337 avocado (*Persea americana*) 282 Axtla de Terrazas 229, 239 Ayala, Manuela 168 *ayut* 284 Aztatlán 134 Aztec Empire 57, 59 Aztec people 247 Aztecs. *See* Aztec people

### **B**

Bacajaquito 130 Bachaca 129 Bachoco el Alto 126 bachomo (*Baccharis glutinosa*) 128 Bacusa 130, 144–147

Báez, Cristóbal 84 Báez, Gabriel 84 *baldías,* wasteland 65, 70, 96 bamboo (subfamily *Bambusoideae*) 284, 375, 382 banana (*Musa* sp.) 226, 284, 376 Baqui, Ramón 139 Baquivi, Fernando 139 *bara de castilla* (*Gynerium sagittatum*) 284 barley (*Hordeum vulgare*) 72 Baroyeca 135, 144 Baroyeca District 130 *barrancas* 194, 204 Barrio 18 271 Basso, Keith H. 302 Batwe Cowiktipo. *See* Cohuirimpo Baucke, Florian 177 beans (family *Fabaceae*) 133, 226, 282–284, 288, 336, 376 Belize 304 *bienes de comunidad* 98 biocultural heritage 301, 314 Boas, Franz 260 Boone, Elizabeth Hill 305 Borbón, Luisa de 173 Bourbon reforms Bourbons, dynasty 227 Braga 177 Brazil 153, 169, 180, 181 Buaysiacobe 126 Buenos Aires 157, 169, 171–174, 179 Burgos Basin 234 Burma.  *See also*  nopal; Pachycereus cactus Calderon, Diego de 159 Calderon, Mencía de 159 California, Gulf of 131 Calotmul, Yucatán 309, 312, 316 camelids (family *Camelidae*) 25, 29. *See also* guanaco, *Llama*  Camelot project 192 *camino real* 84 Camoa 129, 137, 141, 143, 144, 147 Campos, José Manuel de 130 Canada 272, 340 migration to 272, 340 Cancun, Yucatán 300 cannabis (*Cannabis* sp.) 18, 284 Capetamaya 128, 130 Captain General of the Mayo River. *See* Mayo River, Captain General of *cargos* 199 Carnival. *See Viko kasiki*

Carob. *See* American carob tree (*Prosopis pallida*) carrizo (*Arundo donax* ) 128 carrot (*Daucus carota*, subsp. *Sativus*) 282, 284, 285 Casa de Huérfanas y Recogidas: an orphanage and a women's shelter or asylum 160 *Casa de la Cultura* (El Salvador) 262 Casas Grandes 134 Casma culture 38, 41 Cassava. *See* manioc Castile 68 Castilianization 228 Castillo de Huarmey 34, 35, 37 cat (*Felis catus*) 231 catfish (order *Siluriformes*) 283 Catholic religion 336 cattle (*Bos taurus*) 63–65, 69, 70, 84, 100, 114, 118, 159, 161, 168, 227 caulote (*Guazuma ulmifolia*) 285 Cazones River 225, 226 Cedros River 144 cédula, Real cédula 96, 101, 170 cemeteries 32, 33, 35, 38 cenote 15, 16, 298–312, 314–316 Censo Nacional (El Salvador) 262 centipede (class *Chilopoda*) 128 Central America. *See* America, Central Central Andes, region. *See* Andes, Central Central Coast of Peru. *See* Peru, Central Coast of Central Library (Yucatán, Mexico) 302 Central Mexico. *See* Mexico, Central Cerro Colorado 129

Cerro León I 36 Cerro Lliplli 41 Cerro Perolito 41 Ch'a Cháak 311 Cháak 300, 308, 309, 311, 312 Chachoapan 103 Chacón, Félix 106–108 Chacuas Jirca 41–43 Chacuas Jirca Phase 41 *Chala* natural habitat 27 Chalcatongo de Hidalgo 331 Chalchihuites 134 Chametla 131 Chan Chan 38 Chao Valley 38 Chapel Hill 132, 301 Charles II Habsburg 81 Charles III Bourbon 170 Charles IV Bourbon 173 Chau, Miguel. *See* Chauy Miguel Chauy, Miguel, or Chau 176 Chauy, Norberto 177 Chavéz de Guzmán, Pedro Martín de 114, 116 Chávez family in colonial Oaxaca 113, 115, 116 Chávez, Miguel 116 Chávez y Guzmán, Pedro de 113 chayote (*Sechium edule*) 64, 284 *chayu*. *See yuhuitayu*  Ch'en Mul Cenote 303, 304 cherry tree. *See* American cherry tree (Prunus serotina) Chiapas 234, 265 chia (*Salva hispanica*) 64 Chicama Valley 32 Chichén Itzá 300, 303, 307 chicken (*Gallus gallus domesticus*) 180, 231, 376, 377, 379, 382

Chicomexochitl 347–349, 352, 355–358, 360, 362, 364, 368–371, 375, 377, 378, 380–382, 384, 385 Chicontepec 17, 346–349, 357, 359–361, 366–370, 378, 380, 383, 385 Chicueimalinalco 71 Chihuahua Desert 126 Chihuahua, Mexico 134 *chil* 284 chili (*Capsicum* sp.) 69, 226 *chilola*. *See Viko kasiki chilolo*. *See tee kasiki*  Chimalaco 239, 240, 244 *chinampa* 3 Chinobampo 130 chipilin (*Crotalaria vitellina*) 284 Chiquitos 182 Choymoco 146 *chullpa* 35, 36 ciguapate (*Pluchea odorata*) 285 Cintlacualtiah 360, 380, 381, 385 Cintoquiztli. *See* Xinachtli citrus (Citrus ssp.) 226. *See also*  lime, mandarin, orange City of the Kings. *See* Lima Ciudad de los Reyes. *See* Lima Ciudad Valles 229, 240 Ciudad Valles-Tamazunchale highway 232 Civil War (El Salvador) 45, 262, 270, 272 clams (various species in the class *Bivalvia*) 133 climate 9, 28, 29, 34, 67, 76, 225 climatic anomalies 70, 76, 84, 85 Coast of Oaxaca. *See* Oaxaca, Coast of

coca (*Erythroxylum* sp.) 29 cochineal (*Dactylopius coccus*) 64–67, 100 COCIHP. *See* Coordinadora de Organizaciones Campesinas e Indígenas de la Huasteca Potosina (Mexico) coconut (*Cocox nucifera*) 158 Codex Cortesianus. *See* Madrid Codex Codex Mendoza 325, 335 Codex Nuttall. *See* Codex Tonindeye Codex Tonindeye 334 Codex Tro-Cortesianus. *See* Madrid Codex Codex Vindobonensis. *See* Codex Yuta Tnoho Codex Yuta Tnoho 331 Codex Zouche-Nuttall. *See* Codex Tonindeye coffee (*Coffea* sp.) 226, 231, 246, 247, 373, 375, 376, 378, 379 cognitive categorization 259 Cohuirimpo 128, 137, 139, 143, 147 Cohuirimpo pueblo 126, 127, 147 Traditional Government of 126 Coixtlahuaca, Aztec province of 335 cojín de finca (*Inga preussi*) 284 Colegio de San Felipe y Santiago 135 Colegio de San Luis Potosí 237 Colegio Nacional (Paraguay) 181 colonial architecture 43 colonialism 3, 9, 12, 56, 104, 135, 182, 313 Colonial Mexican Pluvial 67, 71 Colonial period 56, 58, 68, 79, 88, 89, 99, 228, 311

colonisation 18, 65, 89, 155, 181, 226, 300 *Comisión Nacional de Hidrocarburos*  (Mexico) 235 Compañia de Jesús del Colegio de la Nueva Veracruz 116 Company of Jesus. *See* Jesuit order complaint 58, 68, 75, 86 *composición*: legal process of land measurement and awarding property titles 136, 144 compound lordship 112, 113 *comunero* 228 *comunidad agraria* 228 Concepción, mission 172 Concepción, Paraguay 172 Department of 172 *condueñazgo* 119 Congon, *hacienda* 43 congregación 96, 100 congregation. *See* congregación Congress (Mexico) 234 Conicari 128 Conicari, mission 129 Conicari people 128 conquest 37, 42, 44–46, 57, 58, 60, 65, 99, 160, 181, 226, 336 Constitution (Mexico) 234 Contla de Juan Cuamatzi 55, 191, 192. *See also* San Bernardino Contla Contlan. *See* Contla de Juan Cuamatzi contract 4, 10, 11, 99, 102–112, 115–118, 234, 235 Coordinadora de Organizaciones Campesinas e Indígenas de la Huasteca Potosina (Mexico) 236, 238

Coordinating Committee of the Rural and Indigenous Organizations of the Huasteca Potosina. *See* Coordinadora de Organizaciones Campesinas e Indígenas de la Huasteca Potosina (Mexico) copper deposit 34 Cordillera Negra 27, 28 coriander (*Coriandrum sativum*) 285 corn. *See* maize Coronado, Francisco Vázquez 134 Corpus Christi Mission 161 *corregidor* 60, 69, 71, 161, 170, 171 Corrientes Province 176 Cortés, Hernan 60 Cossío, Patricio Gómez de 129 Cotapuquio Ravine 28 cotton (*Gossypium* sp.) 133, 158, 159, 177, 180, 182, 339 cougar. *See* puma covert categorization 259 COVID-19 pandemic 262 Coxcatlán 229 *coyohtzitzin*. *See coyotl coyol* 376, 377 coyol de gato (*Solanum hirtum*) 285 coyote (*Canis latrans*) 4, 278, 375 *coyotl* 204 *coyotl, coyohtzitzin*: historical denomination of Spanish-speaking people in Nahuatl-speaking environment in Mexico 204 Coy River 232 crab-apple (*Malus* sp.) 286 Cravioto Lagos, Francisco 239–241, 248, 251 creole 170, 171

crisis 15, 37, 46, 63, 76, 83–85, 114, 289 crops 29, 63, 65, 69, 98, 107, 109, 133, 140, 144, 146, 158, 159, 226, 227, 231, 237, 269, 368, 374, 375 crow (*Corvus* sp.) 128, 280 crustaceans (subphylum *Crustacea*) 29 Crúz Sánchez, Benito Cristino 332 cuajilote (*Parmentiera edulis*) 285 *cualli nemiliztli* 17, 345, 360, 363, 364, 367, 380, 383 Cuauhtla. *See* San Pedro Cuauhtla Cubil, Nicolás 139–144, 147 cucurbits (family *Cucurbitaceae*) 133. *See also* gourd; squash Cuetzalan Nahuatl. *See* Nahuatl language, Cuetzalan Cuisnahuat 258, 262, 270 Culebras River 27, 28, 35, 38 Culebras River basin 41 Culebras Valley 27, 29–38, 41–43, 45, 46 Culebras Valley Archaeological Research Project 30, 31 Culiacán 131, 134 cultivated fields 46, 64 cultural continuity 5, 16, 24, 148, 307, 329, 330, 339 Cultural Heritage, Ecology and Conservation of Yucatec Cenotes project. *See Patrimonio Cultural, Ecología y Conservación de Cenotes Yucatecos*  cultural identity 42, 258, 270 cultural values 11, 127, 265, 341 Cuncunul, Yucatán 310, 316

custard apple (*Annona squamosa*) 285. *See also* sapote cutthroat trout (*Oncorhynchus clarkii*) 278 CVARP. *See* Culebras Valley Archaeological Research Project

**D**

Day of the Dead 199 deer (*Odocoileus* sp.) 4, 226 DEM. *See* Digital Elevation Models demography 10, 11, 42, 70, 72, 77, 83, 85, 87, 182, 226, 261 Department of Indigenous Affairs (Mexico) 230 depopulation 63, 68, 70, 83, 226 diamond-backed skane, western (*Crotalus atrox* ) 278 diamond-backed snake, eastern (*Crotalus adamanteus*) 278 Dickins, Marguerite 180 Digital Elevation Models 26 discrimination 89, 196, 213, 231 disease. *See* epidemic disease dispossession 19, 61, 62, 97, 99, 144 Doblas, Gonzalo 172, 174 *doctrina* 81 dog (*Canis lupus familiaris*) 64, 231 Dominican order 170 Dominicans. *See* Dominican order donkey, domestic (Equus africanus asinus) 180 Dresden Codex 311 duck, domestic (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) 231 dueños 307, 309

### **E**

eagle (various species in the family Accipitridae) 4, 226, 334 Early Colonial Period 43, 46, 72, 87, 104, 199 Early Intermediate Period 31–34 Early Moche style 31 earthquakes 24, 25, 43, 46, 236 East Melanesia Islands 268 Ébano 237 Echojoa 130 education 12, 154, 155, 158–161, 170, 179, 180, 182, 198, 208, 214, 229, 263, 264, 270, 272, 301, 302, 315 eggplant (Solanum melongena) 286 Ehecatl 354 EIA. *See* U.S. Energy Information Administration *ejidatario* 228, 240 *ejido* 228, 240 El Brujo complex 32 El Dorado 348, 369 El Niño Southern Oscillation 24, 34, 37, 46, 47 Elotlamanah, ceremony 346, 348, 355, 357, 358, 365 El Retiro 129 El Salvador 15, 257–259, 261, 262, 265–267, 269–272, 288, 304 Encina, Carmen 181 *encomienda:* a grant of Indigenous land and laborers 44, 57, 159, 227 in Huaylas 44, 45 Energy Reform (Mexico) 234, 237, 238 England 181 English language 230

Enriquez, Martín 70 ENSO. *See* El Niño Southern Oscillation environment 4–8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 18, 25, 26, 28, 41, 47, 56, 69, 76, 88–90, 126, 136, 146, 156, 196, 206, 207, 209–213, 224, 225, 236, 246, 250, 251, 258, 261, 263, 266, 267, 272, 274–276, 280, 287, 313, 316, 383 epidemic disease 96 Escalante, Pablo Antonio 130 Escuela Secundaria Tecnica Num. 69 (Yucatán, Mexico) 298 Espinoza, Manuel Cayetano 129 *estancia* 43, 63, 68 *et* 284 Etchojoa 128 Ethnobiological classification 275, 280 Ethnobiological naming conventions 259 Etlatongo 103 Europe 158, 180, 236, 321 European people 154 Europeans. *See* European people

### **F**  Facebook 244, 264 Farias, Domissilia 43 fashion 12, 154, 158, 176 Feathered Serpent 307–309, 312, 329, 330, 335, 341. *See also*  Kukulcan; Quetzalcoatl; *Koo Yoso*; Mixtec Quetzalcoatl Felix, Gabriel 130, 144, 145 Ferdinand VII Bourbon 227

Fernando, Prince of Asturias 173 Figueroa, Juan María de 138–140, 142, 146 Figueroa, Miguel María de 139, 141 fish 133, 283, 286 flood 24, 43, 46, 47, 63, 83, 232 Flores, Teodoro 161 fly (order *Diptera*) 286 FMLN. *See* Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional (El Salvador) folk classification 276, 283, 287 folk nomenclature 259, 273, 280, 281, 288 *fondo legal* 98 forest 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 76, 126, 127, 131, 136, 137, 140, 143, 146, 148, 153, 154, 207, 226, 259, 280. *See also monte*  4 Jaguar *Koo Yoso* 333 fracking 3, 14, 224, 225, 233–242, 245–248, 251 France 181 Franciscan missions 170 Franciscan Order 170 Franciscans. *See* Franciscan Order Francisco, Antonio 77 Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional (El Salvador) 270 Frontiers 2, 4, 37 Fuerte River. *See* Zuaque River

#### **G**

García, Francisco 130 General Law of Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Mexico). *See Ley General de Derechos*

*Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas (Mexico)*  General Law of Water (Mexico). *See Ley General de Aguas* (Mexico) Geographic Information Systems 26, 34, 41 Gila River valley 134 Gil, Victorino 146 Gimenes Moyano, Cristóbal 144 GIS analysis. *See* Geographic Information Systems goat, domestic (Capra hircus) 114 González de Zayas, Joaquín Elías 130, 145 González Gallardo, Diego 72, 73 González Gallardo, Francisco 72, 73 gourd (*Cucurbita* sp.) 29, 180. *See also* cucurbits Gran Nayar 131 grape vine (Vitis vinifera) 29 grass (various species in the family *Poaceae*) 284 Green Cenote. *See* Yax Ek' cenote Grimarest, Enrique de 145 Guachuca, Pedro 177 Guadalajara 141, 142, 229 Guadalupe, Real Viejo de 129 guanaco (*Lama guanicoe*) 29 Guanajuato, state 225 Guaraní 12, 153–182 Guaraní language 12, 169, 171, 179, 181, 182 Guaraní people 12, 177 Guarapey, Rosa 161 Guarijío people 133 Guatemala 266, 304 guava (*Psidium* sp.) 158 Guayaré, Miguel 177 Guevara, Isabel de 158

Guinea Forest 268 Gulf of California. *See* California, Gulf of Guzmán, Nuño Beltrán de 134

**H**  *haciendas* 44, 227 healing 10, 12, 55, 56, 85, 86, 89 health 15, 16, 75, 86, 89, 198, 236, 237, 262, 272 hemp. *See* cannabis herbs 56, 86, 260, 279, 285 heritage distancing 301, 313 heron (family *Ardeidae*) 78, 79 Hidalgo, state 225, 234 hilltop 32, 33, 35, 38, 41, 76 Hohokam people 134 Holocene 58 Honduras 304 horse, domestic (*Equus ferus caballus*) 77, 104 Huaca Cao Viejo 32 Huaca de la Luna 32 Huaca del Sol 32 Huacas del Sol y la Luna. *See* Huaca de la Luna; Huaca del Sol *huachapori* (*Cenchrus echinatus*) 125 Huaclilla 103 *huaicos*, land-/mudslides 43 Huamantla 84 Huanchay Ravine 27, 45 *huaquero* 30 *huaraches*, sandal-like shoes 195, 337 Huarmey 27–29, 37, 43–45, 47 Huarmey Province 27, 29, 30, 44–46 Huarmey River 27

Huarmey Valley 29–31, 34, 35, 38, 43–46 Huasteca, region Hidalguense 229 Poblana 229 Potosina 14, 224–226, 229, 237–239, 244 Veracruzana 229, 346, 347, 349, 368 Huastec language. *See* Tének language Huastec people. *See* Tének people Huatabampo 128, 134 Huayacocotla 227 *huayco* 25 Huaylas Province 30, 44 *huehuetlacatl* 374, 376, 377, 382, 383 Huehuetlán 229 Hueyotlipan 65 huistomate (*Solanum donnell-smithii*) 285 Humboldt Current 27 Humboldt, Wilhelm von 260 hunger 83 Husibampo 129, 138, 139, 141, 142, 147

### **I**

Ibarra, Francisco de 134 Ichcacuatitla, mountain. *See* Postectli Ichcacuatitla, sacred mountain 381–382 Identity 8, 13, 16, 35, 147, 154, 202, 216, 224, 247, 248, 250, 251, 258, 265, 270, 313, 340, 384

IDIEZ. *See* Instituto de Docencia e Investigación Etnológica de Zacatecas idolatry 45, 85, 170 Inca Empire 41 Inca people 37 Inca religion 41 Index of Linguistic Diversity 268 indigeneity 264, 265, 269, 280 Indigenous knowledge (IK) 11, 16, 23, 24, 127, 190, 257, 313, 315 Indigenous language 6, 14, 86, 196, 202, 207, 214, 224–226, 228–230, 240, 242, 243, 247, 249, 251, 261, 305, 313 Indigenous people 2, 3, 7, 8, 11, 18, 24, 34, 41, 44, 57, 59, 62, 67, 69, 70, 76, 77, 80, 81, 83, 88, 126, 131, 133, 138, 146, 154, 160, 190, 227, 228, 230–232, 236, 239, 242, 248, 249, 258, 269, 271, 277, 288, 299, 301, 313 of El Salvador 258, 288 of Mexico 236 of Paraguay 160, 181 of Peru 24, 159 Indigenous resistance 14, 85, 224, 227 Indigenous solidarity 14, 224 Indigenous women 159, 177, 180, 182 Indo-Burma 268 InHerit: Indigenous Heritage Passed to Present 301, 316 insects (class *Insecta*) 226 Instagram 264

Institute of Teaching and Ethnological Research in Zacatecas. *See* Instituto de Docencia e Investigación Etnológica de Zacatecas Instituto de Docencia e Investigación Etnológica de Zacatecas 367, 370 *Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía* (Mexico) 229 Interdisciplinary research 30 Irala Burgos, Adriano 153 *Itom ania*, "our world", and Indigenous peoples' relationship to nature 3, 5, 11, 125, 131, 147 *Itundi* 332 Itztacapa 245, 246 *itztoyatl* 56 Ixhuatlán de Madero 347, 368 Ixtenco. *See* San Juan Ixtenco

**J**

jaguar (*Panthera onca*) 4, 226 Jaltepec 103 Jesuit missionaries 153 Jesuit missions 135, 136, 153, 176 Jesuit order 156 Jesuits. *See* Jesuit order Jesús, Paraguay 169 *jmeen* 300, 305 jocote invierno (Spondias lutea) 285 jocote verano (Spondias mombin) 285 Juez Privativo de Tierras 142 Jupsibampo 129

Justicia Mayor of the Real de los Álamos. *See* Álamos, Real de los Juzgado Privativo de Tierras 106

**K**  *kamut* 284 Kaua, Yucatán 299, 309, 310, 316 K'iche' people 304 *kilit* 279, 284 Koo Savi. *See Koo Yoso Koo Yoso* 16, 17, 321–327, 329–335, 337, 341 Kukulcan 307

#### **L**

La Aduana 135 La Cabeza 129 La Cruz 176 *ladinos* 44 La Leche-Zaña-Lambayeque irrigation system 38 La Matanza. *See* Matanza, La land 10, 11, 14, 15, 24, 28, 29, 34, 38, 44, 56, 57, 59–63, 65–67, 69, 70, 72–89, 95–109, 111, 112, 114–119, 125–127, 131, 137–139, 141–147, 160, 168, 192, 205, 227, 228, 232, 236, 237, 242, 248, 250, 258, 266, 269, 288 landscape 2, 3, 11, 14–16, 23, 26, 27, 29, 31, 37, 41, 42, 72, 126, 131, 133, 138, 146, 148, 154, 191, 203, 208, 213, 216, 225, 247, 248, 251, 276, 303, 305, 310, 311, 313, 330

Land tenure and usufruct 136 language revitalization 55, 199, 224, 225, 249, 251, 303, 316 La Pahua 348, 369 Late Pre-Hispanic Period 39, 41 Latin alphabet 155 Latin language 174, 179 La Tzucán 308, 310 Lázaro Cárdenas 332 Ledesa, Juan Antonio de 115, 116 Lenca people 261 Lengua, Martín 45 lentil (*Lens* sp.) 284, 288 Lent, in Christian calendar 336 lexical categorization 259, 275, 276, 278, 288 *Ley General de Aguas* (Mexico) 240 *Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas*  (Mexico) 229 Lima 27, 44 lime (*Citrus* sp.) 376 *limpieza de sangre* 174 *lingua franca* 169 literacy 12, 154, 155, 158–161, 169, 182 Little Ice Age 58 Living Heritage 330, 341 Living Planet Index 268 llama (*Llama glama*) 42 Lo de Ramírez 129 *lomas* vegetation 29 *longue durée* 10, 59, 89 Lopez, Anastacia 263 López, Carlos Antonio 179, 180 López, Francisco 70 López Obrador, Andrés Manuel 235 lorocco (Fernaldia pandurata) 284 Los Camotes 129

Los Chinos 146 Los Nachuquis 125, 147 Los Pilares 130 Lucenilla, José María 130 Luque 168

#### **M**

Maaya t'aan language 298, 300, 306 macaw (different species in the family *Psittacidae*) 226 *macehualli*, a commoner in precolonial and colonial Mexico 110, 367 Macehualli, modern Nahua autoethnonym. *See* Nahua people Machiri, José Matías 139 Macoyagüis people 129, 130, 133 Madrid Codex 311, 312 Magdalena Zahuatlán 106 maguey. *See* agave maize 4, 17, 64, 128, 133, 145, 226, 227, 282, 299, 339, 367–370, 373–375, 377–381, 383–385 Malinche. *See* Malintzin volcano Malintzin volcano 84 mancomunidad 115 mandarin (Citrus reticulata) 285, 286. *See also* citrus Mango Phase 31 Mango site 32 manioc (Manihot sp.) 4, 180 *mano dura* (El Salvador) 271 Manuel, José 139 marigold (Tagetes erecta) 371, 376, 379 marijuana. *See* cannabis

Martínez Aguirre y Viana, Guillermo 138 Martín, Francisco 70 Maryland 236 Masegualpa 85 Matanza, La (El Salvador) 269–271 Matlalcueye. *See* Malintzin volcano Matlalcueyehtl. *See* Malintzin volcano Matlapa 229 *Matrícula de Tributos* 335 *maxochitl* 376 Mayan linguistic family 154 Mayapán 303, 304, 307 Maya people 8 Maya Riviera 300 Mayo peoples 131 *mayordomía* 199 *mayordomo* 77 Mayo River 127, 135, 137, 138, 140, 144, 146, 147 Captain General of 139 Mediterranean-Atlantic world 98 *mekat* 285 melon (*Cucumis melo*) 180 memory 16, 97, 204, 274, 300, 303–305, 329, 331, 341 Mendoza, Diego de 78 Mendoza, Pedro de 159 Mercedarian order 170 Mercedarians. *See* Mercedarian order Merida 302, 308 Mesoamerica 4, 57, 60, 134, 259, 267, 268, 277, 305, 313, 329, 335, 341 Mesoamerican Biodiversity Hotspot 266, 269 mesquite (*Prosopis velutina*) 125 *mestizaje* 313

*mestizo, -a* 239, 246, 249 *mesurco* 205 metate 377 Mexican Alliance Against Fracking. *See Alianza Mexicana contra el Fracking*  Mexican Congress. *See* Mexico, Congress of Mexican Constitution. *See* Mexico, Constitution of Mexicano language. *See* Nahuatl language Mexican Revolution 119, 227 Mexico Central 10, 60, 71 Christianization of 60 Congress of 234 Constitution of 234 Northern 4, 267 Northwestern 3, 5, 9, 11, 117, 127, 131 President of 235 Southern 265, 266 Spanish conquest of 226, 228. *See also* Peña Nieto, Enrique; López Obrador, Andrés Manuel Mexico City 76, 81, 83, 229 Mexico, Gulf of 225, 226, 233 Mexico, Valley of 3 Mexihcah 60 Mezcales 129 *Miccailhuitl* . *See* Day of the Dead microhistory 59, 89 Middle Horizon 34, 36 *milpa* 193 *Miltlacualtiah* 346, 353, 368, 374, 375, 380, 384, 385

MINED. *See* Ministry of Education (El Salvador) Mining Law (Mexico) 234 Ministry of Education (El Salvador) 271 Ministry of Education (Paraguay) 154 Ministry of Energy (Mexico) 237 mint (*Mentha* sp.) 285 Misiones, Argentina 161 Misquy, Pedro 144, 145, 147 mission 5, 135, 136, 142, 172, 174, 177, 182 mission school 12, 155, 170, 173, 181 mission town 12, 126, 169, 174, 176, 304 Mixteca, region 99, 100, 113 Alta 16, 107, 112 Mixtec codices 332 Mixtec communities 331, 339 Mixtec Highlands 332, 335 Mixtec language. *See* Sa'an Savi language Mixtec Lowlands 335 Mixtec people. *See* Ñuu Savi People Mixtec Quetzalcoatl. *See Koo Yoso*  Miyahuacalaquiah, ceremony 348, 355, 378 mo'olco grass 128. *See also* grass Moche 31–35, 37 Moche Valley 32 Mocorito Valley 133 Mogroviejo, Santo Toribio de 45 molcovaso grass 128. *See also* grass Molino 35, 357 molluscs (phylum *Mollusca*). *See also*  clams molluscs (phylum Mollusca) 29

Monterrey VI project 232 *monte*: uncultivated spaces in forests, grasslands, and wetlands; and *huya ania* 4, 74, 76, 77, 83, 127, 131, 137 mo'olco grass 128. *See also* grass Morales, Antonio 168 mosses (phylum *Bryophyta*) 29 Mother Earth goddess (Nahua). *See Totonanan tlaltepactli*  Mother Earth (Ñuu Savi). *See Ñu'u Ndeyu*  mountain lion. *See* puma Moxos missions 182 MS-13 (El Salvador) 271 mulatto, -a 77 multidisciplinary approaches 27 Municipal Development Plan, The. *See Plan de Desarrollo Municipal*  Muñoz, Blas Antonio 130 mushrooms (edible parts of various species in the kingdom *Fungi*) 231 myriapods (subphylum *Myriapoda*) 29 myrtle (may refer to any of various plant species) 56 mythhistory 308

**N**  *nahuahablante* (Nahuat-Pipil) 262–264 Nahua people 110, 346–348, 353–366, 367 Nahuat. *See* Nahuat-Pipil people; Nahuat-Pipil language Nahuatl language 17, 86, 200, 329

Cuetzalan 282 Western Huasteca 226 Nahuat-Pipil 15, 258–265, 269, 271, 272, 278, 279, 281–283, 286–288 Nahuat-Pipil language 15, 257, 258, 261, 263, 264, 269, 288 Nahuat-Pipil people 258, 259, 262, 288 worldview of 258, 260 Nahuizalco 258, 262, 270 National Geographic Society 15, 301, 316 National Hydrocarbons Commision. *See Comisión Nacional de Hidrocarburos (Mexico)*  National Institute of Statistics and Geography. *See Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografia (Mexico)*  Native people. *See* Indigenous peoples Native women. *See* Indigenous women Nativitas 84 natural environment 2–6, 9, 12–14, 24, 41, 46, 71, 146, 191, 213, 214, 216, 267 natural resources 5, 18, 24, 28, 31, 42, 46, 74, 84, 86, 89, 118, 224–227, 232, 236, 248, 250, 251 Navojoa pueblo 130, 137, 138, 140, 142 Nawat. *See* Nahuat-Pipil people; Nahuat-Pipil language negro. *See* African people Ñema, Manuel 176 *neohablante* 262–265

Nepeña Valley 31 New Spain 11, 57, 58, 64, 65, 76, 82, 97, 112, 126, 132, 136, 147, 227 Northwestern 126, 132, 146 viceroy of 78 New York, state 236 9 Wind God. *See Koo Yoso*  nispero (*Manilkara achras*) 285, 286 Niza, Marcos de 134 Nochixtlan. *See* Asunción Nochixtlan nopal (*Opuntia* sp.) 65 North America. *See* America, North North Coast of Peru. *See* Peru, North Coast of Northwestern Mexico. *See* Mexico, Northwestern Northwestern New Spain. *See* New Spain, Northwestern *Ntyivi Savi* 330. *See also* Mixtec people *Ñu'u Ndeyu* 340 Ñudzahui language. *See* Sa'an Savi language Ñudzahui people. *See* Ñuu Savi people Nuestra Señora de la Concepción. *See* Concepción, Paraguay Nueva Cádiz type 43 Nueva Vizcaya, Kingdom of 135, 136 Nuevo León, state 231, 233, 236 Nundaco 325, 337 Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar 134 Nutini, Hugo G. 192, 194, 195, 207 *ñuu* 100, 101 *Ñuu Ka'nu*. *See* Santo Tomás Ocotepec

Ñuu Ndeya. *See* Chalcatongo de Hidalgo Ñuu Savi People 341 Ñuu Yute Suji 322–327

### **O**

oak (*Quercus* sp.) 277 Oaxaca, state 234 Coast of 118 *obrajes* 68 *ocote* 206, 207 *ocoxal*: dried, sand-like resin of *ocote*  pine 206, 207 Ónavas Valley 134 onions (*Allium* sp.) 282 Ontiberos, Julián 130 opium poppy (*Papaver somniferum*) 18 orange (*Citrus* × *sinensis*) 180, 279, 285, 376. *See also* citrus *ordenanza* 80 Order of Friars Minor. *See*  Franciscan order Order of Preachers. *See* Dominican order Osobampo 129 Ostimuri, province of 11, 127, 132, 144 Otomanguean linguistic family 226 Otomí people 227 owls (order *Strigiformes*) 226

### **P**

Pacatnamú 38 PACECCY. *See Patrimonio Cultural, Ecología y Conservación de Cenotes Yucatecos*

*pachacuti*, Andean concept 25 Pachycereus cactus (*Pachycereus* sp.) 128 Pacific Ocean 24, 39 Pahaya, Gregorio 161 Pame people. *See* Xi'iuy people Pampas 28, 45 Pañamarca 31 Pánuco River 232 Papua New Guinea, languages of 247 Paquimé 134 Paraguay 5, 153–155, 158, 168–170, 174, 179, 180 bishop of 169, 170, 174 colonial province of 156 Paraná 12 Paraná River 12 Paraye, Juan Antonio 174, 175 Pariacllanque 28 Parral 135 partnership 11, 99, 102–108, 111, 112, 115–118 Parvicino, José Cayetano 169 paterna (*Inga paterno*) 284 *Patrimonio Cultural, Ecología y Conservación de Cenotes Yucatecos* 301 Paucke, Florian. *See* Baucke, Florian peach (*Prunus persica*) 64, 205 peanut (*Arachis hypogaea*) 376 pear (*Pyrus* sp.) 205, 285 PEMEX. *See Pétroleos Mexicanos S.A. de C.V.*  Peña de Paz, Francisco 237, 238 Peña Nieto, Enrique 235 People of the Rain. *See* Ñuu Savi people pepetillo (*Inga spuria*) 284

pepeto (*Inga* sp.) 284 pepeto negro (*Inga leptoloba*) 284 Pérez de Bocanegra, Francisca Jesusa 160 Peru Central Coast of 34 Early Colonial or Early Hispanic 4, 9 North Coast of 27, 28, 31, 38 Pacific Coast of 24 Pre-Hispanic 4, 9, 45 Spanish conquest of 41 Viceroyalty of 159 Peruvian coast. *See* Peru, Pacific Coast of Petastoma patellifera 285 Petatlán 131, 133–135, 148 *Petatlán*, land of reed houses 131 *Pétroleos Mexicanos S.A. de C.V.* 234, 235, 237, 240 Philip II Habsburg 96 Philip IV Habsburg 228 Philippines, the 273 Piedras Verdes 135 pig, domestic (Sus scrofa domesticus) 231 pindó palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) 154 pineapple (Ananas comosus) 159, 285 *piocha* (*Melia azedarach*) 125 Pipil. *See* Nahuat-Pipil people; Nahuat-Pipil language pitahaya (*Selenicerues* sp. or *Stenocereus* sp.) 4 Piura Valley 31 Pizarro, Francisco 45 placemaking 5, 302, 303, 305, 313, 315

*Plan de Desarrollo Municipal* 240 plants 4, 15, 17, 24, 29, 38, 44, 55, 56, 64, 69, 71, 76, 80, 84, 86, 89, 128, 131, 133, 143, 147, 154, 199, 205, 210, 226, 231, 232, 246, 258–260, 266, 267, 273–285, 287, 288, 370, 373–375, 378, 384 plum (*Prunus* sp.) 205 Popol Vuh 304 poppy. *See* opium poppy pork 70 Portuguese people 159 Postclassic period 300 Postectli 347, 361, 363, 382, 383 Postectli Mountain 368 Potones. *See* Lenca people pre-Columbian era 31 pre-Hispanic environment 31 pre-Hispanic peoples 29 President of Mexico. *See* Mexico, President of primary center 32, 35, 38 PROCEDE land certification program (Mexico). *See Programa de Certificación de Derechos Ejidales y Titulación de Solares (Mexico) Programa de Certificación de Derechos Ejidales y Titulación de Solares*  (Mexico) 223, 228 Program for Certification of Ejido Rights and Titles of Lots, The (Mexico). *See* Programa de Certificación de Derechos Ejidales y Titulación de Solares (Mexico) *propio* 111 protector de Indios 142

protector of Indians. *See* protector de Indios Proto-Aztecan language 280 Puebla de los Angeles. *See* Puebla de Zaragoza Puebla de Zaragoza 62 Puebla, state 68, 234, 236 Pueblo de Concepción. *See*  Concepción, Paraguay *pueblo de indios* 142 Pueblo Real de Nuestra Señora de la Concepción. *See* Concepción, Paraguay *pueplum* 131 *pulque* 76, 199 puma (*Puma concolor* ) 29 pumpkin. *See* squash Punta de la Laguna 126 *puquios*, natural springs 25, 28, 34, 46

### **Q**

Qroba, José. *See* Quiroga, José, or Qroba *quauhtla*. *See monte*  Quauhtzincola 72 Querétaro, state 225, 234 Quetzalcoatl 329, 333, 334, 341 quetzal (*Pharomachrus mocinno*) 334 Quián 27 Quillapampa 32 Quillapampa Phase 32 quince (*Cydonia oblonga*) 64 quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa*) 4 Quiriego 130, 144, 145 Quiroga, José, or Qroba 139 *quollqa,* public warehouses 42

### **R**

rabbit, domestic (*Oryctolagus cuniculus*) 231 Ramirez, Juana 67 Ramón de Soto, José 130 rancho 82 Raqui, Ignazio 139 Rarámuri people 133 Real Camara 110 real cédula. *See* cédula Real Colegio Seminario de San Carlos, Asunción 174, 179 Real de los Álamos, Justicia Mayor of the. *See* Álamos, Real de los Real de Ostimuri. *See* Ostimuri Real de San Joseph de Guadalupe. *See* San José de Guadalupe Real de Santa Bárbara. *See* Santa Bárbara realengo 136, 137, 140–143 Reales de los Álamos. *See* Álamos, Real de los *reales de minas* 135 Real viejo de Guadalupe. *See*  Guadalupe, Real viejo de *Recopilación de leyes de los reinos de las Indias* 57 Recuay Province 44 red sparrow (*Passerella iliaca iliaca*) 281 red sweet potato. *See* sweet potato *reducción*. *See* reductions of Indigenous inhabitants reductions of Indigenous inhabitants 46 reed (various species in the order Poales) 28, 41, 128, 143 *repúblicas de indios* 58 Reque Canal 38

resilience 2, 3, 5, 10, 85, 87, 88 resources, control of 10, 90 Reyes Jiménez, Francisca 323, 331 Río Chico 130, 135 Río de la Plata 5 basin 5 Río Zahuapan. *See* Zahuapan River Rodríguez de Francia, José Gaspar 179 Roman alphabet. *See* Latin alphabet Roman law 10, 102 Rosal Valladaraes, Rogel del 236 rue (*Ruta graveolens*) 282 Ruiloba, Lucas 130 Ruiz de Montoya, Antonio 12, 155, 182

#### **S**

Sa'an Savi language 16, 330 Saccho Lagoon 28 Sacred Cenote of Chichén Itzá 300, 303 Sa Juan Tiyuqh. *See* San Juan Sayultepec Salido, Bartolomé 129 Salido de Exsodar, Bartolomé 129 Samaniego, Mateo Gil 129 SAMS 202 San Andres Atata. *See* San Andrés Sinaxtla San Andrés Sinaxtla 102, 105 San Antonino 113 San Antonio 229, 238, 240 San Bernardino Contla.   *See* Asunción Nochixtlán Santa Maria Cuquila 335 Santa María la Mayor 173

Santa María Yucuhiti 331 Santa Rosa 173 Santelizer, Simón de 139 Santiago de Huambo 45 Santiago Nuyoo 331 Santo Angelo 173 Santo Domingo de Guzmán 258, 262, 263, 270 Santo Domingo de Xanca 45 San Toribio Xicohtzinco 77–79, 81, 83, 88 Santos Mártires del Japón 173 Santo Tomás Ocotepec 17, 332, 335, 336, 338, 341 carnival of. *See Viko Tee Kasiki*  Santo Tomé 173 San Vicente Tancuayalab 229, 238 São Francisco do Sul 159 Sapir, Edward 260 Saposero 146 sapote (various species in the families *Annonaceae* and *Sapotaceae*) 64, 285 Savi-Tatyi. *See Koo Yoso*  Sayas, Juan de 129 Scotland 236 *Secretaría de Energía* 237 semantic categorization 259, 275 settlement pattern 2, 33, 35–38, 42, 101, 126 Seville 159 sheep, domestic (*Ovis aries*) 64, 69–71, 114 shrimp (various species in the order *Decapoda*) 133 *shukut* 283, 285, 288 Sierra de Tamaulipas 225 Sierra Madre Occidental 134, 136 Sierra Madre Oriental 225

Sierra Norte de Puebla 200 *Siete Partidas* 98 silver deposit 41 silverfish (*Lepisma saccharinum*) 283 Sinaloa 11, 129, 131, 134–137 province of 127, 132, 138, 147 state 133 Sinaloa, Villa de 135 *snake (as a supernatural being)*. *See Feathered Serpent; Kukulcan; Koo Yoso; La Tzucán; Quetzalcoatl*  Social Inclusion Program PROSPERA (Mexico) 231 *societas* 10, 102 Society of American Archivists 303 Society of Jesus 137. *See also* Jesuit order sociocultural identity 260 Solano, Pedro Joseph 141 Soledad 129 Sonora 132, 135, 136 bishop of 143 state 134 Sonora Desert 126, 131, 134 Sonsonate, department of 271 South America. *See* America, South Spain 119, 181 Crown of 10, 63, 169 king of 169. *See also* Charles II Habsburg, Charles III Bourbon, Charles IV Bourbon, Ferdinand VII Bourbon, Philip II Habsburg, Philip IV Habsburg Spaniards. *See* Spanish people Spanish conquest of Mexico. *See*  Mexico, Spanish conquest of

Spanish conquest of Peru.  *See also* cucurbits steam houses 85 story-telling 89 sugarcane (Saccharum sp.) 226, 227 *sujeto* 81, 101 Sulawesi, Indonesia 247 sun god (Ñuu Savi) 334 Superintendencia del Beneficio y Composición de Tierras 106 Suybampo 146 sweet potato (*Ipomea batatas*) 29, 64, 284, 376 symbolic dimensions 41

### **T**

Tabasco, state 234 Tacupeto 135 *Tahcabo, Yucatán* 304, 310, 316 Taimi Canal 38 Taimuco 129 tamarind (*Tamarindus indica*) 284 Tamaulipas, state 225, 233, 236 Tamazunchale 229, 232, 239, 240 *tambos,* centers located along the main roads 42 Tampacán 229 Tampamolón Corona 229 Tampico Basin 234, 237

Tamuín 237, 240 Tamul Waterfall 226 Tancanhuitz 229, 240 Tanlajás 229, 238–240 Tanquián de Escobedo 240 Tariqui, Juliano 161 *tayu*. *See yuhuitayu*  Techialoyan codices 97 Techueca 146 Tecomate 348, 363, 369, 383 Tecomotlán 107, 108, 111 Tecpaxochitzin Maxixcatzin 78 *tee kasiki* 335 Tejutepec 103 *temazcalli*. *See* steam houses tempate (Jatropha curcas) 285 Tének language 226, 230 Tének people 229, 231, 232, 246, 251 *teniente* 75 Ten Ten 39, 41, 42 Ten Ten Phase 38 Teozacualco 115 Tepagüi people 144 Tepahuis. *See* Tepagüi people tepary bean (*Phasoleus acutifolius*) 4 Tepecxitlan 369 Tepecxitlan Mountain 383 Tepeyanco 81 Teposcolula 106 Teposcolula-Yanhuitlán, province of 103 Tesia 128, 129, 137, 140–143, 147 *teso* tree (*Acacia occidentalis*) 128, 145 Texcoco 55 *tierra baldía*,*tierras baldías*. *See baldías tierra del común repartimiento* 112

Tilantongo 103 tillandsia (*Tillandsia* sp.) 29 Tiltepec 103 Tinta Negra collective 247 *Titulos de propiedad* 44 Tlachquiaco, Aztec province of 335 Tlahueliloc 362, 382 *tlahuiztli* 78 Tlaloc 247 Tlatlacualtiah 346, 348, 351, 368, 369, 381, 382, 384, 385 Tlaxcala 10, 13, 55, 56, 59, 61, 64–68, 73, 75, 76, 79, 80, 83, 89, 191, 192, 194, 196, 199, 203, 216 *cabildo* of 62, 63, 65, 83, 87 Tlaxcallan 57, 58, 60–63, 65, 67, 71, 72, 75, 76, 79, 81, 83–87 Tlaxcaltecah 10, 57–60, 63, 67, 68, 70, 71, 84, 87–89 Tlaxiaco 112–117 tobacco (*Nicotiana* sp.) 133 Toledo, Francisco, Viceroy of Peru 43, 45 reforms of 45 tomato (*Solanum lycopersicum*) 282, 285 topileh 77 topoya (*Tournefortia mutabilis*) 56 Torres, José (Joseph) de 82 Torres, Juan de 77, 82 *Totonanan tlaltepactli* 375 Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) 5, 15, 190, 257–260, 272, 273, 288 traditional habitat 42 Tres Marías 129 trial 77, 82, 158 Triple Alliance 335

Triqui people 112 Troano, Manuscript. *See* Madrid Codex *ts'ono'ot* . *See* cenote Tubichapotá, Estanislao 174 Tubichapotá, Francisco Javier 174 Túcume 38 tuna. *See* nopal Tupíi-Guaraní linguistic family 154 turkey, domestic (*Meleagris* sp.) 64, 231 turtle (various species in the order *Testitudines*) 281 Twitter 264 *tzaput* 285, 288 *tzotzoniztatl* 56

#### **U**

United States of America 181, 229, 233, 237, 272, 367 migration to 340 Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán 302 Universidad Católica Nuestra Señora de la Asunción 153 Universidad de Oriente (UNO) 301 University of North Carolina 132, 301, 316 University of Warsaw 367, 372 UNO. *See* Universidad de Oriente Uruguay 176 USA. *See* United States of America Usacamea, Vidal Melchior 139 U.S. Energy Information Administration 233, 234 Usibampo 140, 144 Uto-Aztecan Linguistic family 226 Uxtuapan 242, 243, 247, 249

**V**

Valenzuela, Francisco Javier 130, 145 Valenzuela, Manuel de Jesús 130 Valenzuela, Manuel Ignacio 138, 139 Valenzuela, Marcos de 130 Valladolid 308 Valley of Mexico. *See* Mexico, Valley of Vaquerías 227 *vara* 80 *vecino* 136 Venetian glass 43 Veracruz, state 225, 229, 234, 236, 265 Verdugo, Francisco 67 Vermont, state 236 *Viko kasiki* 322, 325, 326, 329, 335–341 *Viko Tee Kasiki* 325, 326, 332, 339 Villa de Sinaloa. *See* Sinaloa, Villa de Virú-Gallinazo style 31 Voice of the Huasteca. *See XEANT—Voz de la Huasteca*

### **W**

Wales 236 Wallacea 268 WalMart 202 Wari Empire 35, 38 Wastek language. *See* Tének language water 4, 13, 15, 16, 24, 27, 28, 34, 39, 41, 42, 44, 84, 85, 106, 127, 131, 136, 137, 146, 147, 158, 194, 203–205, 207–209, 224, 231–233, 236, 237, 240,

242, 245–247, 249, 250, 283, 332, 372, 380, 382, 383 water contamination 245, 246 water god (Nahua) 232 well-being 6–8, 10, 12–14, 16–18, 59, 68, 84–90, 191, 192, 207, 208, 211, 214, 215, 300, 341 West Africa. *See* Africa, West Western Huasteca Nahuatl language.  *See Yoremnokki*  language Yoremem. *See Yoreme* people *Yoreme* people (Yoremem, pl.) 147 *Yoremnokki* language 125 Yoricarichi 129 Yosoñama 114, 115, 117 Yosotiche 113 YouTube 264 yuca. *See* manioc Yucatán Peninsula 15 Yucatán, state 15, 168 Yucatec language. *See* Maaya t'aan language Yucatec people. *See* Maya people yucca (*Yucca*, sp.) 284 *yuhuitayu* 11, 100, 103 *YungaMarítima* natural habitat 39 *yya* 101, 113

#### **Z**

Zacatelco. *See* Santa Inés Zacatelco Zahuapan River 83, 84 Zapallanga 177 Zavala, Juan Manuel de 142 Zayas, Juan de. *See* Sayas, Juan de Zoque people 237 Zuaque River 131


**Sueli de Oliveira Silva Lautenschlager 1, Tehyung Kim 2, Danielle Lazarim Bidóia 1, Celso Vataru Nakamura 1, Hans-Joachim Anders 2 and Stefanie Steiger 2,\***

Received: 28 November 2019; Accepted: 20 December 2019; Published: 30 December 2019

**Abstract:** Hemozoin is an insoluble crystalline pigment produced by the malaria parasite *Plasmodia* upon digesting host hemoglobin inside red blood cells. Red blood cell rupture releases hemozoin crystals into the circulation from where they are cleared by phagocytes such as neutrophils. We speculated that plasma proteins would affect the ability of neutrophils to clear hemozoin crystals. To test this, we cultured human blood neutrophils with hemozoin ex vivo and found that neutrophils ingested hemozoin (0.1–1 μm crystal size) in a dose-dependent manner into phagosomes and vesicles/vacuoles, resulting in morphological changes including nuclear enlargement, and vesicle formation, but not cell membrane rupture or release of neutrophil extracellular traps. The presence of human plasma significantly inhibited the ability of neutrophils to ingest hemozoin crystals. Platelet-poor plasma further inhibited the uptake of hemozoin by neutrophils. Selective exposure to fibrinogen completely replicated the plasma effect. Taken together, neutrophils cleared hemozoin crystals from the extracellular space via endocytosis into phagosomes and vesicles without inducing the release of neutrophil extracellular traps. However, human plasma components such as fibrinogen limited hemozoin clearance, whereas the presence of platelets augmented this process. These factors may influence the pro-inflammatory potential of hemozoin crystals in malaria.

**Keywords:** hemozoin; neutrophils; plasma; fibrinogen; platelet; malaria