**4. Approaching the problem from an environmental perspective**

The rational use of water should imply its moderate and efficient consumption, and the conservation of its quality after use and release back into the water environment. This idea is a fundamental concern in the Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60/EC of October 23rd, 2000). Several authors point out that improving water management at the fields level is the most effective tool in reducing the impacts of irrigation on the environment [48, 49], is the achievement of this objective, inseparable from convenient management of water resources at the scale of irrigation district [16, 50]. Agricultural and livestock activity is one of the primary sources of non-point source pollution, occurring in extensive areas and highly dependent on its hydrological behavior, which leads to the water bodies substances previously deposited in the soil (fertilizers, phytosanitary products, organic matter) [51]. For this reason, the focus on controlling this type of pollution has been more on indirect instruments such as codes of good agricultural practice embodied in agri-environmental measures complemented with monetary incentives to farmers [52]. In the climatic scenario of water scarcity, a considerable increase in irrigation costs is expected due to the pressure of water demand, so its rational and efficient use, combined with environmental concerns, is an unavoidable issue in modern irrigated agriculture.

*Resilience of Irrigated Agriculture to Face the Challenges in Mediterranean Climatic Conditions… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107882*

#### **4.1 Rational application of fertilizers**

The amount of nitrogen fertilizers incorporated into the soil should be in proportion to its removal by the crops, safeguarding unnecessary spending with excess fertilizer and situations of contamination of soil, water, and atmosphere [53], since, in more oxidized forms, nitrogen is very soluble and mobile, presenting itself as one of the most problematic substances in water pollution [54]. However, this desideratum has not been achieved in recent years in Portugal, and there has even been an increase in the excess of nitrogen fertilizers between 2000 and 2017 from 144.7 to 153.1 thousand tons, corresponding to an increase of 5.8% (**Figure 2**). It should also be noted the importance of gaseous nitrogen emissions from the application of fertilizers in agricultural activity, which in 2017 amounted to 36.3 thousand tons, with a considerable impact on air quality and the water cycle. Nitrogen losses to the atmosphere are volatilized in the form of elemental nitrogen, ammonia ammonium ion, and nitrous oxide, the latter having a very harmful influence on the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere [56].

Concerning the nutrient phosphorus, the amounts applied in fertilizations are much lower, and its mobility in the soil is lower than that of nitrogen and is preferentially loaded outside of agricultural fields together with sediments [57, 58]. Even considering the improvements that have been seen in the characteristics of fertilizers, particularly in the efficiency of absorption of this nutrient by plants, the excess phosphorus applied still has a very high value, contributing to the progressive saturation of the soil with this element. We can verify by reading the graph in **Figure 2** that the phosphorus balance had a significant decrease between 2000 and 2017 (35%), passing the surplus amount of this element from 36.6 to 238 thousand tonnes. In the same period, the situation regarding the nitrogen balance presents an opposite trend.

#### **4.2 Irrigation water quality and the problem of salinization**

The high concentration of salts in the various compartments of its cycle, depending on its nature, may cause inconveniences to economic, environmental, and social order. This problem usually occurs under particular climatic conditions, being typical in irrigated areas where water with high salinity is used [59], frequently by downstream reuse of water that has already been used once or several times in irrigation [60, 61]. In a given agricultural system, the balance of salts is considered adequate when the level of soil salinization is compatible with the expected crop yield [62]. In a scenario of climate

#### **Figure 2.**

*Gross balance (incorporation – Removal by plants) of nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizers applied in agricultural activity in Portugal (Adapted of [55]).*

change for Portugal and Spain, where an increase in temperature is predicted, with a greater incidence of drought phenomena, and a decrease in total annual precipitation, especially in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, the problem of salinization may become an agro-environmental problem with some acuity, due to the decrease in the washing of salts from the soil and its evapoconcentration in the plant root zone [41]. Of particular concern are the areas of more intensive agriculture, with massive applications of fertilizers, namely the areas of irrigation perimeters in southern Portugal and Spain, and, for similitude of climatic conditions, the southern European countries [63]. In Portugal the estuarine zones of some rivers and other coastal areas, and in Spain, especially in the Ebro River valley and large areas between Almeria and Valencia, the soils are potentially affected by salinization. A significant problem is the particular case of salinization called sodization, currently affecting more than 50% of areas near the coast of Cadiz in Spain. Areas near the coast may be affected by the advancement of the seawater interface due to the intensification of groundwater abstractions [64].

In addition to the excessive application of fertilizers to crops, especially irrigated crops, the quality of the water derived for irrigated areas is also a determining factor in inducing salinity in soils [65]. This aspect is crucial when the water abstracted for an irrigation district already has return flows enriched with nutrients (salts) from several irrigation zones and portends a deteriorated quality [66]. If the irrigation water has of good quality, it is usually not degraded after being used and returned to the natural drainage network. To exemplify this idea, the results of two irrigation seasons observed in an experimental basin located at the Irrigation District of Campina da Idanha, in the center-eastern region of Portugal, are presented below. Indeed, it is possible to verify the low mineralization of the irrigation water derived from a distribution channel, whose quality refers to a category of excellent, and slight variation throughout the irrigation season, rarely exceeding the limit of 100 S/cm (**Figure 3**). On the other hand, the return fluxes from this basin also present a good quality regarding this parameter, not compromising its use downstream [68].

Once the problem of soil salinization is installed, some corrective measures can be adopted to improve crop yields, such as (i) adoption of rotations that include crops more tolerant to salinity and that ensure acceptable yields for farmers; (ii) paying particular attention to the crops tolerance to salinity in the emergence phase, practicing

#### **Figure 3.**

*Evolution of water quality (electrical conductivity) in a distribution channel of Idanha Irrigation District (Portugal), and the return fluxes of an irrigated small basin, in irrigation seasons 2004 (a) and 2005 (b), and the maximum recommended value (MRV) of irrigation water quality in Portugal (Adapted of [67]).*

*Resilience of Irrigated Agriculture to Face the Challenges in Mediterranean Climatic Conditions… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107882*

one or more irrigations to decrease the osmotic potential in the soil; (iii) more frequent irrigations than contemplate an adequate leaching fraction for the maintenance of an acceptable salinity level; (iv) adoption of localized irrigation systems, allowing to have high moisture contents in the humidified soil volume mitigating the salinity effect [67].

#### **5. Conclusions**

The edaphoclimatic particularities of the Mediterranean basin, namely in the Iberian Peninsula, determine that irrigated agriculture is unavoidable to guarantee the quality of agricultural products and levels of production to the necessary economic viability. However, this goal implies strong challenges, like the compatibility between agricultural activity and the conservation of natural resources.

The great increase in the efficiency of water use in agriculture was accompanied by a great increase in energy consumption, due the modernization of irrigation systems. In the last 60 years in Portugal, the variation was 15,000 to 6000 m3 /ha.year, and 200 to 1500 kWh/ha, respectively. The use of modern/smart technologies in irrigated agriculture, increasingly widespread in the last time, like Information and Communication Technologies, allow the rapid share of information between all the system components, according to the actual or forecasted situation, and using models and artificial intelligence, can promote optimized answers at different scales (irrigation systems in field, distribution water network in the irrigation project, water storage).

The alternative/unconventional sources of water to supply the necessity in agriculture, already quite contribute to the resilience of this activity in Spain. For example, in 2010, the volume of unconventional water resources in Spain rose to 4.540 hm3 /year. Of the total used in agriculture, 450 hm3 of water comes from the reuse of treated water, and 690 hm3 comes from desalination.

Nevertheless, the main difficulty lies in the price, too high to be supported by farmers, and, many times, in the characteristics of the water obtained. Special mention must be referred about the water transfer between regions under rules of equity, and periodically reviewed. An example in Spain is the water transfer from the Tagus River in a volume of 421 hm3 /year to the Segura River.

The rational application of fertilizers, in line with the crops needs, is a priority, to prevent the contamination of superficial and subterraneous waters, and to prevent the gradual process of soil salinization in semi-arid regions. Equally important is the evaluation of the water quality to irrigation and accounting the amount of nutrients that already contain.

#### **Acknowledgements**

This work is supported with Portuguese national funds by FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., within the following projects: GEOBIOTEC—Project UIDB/04035/2020; CERNAS-IPCB—Project UIDB/00681/2020.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Irrigation and Drainage - Recent Advances*


**6. Final considerations**

**3.5. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria**

20 Grasses - Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles

very low solubility compounds in the soil [63].

*Bacillus*, and *Penicillium* strains [66] have been reported.

**4. Mycorrhizae**

Together with N and K, P is one of the required macronutrients for the cultivation of grasses, whose content concentration is always lower than N and K. However, it is commonly neces‐ sary to use a great amount of phosphate fertilizers in agricultural crops, because in spite of the soils contain a large amount of P their availability to the plants is very little as P tends to form

Phosphorus is an essential element to grasses, since it is necessary and irreplaceable for the com‐ position of ribonucleic acids (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA), responsible for the trans‐ mission of the genetic code to the plants, protein production, and other essential compounds for

this nutrient unavailable to the plant. Some of the soil bacteria are important in the process of

Inorganic phosphate‐solubilizing microorganisms excrete inorganic acids and protons asso‐ ciated to these acids, which directly dissolve the insoluble phosphate, or chelate the cations with the phosphate anion [64]. Among phosphate‐solubilizing bacteria, *Burkholderia* [65],

Mycorrhizal fungi are associated with roots of plants and play an important role in the soil phosphorus cycling as extensions of the root system, increasing the absorbing area of the root and the absorption rate of phosphorus. The mycorrhizal association does not substitute phos‐ phate fertilization, but efficiently increases the use of phosphorus or an added compound through fertilization [67]. Grasses such as maize, sorghum, wheat, rice, and cultivated forage

**5. Fungi of the genus** *Trichoderma* **and the biological control of diseases**

Fungi of the genus *Trichoderma* are biological control agents that act against phytopathogenic edaphic fungi, however, colonizing plant roots to stimulate plant growth and protect them against infections. Root colonization often increases root development, crop productivity,

Fungi present different mechanisms to controlling and suppressing the soil's phytopatho‐ gens, such as mycoparasitism, antibiosis and antagonism [70]. In addition, *Trichoderma* strains are active in the production of fungal cell walls, enzymatic degradation, including pectinases,

Compared to the chemical control, the use of biological substances to control soil diseases is beneficial, since it does not induce resistance from the target organism, effectively controlling

PO4 −

and HPO4

(PO4 ) 2 ) make

2−, just

the plant structure and seedling production. Grasses absorb soil P as H2

like other plant species; thus, insoluble phosphates like tricalcium phosphate (Ca3

dissolving these insoluble solutions, facilitating the access to this essential nutrient.

grasses may have their roots naturally colonized by mycorrhizal fungi [68].

resistance to abiotic stresses, and improved nutrient use [69].

cellulases, and chitinases, involved in the biological control [71].

Soil microorganisms are able to influence the establishment and yield of grasses by means of sev‐ eral mechanisms. The nutrients cycling by soil microorganisms, the biological nitrogen fixation by associative bacteria, phytohormones production by soil bacteria, and the acquisition of phosphorus by mycorrhizal fungal hyphae networks are just some examples of direct mechanisms of beneficial interaction between soil microorganisms and cultivated grasses. As examples of indirect mecha‐ nisms, we can mention the suppression of pathogens by mechanisms of predation or competition, as we also discussed. Given this wide range of mechanisms presented by microorganisms for the benefit of cultivated grasses and consequently of the human benefit, it is imperative that these mechanisms are well studied to be inserted in systems of conservationist agriculture, which must obtain the maximum agronomic yield of the crops, allied to the rational use of natural resources.


*Article* **Immunosuppressive Sesquiterpenoids from the Edible Mushroom** *Craterellus odoratus*

**Quan Dai 1,2, Fa-Lei Zhang 1,2 , Zheng-Hui Li 1,2, Juan He 1,2,\* and Tao Feng 1,2,\***

**Abstract:** The aim of this work was to comprehensively understand the chemical constituents of the edible mushroom *Craterellus ordoratus* and their bioactivity. A chemical investigation on this mushroom led to the isolation of 23 sesquiterpenoids including eighteen previously undescribed bergamotane sesquiterpenes, craterodoratins A–R (**1**–**18**), and one new victoxinine derivative, craterodoratin S (**19**). The new structures were elucidated by detailed interpretation of spectrometric data, theoretical nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations, and single-crystal X-ray crystallographic analysis. Compounds **1** and **2** possess a ring-rearranged carbon skeleton. Compounds **3**, **10**, **12**–**15**, **19**, **20** and **23** exhibit potent inhibitory activity against the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced proliferation of B lymphocyte cells with the IC50 values ranging from 0.67 to 22.68 µM. Compounds **17** and **20** inhibit the concanavalin A (ConA)-induced proliferation of T lymphocyte cell with IC50 values of 31.50 and 0.98 µM, respectively. It is suggested that *C. ordoratus* is a good source for bergamotane sesquiterpenoids, and their immunosuppressive activity was reported for the first time. This research is conducive to the further development and utilization of *C. ordoratus*.

**Keywords:** *Craterellus ordoratus*; sesquiterpenoids; isolation and structural elucidation; immunosuppressive activity


**4. Applications and niche markets of specialty polyolefins**

Until 30 years ago, the physical properties of polyethylene such as density and melt index values as well as chemical characteristics i.e., inherent hydrophobicity were limited. However, the innovative single-site catalysts have removed the barriers and polyethylene products with lower densities became available. Generally, such polyethylene grades are ethylene-α-olefin copolymers where α-olefin content exceeds 40 wt% in some cases and results in elastomeric properties. In addition, ethylene-cyclic olefin (e.g., norbornene or cyclopentadiene) copolymers, also known as specialty polyolefins, extend the polyolefin properties boundaries and the alkenes' value chain.

On the other side, according to their non-polar nature, commercial polyolefins suffer from a lack of adhesion, printability, wettability, reactivity, compatibility, and miscibility. Hence, applying such an intrinsically hydrophobic polymer as an adhesive, coating, paint, primer, or binder is restricted. Also, the poor interaction of polyolefins with other materials like paints, pigments, glass fibers, clay, carbon black, metals, and the vast majority of polymers limited their applications in blends and composites [5].

However, incorporating functional groups on the polyolefin chain, even at the chain-ends, branch-ends or backbone, leads to the enhancement of polyolefins' adhesion and binding properties, which opens up exciting industrial application fields. So far, functional polyolefins' applications comprised of binders in bookbinding, glue in adhesives, printing inks, tie-layer in multilayer sheets or films, and compatibilizer in blends of polar and non-polar polymers. Interestingly, they may open up new possibilities for application in film capacitors with superior energy density, proton exchange membranes for fuel cells and super-absorbents suitable for the oil spills (without any water) absorption [12].

Herein, commercially available specialty polyolefins, including functional olefin copolymers as valuable extenders of the alkenes' value chain, are comprehensively reviewed. Some of the structures of value-added polyolefins presented in this chapter are shown in **Figure 4**.

#### **Figure 4.**

*The chemical structure of some of the specialty polyolefins with niche applications which will be discussed in this chapter.*


*2.3.4 Indoor Environmental Quality*

The Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ ) category such as in LEED standards was created to provide comfort, well-being, and productivity of occupants. The IEQ requirement provides comfort, well-being, and improve the productivity of occupants [41]. The objective of this principle is to provide a healthy, comfortable and productive indoor environment for building occupants and visitors. The building design affords the users the best possible conditions in terms of indoor air quality, ventilation, and thermal comfort, access to natural ventilation and day-lighting and effective control of the acoustical environment. Human beings spend more than 90% of their time indoors while 87% is spent at home [37].

A careful integration of daylight and electrical light sources improves the lighting quality and energy performance of a structure giving a performance luminous environment. A green building provides opportunity for Personal temperature and airflow control over the HVAC system backed. A properly designed green building envelope increases the building's thermal quality [42]. A well-insulated and tightly sealed building envelope reduces moisture problems. Adequate ventilation is thus necessary to eliminate moisture from sources indoors and prevent incidences of sick building syndrome. A poor quality indoor environment impairs cognitive performance, negatively impacts occupant's health, and reduces performance [43, 44]. However, [45] reported low quality of houses and its services in the government estates.

The impact of global climate change in Nigeria include reduced rainfall, shorter period of the raining season, long term increase in temperature in most part of the country; the extreme northeast, extreme northwest and extreme southwest. The average temperatures increased by 1.4–1.9°C. Heat waves from this phenomenon is expected to be on the rise resulting in hot nights. Hot night is where night time temperatures are in the top 10% experienced by a region. Advances in extreme heat particularly is a threat to millions of Nigerians without access to electricity or air conditioning. 92 in every 1000 people in the urban areas and just 14 in every 1000 in rural areas have access to air conditioning. Future housing must provide for quality indoor environment.


**1. Introduction**

In 2000, 47% of world population (2.9 billion people) was living in urban areas, while it is expected that 60–90% of the world's population will be living in urban areas by 2030 [1, 2]. In European countries, more than two-thirds of the whole population are living in urban areas [2, 3].

Rapid urbanization and industrialization caused human beings to distance themselves from nature more and more with each passing day and disrupted humanity's harmony with landscape.  In today's modern life, vegetation is recognized as an indicator of life quality and livability in cities [5].

In the place they grow, plants reduce air pollution [6–10], reduce noise [11], increase aesthetic value [12], have a positive psychological effect [13, 14], provide energy conservation [15], prevent erosion [16], reduce wind speed and hold the soil with their roots, thus preventing washing away of the soil with rainfalls and streams, and protect wildlife and hunting resour‐ ces. Open-green areas with plantation are important activity areas for both adults and children [17, 18]. Besides, indoor plants increase the productivity of people working in the environment they grow in [19] as well as relieving physiological stress and reducing negative emotions [20– 22].

Such functional use of plants led to the development of ornamental plants market, which finally has reached a point which is economically significant. In 145 countries around the world, the cultivation of ornamental plants is carried out on a total area of 220,000 ha, and the trade volume of ornamental plants is around \$50 billion USD [23].

Such advancement of the ornamental plants market made the researchers to be interested in various issues such as defining the distribution areas [24, 25], protection [26–30], cultivation [31, 32], resistance to stress factors [33, 34], various applications [11, 35, 36], genetic variability [16, 37–40], their relationship with the environment [41–44], raising awareness about plants and legal dimension of the issue [45–47], thus resulting in various works on these issues. In addition to these, a large number of reports were conducted on especially the generative [48– 55] and vegetative cultivation methods, and the studies are still going on [56]. However, it is of particular importance to define new species, variations, forms, cultivars or hybrids that can be launched especially to the ornamental plants market, as all plants are of high economic importance.

One of the species that can be dealt with in the ornamental plants market is *Lilium*. *Lilium* belongs to tribe *Lilieae* of *Liliaceae* and contains about 120 species [57]. Lily is one of the most important horticultural plants, and many wild species and cultivars have been cultivated for bulb and ornamental flower production [58]. Thus, many wild species of lilies have been cultivated to produce *Lilium* bulbs or flowers. Almost all cultivars of lilies are used in orna‐ mental flower. Especially Asiatic and oriental hybrids receive a great deal of attention in the international market [59]. Due to the demand for *Lilium* in recent years, the production of *Lilium* has rapidly increased. For example, *Lilium* was being grown in the Netherlands in an area of 102 ha in 1960, which rose to 2412 ha in 1990 [60, 61].

**1. Introduction**

in cities [5].

22].

importance.

In 2000, 47% of world population (2.9 billion people) was living in urban areas, while it is expected that 60–90% of the world's population will be living in urban areas by 2030 [1, 2]. In European countries, more than two-thirds of the whole population are living in urban areas [2, 3].

98 New Challenges in Seed Biology - Basic and Translational Research Driving Seed Technology

Rapid urbanization and industrialization caused human beings to distance themselves from nature more and more with each passing day and disrupted humanity's harmony with landscape.  In today's modern life, vegetation is recognized as an indicator of life quality and livability

In the place they grow, plants reduce air pollution [6–10], reduce noise [11], increase aesthetic value [12], have a positive psychological effect [13, 14], provide energy conservation [15], prevent erosion [16], reduce wind speed and hold the soil with their roots, thus preventing washing away of the soil with rainfalls and streams, and protect wildlife and hunting resour‐ ces. Open-green areas with plantation are important activity areas for both adults and children [17, 18]. Besides, indoor plants increase the productivity of people working in the environment they grow in [19] as well as relieving physiological stress and reducing negative emotions [20–

Such functional use of plants led to the development of ornamental plants market, which finally has reached a point which is economically significant. In 145 countries around the world, the cultivation of ornamental plants is carried out on a total area of 220,000 ha, and the

Such advancement of the ornamental plants market made the researchers to be interested in various issues such as defining the distribution areas [24, 25], protection [26–30], cultivation [31, 32], resistance to stress factors [33, 34], various applications [11, 35, 36], genetic variability [16, 37–40], their relationship with the environment [41–44], raising awareness about plants and legal dimension of the issue [45–47], thus resulting in various works on these issues. In addition to these, a large number of reports were conducted on especially the generative [48– 55] and vegetative cultivation methods, and the studies are still going on [56]. However, it is of particular importance to define new species, variations, forms, cultivars or hybrids that can be launched especially to the ornamental plants market, as all plants are of high economic

One of the species that can be dealt with in the ornamental plants market is *Lilium*. *Lilium* belongs to tribe *Lilieae* of *Liliaceae* and contains about 120 species [57]. Lily is one of the most important horticultural plants, and many wild species and cultivars have been cultivated for bulb and ornamental flower production [58]. Thus, many wild species of lilies have been cultivated to produce *Lilium* bulbs or flowers. Almost all cultivars of lilies are used in orna‐ mental flower. Especially Asiatic and oriental hybrids receive a great deal of attention in the international market [59]. Due to the demand for *Lilium* in recent years, the production of *Lilium*

trade volume of ornamental plants is around \$50 billion USD [23].

However, picking especially rare and endemic species in some countries damages the populations of the species in the natural world. The easiest and the most effective way of picking the species from the natural environment is the identification of methods for producing the species in nursery conditions. If such methods are easy, cheap and practical, they can be put into practice more effectively. Seed-based production is of vital importance so as not to damage the natural populations of endangered species in particular.

'IUCN Red Data BOOK' and 'National List of European Threatened Plants List' contain three *Lilium* species from Europe. *Lilium artvinense* (Syn: *Lilium carniolicum* var. *artvinense*, *Lilium ponticum* K. Koch., *Lilium ponticum* var. *artvinense* (Miscz.) P. H. Davis and D. M. Hend., *Lilium carniolicum* var. *artvinense* (Miscz.) P. H. Davis and D. M. Hend and *Lilium pyrenaicum* var. *artvinense* (Miscz.) V. A. Matthews) [62] is one of them [63]. Exposed over a limited area, *L. artvinense* draws attention with its yellow flowers. Its natural population is severely damaged when its bulbs are picked from the natural world. To protect the natural population of the species, easy and cheap means of producing this species should be taught to locals, thereby preventing them from picking the species from the natural environment.

Previous research has mostly attempted to determine the microculture techniques of produc‐ ing lilies. However, these techniques are difficult, expensive and impracticable for locals. This report examines the production of *L. artvinense* by the use of seeds.

The present review aims to define the effect of some plant growth regulators (hormones) on germination and certain morphological traits of *L. artvinense* seeds. Plant growth-regulating substances are organic chemical compounds, produced naturally in plants or applied exter‐ nally, and that, even in small amounts, can have positive and negative effects on growth, development and other physiological functions, alone or in combination with other growth regulators. They can be effective in the tissue where they are synthesized, or transported to other parts of the plant and sustain this effectiveness in other organs of the plant [64, 65].

Since 1930s, plant growth regulators have been investigated for their function in agricultural products [64]. Today, there are many works with the aim to define the effects of external application of hormones commonly used to affect the growth rate and development of a plant from the stage of germination to the harvest and post-harvest treatment, and to determine proper type, concentration and time for the application of hormones. The use of hormones is so common today that they are investigated and used in agriculture, forestry and production of various plant species from ornamental to medicinal and aromatic ones [66–68].

The most relevant role of hormones is related to the control and coordination of cell division, growth and differentiation [69]. Plant hormones including ethylene, gibberellins, auxin (indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)), abscisic acid (ABA), brassinosteroids and cytokinins are biochem‐ ical substances controlling many biochemical processes and physiological in the plant [69– 71]. These key molecules are produced not only by plants but also by soil microbes.

The hormones can be said to be mainly used to ensure propagation by cutting, to increase germinating power of seed, to promote and inhibit blooming, to increase plant resistance against cold, to increase seed formation in fruits, to increase fruit size, to extend fruit storage time, to increase plant resistance against diseases and pests, to control weeds, to prevent lodging in cotton and cereals, to prevent pre-harvest fruit drop, to synchronize maturity of all plants, to hasten maturity, to remove dormancy and to initiate the growth of suckers and tubers especially during the tissue culture studies [64].

Among all hormones, auxins and gibberellins are the most widely used hormones with usage rates of 20 and 17%, respectively [64]. Auxins, which were firstly used in 1929 [72], mostly cause the expansion and growth of cells and initiate cell elongation, tissue growth and root formation. Auxins are synthesized in all higher plant species, and the most commonly found auxin is indole-3-acetic acid [73].

The oldest and most common use of growth-regulating hormones is to stimulate rooting process. Among the hormones in the auxin class, IAA, IBA and NAA are used for stimulating the rooting of cuttings. However, the most commonly applied hormone in agricultural practices is IBA [74]. IBA is applied as a highly concentrated (1000–8000 ppm) and dilute (10– 250 ppm) solution. In achieving successful rooting, temperature, light conditions and water supply are also effective parameters [75].

The findings of this study are in conformity with other reports in the literature. Guney et al. [61] reported that hormone treatment caused a significant increase in the rooting percentage of *Lilium martagon* seeds, and the rooting percentage of 28.40% in the control groups could be increased with IAA, IBA, NAA and GA3 treatments. They found the highest rooting percent‐ age in the seeds treated with IAA at 5000 ppm (86.6%).

Turhan [65] reported that the effect of hormone treatment on the rooting percentage of *L. martagon* was statistically significant. He stated that the highest rooting percentage was 66.67%, which was obtained with 3000 ppm IBA + 1000 ppm IAA treatment. In his report, the rooting percentage was found to be 61.73% with 3000 ppm IBA + 3000 ppm NAA treatment and 59.26% with 1000 ppm IBA + 1000 ppm GA3 treatment, while it was 45.83% in the control group. Sevik and Cetin [76] also reported that 3000 ppm IAA treatment in *L. artvinense* seeds increased the rooting percentage from 28.57 to 80.22%.

Rooting percentage can be said to be one of the most important morphological traits that have been examined in the researches. The main focus of the works conducted so far has been the treatments that can increase rooting percentage. The effects of auxins on rooting and plant growth have been so far widely demonstrated [77]. These hormones have been proven to increase rooting percentage in the seeds of *Robinia pseudoacacia* [78], *Pseudotsuga menziesii* [79], *Oryza sativa* [80], *Pisum sativum* [81] and many other plant species.

IBA is one of the most commonly used and studied hormones. Its impact on rooting is continuous and extremely high [82]. There are many works showing that IBA treatments alone are highly effective in increasing rooting percentage. Polat et al. [83] reported that the rooting percentage of 5% in the control group of plum cuttings increased up to 60% with 500 ppm IBA treatment and to 62.50% with 2000 ppm IBA treatment. In another work, it was revealed that the rooting percentage of 6.7% in the control group of plum cuttings increased up to 46.7% with IBA treatment [84].

against cold, to increase seed formation in fruits, to increase fruit size, to extend fruit storage time, to increase plant resistance against diseases and pests, to control weeds, to prevent lodging in cotton and cereals, to prevent pre-harvest fruit drop, to synchronize maturity of all plants, to hasten maturity, to remove dormancy and to initiate the growth of suckers and tubers

Among all hormones, auxins and gibberellins are the most widely used hormones with usage rates of 20 and 17%, respectively [64]. Auxins, which were firstly used in 1929 [72], mostly cause the expansion and growth of cells and initiate cell elongation, tissue growth and root formation. Auxins are synthesized in all higher plant species, and the most commonly found

Other commonly found auxins other than IAA are indole butyric acid (IBA), naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), naphthoxyacetic acid (NOAA), phenoxyacetic acid (POAA), 2,4-D, phenylacetic acid (PAA), para-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (4-CPA) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid

The oldest and most common use of growth-regulating hormones is to stimulate rooting process. Among the hormones in the auxin class, IAA, IBA and NAA are used for stimulating the rooting of cuttings. However, the most commonly applied hormone in agricultural practices is IBA [74]. IBA is applied as a highly concentrated (1000–8000 ppm) and dilute (10– 250 ppm) solution. In achieving successful rooting, temperature, light conditions and water

The findings of this study are in conformity with other reports in the literature. Guney et al. [61] reported that hormone treatment caused a significant increase in the rooting percentage of *Lilium martagon* seeds, and the rooting percentage of 28.40% in the control groups could be increased with IAA, IBA, NAA and GA3 treatments. They found the highest rooting percent‐

Turhan [65] reported that the effect of hormone treatment on the rooting percentage of *L. martagon* was statistically significant. He stated that the highest rooting percentage was 66.67%, which was obtained with 3000 ppm IBA + 1000 ppm IAA treatment. In his report, the rooting percentage was found to be 61.73% with 3000 ppm IBA + 3000 ppm NAA treatment and 59.26% with 1000 ppm IBA + 1000 ppm GA3 treatment, while it was 45.83% in the control group. Sevik and Cetin [76] also reported that 3000 ppm IAA treatment in *L. artvinense* seeds increased the

Rooting percentage can be said to be one of the most important morphological traits that have been examined in the researches. The main focus of the works conducted so far has been the treatments that can increase rooting percentage. The effects of auxins on rooting and plant growth have been so far widely demonstrated [77]. These hormones have been proven to increase rooting percentage in the seeds of *Robinia pseudoacacia* [78], *Pseudotsuga menziesii* [79],

IBA is one of the most commonly used and studied hormones. Its impact on rooting is continuous and extremely high [82]. There are many works showing that IBA treatments alone

especially during the tissue culture studies [64].

100 New Challenges in Seed Biology - Basic and Translational Research Driving Seed Technology

auxin is indole-3-acetic acid [73].

supply are also effective parameters [75].

rooting percentage from 28.57 to 80.22%.

age in the seeds treated with IAA at 5000 ppm (86.6%).

*Oryza sativa* [80], *Pisum sativum* [81] and many other plant species.

(2,4,5-T) [64].

Edizer and Demirel [85] reported that IBA treatments at 2000, 3000 and 4000 ppm significantly increased rooting percentage in cuttings of cherry, peach and two different plum species. They indicated that the rooting percentage of 15% in the control group of peach cuttings increased up to 80, 85 and 86.67% with IBA treatments at 2000, 3000 and 4000 ppm, respectively. In the same work, the rooting percentages of 46.67 and 60% in the control groups of plum cuttings and the rooting percentage of 48.34% in the control group of cherry cuttings were found to be 90% with 3000 ppm IBA treatment [85]. Similarly, there are studies reporting that IBA significantly increased rooting percentage in sage cuttings, and the rooting percentage of 16.25% in the control groups was increased up to 78.75% with 100 ppm IBA treatment [86].

Naphthalene acetic acid, which has a significant effect on rooting, was used in this report. It is a synthetic hormone that has been used in orcharding for many years for thinning heavy fruit set. With the effect of thinning, fruit size and quality can be increased [64]. However, the positive effect of NAA on rooting was also proven by many reports. In a study, the rooting percentage of 51.14% in the control group of *Schefflera arboricola* L. was found to have increased to 75% with 5000 ppm NAA treatment [87]. Similarly, a 6-h NAA treatment at 250 ppm was reported to increase the rooting percentage from 0 (control group) to 23% in cuttings of *Capparis sipinosa* L. [88].

Among the natural plant-growing regulators, gibberellins are the third most widely used class (estimated rate of 17%) [65], especially for horticultural applications. GA3 is mostly produced by fermentation from the fungus *Gibberella*. Today, there are approximately 100 known GA molecules, more than 50 found in plant seeds. GA3 is the most widely used one for commercial purposes [64].

There are many reports examining the effect of GA3 on rooting such as the one by Hepaksoy [89] on *Prunus avium* L. and *Prunus mahaleb* L., the work by Aygün and Dumanoğlu [90] on *Cydonia oblonga* Miller., the research by Coşge et al. [91] on *Capparis ovata* Desf. and *Capparis ovata* L., the work by Selby et al. [92] on *Picea sitchensis* (Bong.) Carr, the study by Sevik et al. [87] on *S. arboricola* L. and the research by Sevik and Guney [93] on *Melissa officinalis* L. Although it has not been determined that GA3 has a significant effect in many species, there are studies showing that it increases rooting percentage to a considerable extent [61, 94].

This work found that hormone treatments affected root number to a considerable extent. The root number, which was 1.3 in the control group, increased to 1.5 and 1.7 with 5000 ppm IAA treatment and 5000 ppm NAA treatment, respectively.

The findings of this report are in conformity with other works in the literature. Sevik and Turhan [95] reported that all hormone treatments increased the number of roots, and they found that the average root number of 0.97 in the control group of *L. martagon* was increased to 1.33 with 3000 ppm IBA + 1000 ppm NAA treatment. They also reported that the average root number of 1.14 in the control group of *L. artvinense* was increased to 2.50 with 1000 ppm IBA treatment [76]. Guney et al. [61] also reported that the root number of 1.2 in the *L. martagon* seeds increased up to 2.0 with 3000 ppm GA3 treatment.

The reports conducted on other plant species also show that root number can be increased with hormone treatments. Sevik and Guney [93] reported that the root number of 2.67 in the control group of *M. officinalis* L. was increased to 5.5 with 5000 ppm IBA treatment. Yildiz [96] also reported that the root number of 1.67 in the control group of plum was increased to the average number of 2.3 in the seeds treated with IBA, whereas Ayanoğlu and Özkan [86] indicated that the root number of 4.22 in the control group of *Salvia officinalis* L. was increased to 22.35 with 100 ppm IBA treatment. Similarly, there are studies revealing that IBA treatment can increase the number of roots four to five times in peach, plum and cherry cuttings [85]. In the work by Demiral and Ülger [97], the root number of 4.40 in the control group of cherry cuttings was increased to 16.29 with 6 mg/l NAA treatment, while in the research by Sevik et al. [87] the average root number of 5.82 in the control group of *S. arboricola* L. was increased to 9.63 and 12.33 with 1000 ppm NAA and GA3 treatments, respectively. In the report by Polat et al. [83], the root number of 0.38 in the control group of plum cuttings was increased to 10.43 with 2000 ppm IBA treatment, while in the research by Sevik and Guney [98], the root number of 4.8 in the control group of *M. officinalis* L. could be increased to 12.5 with 1000 ppm IAA treatment.

The findings of this study also reveal that hormone treatments have affected the root length of the plants to a considerable extent, increasing the root length of 27.153 mm in the control group up to 66.419 mm with 5000 ppm IBA treatment. However, more importantly, root lengths were found to be higher than those in the control groups after all hormone treatments. Therefore, the treatments can be said to have a positive effect on the root length.

The highest root lengths were obtained with 3000 ppm IBA treatment in the work by Turhan [65] on *L. martagon*, in the report by Guney et al. [61] on *L. martagon* seeds and in the research by Topacoglu et al. [99] on *Ficus benjamina* cuttings.

The works conducted show that the root length can be increased to 2.75 times in *L. artvinense* with 3000 ppm GA3 treatment [76], 16.17 times in plum cuttings with 2000 ppm IBA treatment [83], 2.34 times in cherry cuttings with 4000 ppm IBA treatment [85], 1.63 times in *S. arborico‐ la* with 1000 ppm IBA treatment [10] and 2.26 times in sage with 100 ppm IBA [87], as compared to the control group.

Besides, results also show that, just like the root length, the highest stem height and diameter values have been obtained with 5000 ppm IBA treatment. Stem height and diameter values are 34 and 27% higher than those of the control group, respectively. Therefore, the treatments can be said not to have such a huge effect on stem formation as to make a significant difference. Similar results were also obtained from *L. martagon* seeds. The stem height of 7.16 mm in the control group of *L. martagon* increased to 8.17 mm with 3000 ppm IBA treatment, and the stem diameter of 2.93 mm increased to 3.78 with 5000 ppm IBA treatment [61]. Likewise, Turhan [65] reported that the stem number of 0.82 in the control group of *L. martagon* increased to 0.91 with 1000 ppm IBA + 1000 ppm IAA treatment, the stem height of 9.05 mm increased to 9.19 mm with 1000 ppm IBA + 1000 ppm NAA treatment and the stem diameter of 2.40 mm increased to 2.81 mm with 3000 ppm IBA + 1000 ppm NAA treatment.

However, it was indicated that, in *L. artvinense* plants treated with hormones, the stem number of 0.43 was increased to 0.92, the stem height of 1.53 mm was increased to 6.55 mm and the stem diameter of 0.97 mm was increased to 4.3 mm [76].

Apart from these, several other studies have been carried out on *Lilium* cultivation; however, most of them focus on microculture techniques. There are also works conducted on *L. davidii* var. *unicolor* [100] and *L. longiflorum* with IBA and NAA treatment [101], on *L. davidii* var. *unicolor* [102], *L. oritential* and *L. longiflorum* with IAA, IBA and NAA treatment [103, 104], on *L. longiflorum* with IAA and IBA treatment [105] and on *L. japonicum* with BA and GA3 treatment [106]. However, it is difficult to compare results of these reports with those obtained in the present work, due to rather different experimental approach.


**4. Discussion**

(Table 8). With 321,750 rural households in Manitoba in 2006, the total value for conserving the burrowing owl in Manitoba grasslands was estimated to be \$10.96 million/yr or approxi‐ mately \$4.60/ha/yr (Table 4). Using these estimates, the total willingness to pay by Manitoba rural households was estimated to range from \$0.25 to \$0.46 million/yr or \$0.20 to 0.37/ha/yr

The total economic value of Manitoba grasslands varies between \$1,204 million/yr (\$527/ha/yr) to \$2,056 million/yr (\$883/ha/yr; Table 8). This range is relatively narrow as a consequence of the sensitivity analysis conducted. The scope of research for values that were derived from benefit transfer was limited to those studies conducted in a similar eco-zone to Manitoba grasslands. Further, a 20% price fluctuation in prices was assumed for values that are derived using market price. The economic value of Manitoba grasslands obtained in this study should be taken as a minimum value which is expected to change as information specific

Among all the estimated values of various ecosystem services, besides the commercial (marketbased) values, carbon sequestration is an important ecosystem service (Figure 4). About a third of the total value of Manitoba grasslands is through production of forages and related goods. Under most expected conditions, the ecosystem service most important for this ecosystem is carbon sequestration. At this time, 42% of total value is credited to this service. The third most

1Estimates are based on 2,385,660 ha of grassland except nutrient cycling (1,559,325 ha).

Figure 4. Distribution of total economic value of Manitoba grassland by type of ecosystem service

This study set out to provide a strategy for estimating the economic value of goods and services from Manitoba grasslands by utilizing market and non-market based approaches. Assigning value to goods and services such as perennial forage production and carbon sequestration that are traded in the open market is a matter of identifying prevailing market values. The market value of goods and services such as forage production will depend on the quality of the goods and services. The value of pasture, for example, should take into account season, pasture plant species, and pasture management since such factors will influence pasture quality. For hay, quality characteristics including nutrient content (protein and energy) as well as organoleptic characteristics, such as color, mold, and dust, to assign value would lead to a more objective price determination. Such a pricing system would give a range in prices for forage production. The strategy of assigning value based on forage quality was not employed in the current study due to inadequate information. Carbon sequestration is influenced by location of the grasslands [28] and by management practices that are imposed on the grasslands [10]. Carbon sequestration estimates reported in these studies were not measured directly and the differences in

estimates among studies suggest a need for direct carbon sequestration measurements in grasslands.

utilized to value ecosystem goods and services, benefit transfer will likely remain the method of choice.

Genetic, medicinal, and ornamental resources, water supply and cultural services, such as cultural and artistic information, and spiritual and historic information were not included in the valuation of Manitoba grasslands

Benefit transfer was used to valuate non-market goods and services in Manitoba grasslands. Challenges in applying benefit transfer analysis are mainly related to difficulties in identifying and selecting suitable studies for comparison, in combining data and in transferring data [40, 41]. It is also important to note that most studies are not designed with the aim of transferring [40, 41]. A more complex approach, which we did not use in this study, is to use meta-analysis to systematically analyze the impact of a study on estimated values [26]. The use of the benefit transfer method is not universally accepted and has been questioned. In most cases, the original studies will have valued small changes in specific and localized components of individual ecosystems, which makes it incorrect to extrapolate value estimates obtained from these localized scenarios to a much larger scale [26]. Benefit transfer has also been criticized as being dirty, quick and ugly [42]. Some economists do not consider benefit transfer as a methodology, but simply consider it as transfer of estimates from one location to other location [25]. Others (43) consider the transfer of valuations from one ecological and social context to another as dangerous because ecosystem values are highly dependent on location. Until more appropriate methods are

High CO2 price 1,610.68 703.36 1,378.90 600.79 2,055.74 883.43

Refugium function 1%

> Forage production 33%

important ecosystem service for the Manitoba grassland is from waste treatment.

Recreation and aesthetics 2%

Table 8. The annual value of goods and services from Manitoba grasslands.

Carbon sequestration 42%

**Figure 4.** Distribution of total economic value of Manitoba grassland by type of ecosystem service

(Table 8).

162 Agroecology

**3.3. Total value of Manitoba grasslands**

to Manitoba grasslands becomes available.

**4. Discussion**

Nutrient cycling 8%

Water regulation 1%

Soil erosion control 2%

Soil formation 1%

Waste treatment 10%

This study set out to provide a strategy for estimating the economic value of goods and services from Manitoba grasslands by utilizing market and non-market based approaches. Assigning value to goods and services such as perennial forage production and carbon sequestration that are traded in the open market is a matter of identifying prevailing market values. The market value of goods and services such as forage production will depend on the quality of the goods and services. The value of pasture, for example, should take into account season, pasture plant species, and pasture management since such factors will influence pasture quality. For hay, quality characteristics including nutrient content (protein and energy) as well as organoleptic characteristics, such as color, mold, and dust, to assign value would lead to a more objective price determination. Such a pricing system would give a range in prices for forage production. The strategy of assigning value based on forage quality was not employed in the current study due to inadequate information. Carbon sequestration is influenced by location of the grass‐ lands [28] and by management practices that are imposed on the grasslands [10]. Carbon sequestration estimates reported in these studies were not measured directly and the differ‐ ences in estimates among studies suggest a need for direct carbon sequestration measurements in grasslands.

Benefit transfer was used to valuate non-market goods and services in Manitoba grasslands. Challenges in applying benefit transfer analysis are mainly related to difficulties in identifying and selecting suitable studies for comparison, in combining data and in transferring data [40, 41]. It is also important to note that most studies are not designed with the aim of transferring [40, 41]. A more complex approach, which we did not use in this study, is to use meta-analysis to systematically analyze the impact of a study on estimated values [26]. The use of the benefit transfer method is not universally accepted and has been questioned. In most cases, the original studies will have valued small changes in specific and localized components of individual ecosystems, which makes it incorrect to extrapolate value estimates obtained from these localized scenarios to a much larger scale [26]. Benefit transfer has also been criticized as being dirty, quick and ugly [42]. Some economists do not consider benefit transfer as a methodology, but simply consider it as transfer of estimates from one location to other location [25]. Others (43) consider the transfer of valuations from one ecological and social context to another as dangerous because ecosystem values are highly dependent on location. Until more appropriate methods are utilized to value ecosystem goods and services, benefit transfer will likely remain the method of choice.

Genetic, medicinal, and ornamental resources, water supply and cultural services, such as cultural and artistic information, and spiritual and historic information were not included in the valuation of Manitoba grasslands due to lack of information. Such goods and services tend to be site-specific and values obtained within the region of interest, in this case, prairie grasslands, would be more appropriate. Since no valuation studies for these goods and services were identified, primary data collection would be the only method to collect such information. Techniques that can be utilized to value these goods and services have been suggested [27]. A market-based valuation (direct market pricing) is appropriate to value genetic, medicinal, and ornamental resources, water supply, and nursery function although other techniques such as factor income, replacement cost, and contingent valuation can also be applied [27]. For cultural services, techniques such as contingent valuation, travel cost, and hedonic pricing are impor‐ tant [27]. With growing emphasis on valuation of grassland goods and services, there is a need to conduct specific studies that will provide values for such goods and services. Such infor‐ mation will further improve the value of grasslands, thus further emphasizing the importance of maintaining productive grasslands.


**Wenxiu Chi 1 and Guangsi Lin 1,2,3,\***

Received: 31 October 2019; Accepted: 6 December 2019; Published: 8 December 2019

**Abstract:** The community greenway is a kind of greenway that goes through high-density residential areas in the city and is closely related to residents' life. However, few scholars focus on how this type of greenways serves the everyday life of the community as an integrated resource. This aspect is important because the everyday life in the public space involves multiple activities. How to coordinate and satisfy these activities relates to the benefits of community greenways. Therefore, this paper takes a representative community greenway in Haizhu District of Guangzhou as an example, to study whether community greenways match the needs of necessary activities, optional activities and social activities. The usage patterns, the evaluation of the current status, the impact on everyday activities, and the importance of different construction factors were surveyed. The applied methods include site observation, questionnaires and interviews. The results show that more than 90% of users are from communities within 1 mile from the community greenway. More than half of the users (55%) are satisfied with the community greenways. Furthermore, the community greenways benefit the everyday activities of residents, such as transportation, recreation, social interaction and also other minor but important everyday activities. However, from the perspective of residents' requirements for construction factors, the status of service facilities needs to be improved. The characteristics, overall benefits, and construction implications of community greenways are therefore discussed. Community greenways can be important open space for residents and this paper is significant on community greenways meeting the needs of residents' everyday activities, thus, to provide a better community living environment and to build a better urban open space system.

**Keywords:** greenway; community greenway; everyday activities; use patterns; resident evaluation; high density residential areas; everyday public space; living environment


**Author details**

12 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

8 12 16 20 24 28

**Figure 4.** Verification of proposed power allocation between the two communication links of a single

Proposed power allocation

Proposed power allocation +10% to best sensor +10% to worst sensor

**Figure 5.** Verification of proposed power allocation between two sensor nodes.

+30% to first link +10% to first link +10% to second link

SNR/dB

11.8 15.8 19.8 23.8 27.8

SNR/dB

In particular, it is shown that the same overall classification probability can be achieved with much lower transmission power, especially for low SNR values, by using an efficient power allocation method. Furthermore, the symbol-error probability of the sensor node with the highest part of the total power is also shown. The classification accuracy is better than the best symbol-error probability for higher SNR values, which affirms the gain of data fusion and illustrates the feasibility of object classification in this kind of distributed sensor networks.

10−5

10−5

10−4

Probability

 of

classification

 error

10−3

10−2

10−1

100

10−4

Probability

sensor node network.

 of

classification

 error

10−3

10−2

10−1

100

Gholamreza Alirezaei, Rudolf Mathar and Daniel Bielefeld

*Institute for Theoretical Information Technology, RWTH Aachen University, D-52056 Aachen, Germany*


3.2.1. Standard Classroom

The analysis of the current daylight fruition in the standard classroom revealed, on the whole, good daylight availability, as pointed out by the *sDA* and useful *UDI* metrics amounting to 90.4% and 72.5%, respectively. On the other hand, daylight is unevenly distributed within the room (*UR* = 37%), with peak illuminance values being achieved close to the windows and rapidly declining if moving away from them. These issues are fairly typical for single-sided daylit spaces [28,29], and a range of design options can be implemented for reducing daylight levels close to the windows, while also improving those at the bottom of the room and thus increasing the overall uniformity. In particular, the refurbished scenario first aimed at reducing direct sunlight contribution by adding an external horizontal overhang at the top of the clerestory. Secondly, the bottom of the clerestory has been provided with a light shelf with internal and external protrusions, in order to bring daylight in and reflect it further inside through a highly reflective false ceiling.

Different geometrical solutions have been analyzed for the overhang and the light shelf (both internal and external sections) by varying their depth (more insights on this aspect can be found in parametric studies, such as ref. [30]), while in the case of the false ceiling, a planar and a double-curve configuration declining towards the bottom of the room have been investigated.

Various optical properties combinations for the glazing (namely the visible transmittance), the light shelf and the false ceiling (their diffuse and specular reflectance components in order) have been explored as well. The optimal combination resulted in:

Reflective glazing (visible transmittance = 0.65) has been used for the biggest panes below the clerestory (see Figure 5), while the light shelf exhibits a diffuse reflectance of 0.85 and a specular component of 0.5. The use of light shelves and ceilings with a specular component, aimed to enhance the amount of light re-directed towards the bottom of the room, has been described by other researchers [31,32] and it is actually observed in real products that are available on the market. In particular, a specular behaviour has been found to improve illuminance levels and their uniformity in winter and in the mid-seasons, while diffuse lightshelves perform better at high solar altitudes (in summer) [28].

**Figure 5.** Design solutions for the standard south-oriented classroom.

The use of these design solutions allowed for improving all of the metrics except for the *aDF*, which dropped from 1.8% to 0.8%, and for the *sDA* that dropped from 90.4% to 74.1%. These results sound reasonable, since the amount of light entering the room has been reduced by the combined action of the external overhang, the light shelf, and the reflective glazing. On the other hand, daylight is more evenly distributed thanks to the internal light shelf that re-directs the sunlight to the highly-reflective ceiling, which in turn conveys the light deep to the end of the room. This leads to a reduction in the *UDI* over 2000 lux metrics from the original value of 22.7% to the new one of 3.4%, and to an increase of the useful *UDI* (i.e., that in the range of 100 to 2000 lux) from 72.5% to 89.2%, respectively.

These improvements can be appreciated if looking at Table 5, where all of the values are summarized for both the existing and refurbished scenario, and where a column named 'effect' identifies if a metrics improves (better) or worsens (worse) the corresponding daylight performance if compared to its original value. In terms of annual *DGP* values, Figure 6 shows only minor improvements, meaning that glare is not an issue for the chosen observer's position.

**Table 5.** Daylight metrics for the standard classroom: existing and refurbished scenario.

**Figure 6.** Annual *DGPs* calculation for the standard classroom. Refurbished scenario.


**6. Conclusion**

158 Studies on Environmental and Applied Geomorphology

Figure 7 shows the influence graphs of Goksu, Turkey in addition to the impact and vulnerability scores. These graphs are important for local decision-making processes, while the comparison of different sites according to the overall vulnerability scores enables planning for the regional to national management of coastal areas. The histogram shows that although human influence on the geomorphologic processes is significant (scores for human influence parameters indicate moderate vulnerability), it is the physical properties of the region that governs the vulnerability. Many of the physical parameters are part of the geomorphologic mechanisms, either as driving forces or as affected attributes, and the scores of these parameters for the Goksu region signal a high vulnerability as reflected by the aggregated vulnerability of the whole region. On the other hand, the vulnerability of groundwater resources is human influence-driven, although the physical characteristics of the aquifers indicate the resilience to sea level rise. It is the establishment of the level of influence of different processes along the coastal area that enables us to generate a framework for the Goksu region in terms of ICZM planning. In terms of high vulnerability impacts where geomorphologic processes govern the dynamics, the understanding of local geomorphology dynamics and the impact of human activities over the long term represents the key areas that ICZM practice should be based on. The high score of flooding due to storm surges indicates that a short term temporal scale should be included in the modelling, underlining the necessity for numerical model studies for this site. Since the physical properties of the region dominate the vulnerability, management options need to be more structure-based, at least in terms of soft protection options such as nourishment or dune

Fig. 7. Influence Histogram for Goksu (red columns indicate the human inference system,

blue columns indicate the physical inference system).

planning (Ozyurt & Ergin, 2010).

Vulnerability Scores

For the sustainability of coastal areas, integrated coastal zone management has become the leading concept which requires the integration of many concepts studied by different disciplines, such as geology, geomorphology, coastal and marine sciences, sociology, etc. The study of the geomorphology of coastal areas - focusing on landforms and the processes that shape them - is one of the core disciplines required for successful and efficient ICZM practice. The information generated by geomorphologic studies acts as a foundation for other studies included in ICZM plans - such as vulnerability assessments by determining the scale of the assessments, the processes to be included and options to be assessed.

The results of the case study locations assessed by the FCVAM are used to discuss the role of geomorphology in the vulnerability of coastal areas. Additionally, the integration of spatial and temporal scales within the model, considering the different scales of geomorphology and the ICZM, are presented through these examples. The assessment methodology uses the concepts and theories of geomorphology (landform processes, drivers and factors) such that different processes (such as waves, tides) acting on the geomorphology are integrated and evaluated by using governing parameters which are not limited to spatial or temporal scales. Geomorphology in terms of coastal land forms is directly included in the FCVAM model. In addition, the site-specific application of the model is suggested to be performed by preparing the model database, determining coastal strips with respect to their geomorphological properties and focusing on landforms. The processes related to specific landforms are the main properties that also define the vulnerability of the coastal zone, and the relationships between these processes and landforms are the structural backbone of FCVAM model. The selection processes of the parameters to be included in site-specific assessments using the FCVAM model are dependent on the study of geomorphology and its theories of specific landforms, as presented in the discussion on the model's parameters.

The fuzzy coastal vulnerability assessment methodology (Ozyurt, 2010) was used to assess different coastal areas showing various physical and geomorphological properties as well as different levels of socio-economic development patterns. The regional application of the FCVAM is presented by comparing three different locations (Viveiro, Spain; B'Buga, Malta and Silifke, Turkey) at the LAU2 level using coarse resolution data. The data used for the

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*Progress in Physical Geography*, Vol. 33 No. 1 pp. 117–129.

Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

regional application of the model needs to represent the properties of the region. However, the coarse resolution of the data used for the FCVAM's application is efficient enough to analyse the vulnerability of these regions and compare them to each other so as to determine regional policies on coastal zone management. On the other hand, the vulnerability scores of individual impacts and the histograms give the most information on the level of vulnerability and the influence of geomorphologic processes of a region. The degree of human intervention on these processes is also presented in the histogram provided in Figure 7. Both the scores and histogram shown in Figure 7 enable policy makers to develop ICZM plans in the long term by creating a framework of possible actions. However, in order to generate efficient histograms, the model needs to be run at a local level with high resolution data or for regions where geomorphology is homogeneous for the study area. Such a case is represented by the study on Goksu, Turkey. The site where geomorphology is dominated by delta formation enables the FCVAM model to analyse relationships between physical and human influence parameters as well as indicating possible adaptation measures for different impacts.

One of the recurring themes is the masking of variability of vulnerability along a shoreline as a result of the application of the model to a coarser spatial resolution. The use of aggregated data to define some of the parameters - especially parameters related to geomorphology - can mask higher or lower vulnerability zones, such as was the case with the pocket beaches in Viveiro. In that case, although the variability is lost in terms of geomorphologic processes, the impact vulnerability scores still help to understand the variability of vulnerability across different types of processes.

Finally - as was previously highlighted - geomorphologic processes are both derived and driven by many mechanisms, and a combination of these mechanisms is the goal of efficient ICZM practice. To achieve this objective, the models of different natures and complexities try to overcome many of the problems faced by geomorphology research and ICZM practice. The FCVAM model and case studies presented represents one of these models and tries to achieve the integration of different processes efficiently. In the end, the problems related to many of the concepts above mentioned are what drive many researchers from many disciplines to continue searching. As Malcolm Muggeridge (What I Believe) has put it in words "*IF I COULD UNDERSTAND A GRAIN OF SAND, I SHOULD UNDERSTAND EVERYTHING."*


Contents

*by Marek Rózycki and Robert Tobias*

Preface

Pain is a distressing feeling often caused by intense or damaging stimuli. The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling that associated with, actual or potential tissue damage." In medical diagnosis, pain is regarded as a symptom of an underlying condition. Pain is the most common reason for any individual to reach out for medical support. It is a major symptom in several medical conditions and can interfere with a person's quality of life and general functioning. As such, prevention and management of pain are of paramount

Pain is part of our lives; it makes us alert, and it is a "signal for danger." However, when pain extends far beyond the healing period, it becomes an independent medical entity known as chronic pain. This book brings new perspectives on pain, particularly the management of pain. It examines the pain from biochemical,

We would like to take this opportunity to thank the authors who have contributed so many wonderful chapters to this book. In addition, our heartfelt appreciation goes to IntechOpen and Author Service Manager Ms. Sandra Maljavac, who supported us

This book will be of value to academics conducting pain research in all its complexity, as it contains updated and current content. We have no doubt that readers will find these fresh points of view insightful and astute in moving forward the existing

Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus,

**Dr. Viduranga Waisundara**

Faculty of Food Technology,

University Hospital Osijek,

Sri Lanka

Croatia

Croatia

**Dr. Ines Banjari** Associate Professor,

University of Osijek,

**Dr. Jelena Balkic**

importance in remedying any disease.

pharmaceutical, and clinical angles.

knowledge on pain.

throughout the creation and publication of this volume.


**Acknowledgements**

In order to complete this goal, many people have motivated us. However, we must state that we are exclusively liable for any errors, whether they were caused by omission or commission.

### *Psychosocial Care DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112016*

We especially want to thank God Almighty for always being there for us in all facets of life. We owe a debt of gratitude to the administration of Taraba State University and Dr. Adamu N. N., our department head, department of guidance and counseling, Taraba State University, who never gave up trying to lead us cautiously and sagely during the course of doing this study. Their belief in our capacity to carry out a good deed gave us a unique courage to work tirelessly and unabatedly on this book. Despite having busy schedules, they were always there to help us. This work has been made possible by their dedication, cordial criticism, cooperation, and moral support.


**1. Introduction**

The Wound Healing Society has defined the wound as the result of 'disruption of normal anatomic structure and function'. A wound can be also described as a defect or break in the skin, which results from physical or thermal damage, or from medical and physiological

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

conditions [1]. The wound healing is a dynamic process consisting of four continuous and precisely programmed phases, namely haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation and remodelling. Multiple factors, such as infections, stress, diabetes, smoking and obesity, can lead to impaired wound healing by interfering with one or more of these phases [2]. Once injured, the skin loses many of the protective defence mechanism of the intact skin and is colonized by the microorganisms on its surface. According to the replication status of the microorganisms, a wound can be classified as contaminated, colonized, locally infected and/or with spreading invasive infection [3]. The main bacterial mode of living in an infected wound is biofilm, which can be defined as a confluent community of adherent bacteria characterized by high cell densities and encased in an extracellular polymeric matrix that acts as physical barrier for biological and pharmaceutical antimicrobials [4, 5]. The presence of bacterial biofilm is associated with impaired epithelialization and granulation tissue formation and promotes a low-grade inflammatory response that interferes with wound healing [6]. The biofilm matrix plays an important role in the increased antibiotic resistance and has an enormous impact on medicine in terms of both therapeutic options and costs. Biofilm has been estimated to be associated with 65% of nosocomial infections, and the treatment costs associated with biofilm infection and chronic wounds have been estimated to be more than 1 billion USD annually in the United States [4, 7].

The increasing resistance of bacteria to antibiotics represents a huge concern, so that the World Health Organization recently has described the problem as 'so serious that it threatens the achievements of modern medicine' [8, 9]. Moreover, the large number of wound dressings and the limited guidelines available have induced an undesirable inconsistency in wound-care practice [10]. The local treatment of wounds is crucial for preventing infections, controlling exudates and providing the moist environment necessary for wound healing. At this purpose, efforts have been made by many research groups in the development of bioactive dressings, which can play an active role in wound protection and healing, and/or are able to release biomolecules and antimicrobials for prevention and treatment of wound infections [8, 11, 12]. A strategy for the treatment of infected wounds with increased resistance to traditional antibiotic therapy is the use of specific antibacterial agents immobilized on the surface of a material, thus providing a wide spectrum of activity in terms of bacterial toxicity and destructuration of the bacterial biofilm matrix [13].

This chapter aims to provide the reader with an overview of the most promising routes to develop advanced biomaterials with antimicrobial properties for the management of wound infections through nanotechnology approaches. The new generation and application of nanomaterials with novel properties are one of the century's key technology developments, which offer extraordinary opportunities in the pharmaceutical and medical field [14]. The great potential of nanometals such as zinc, copper and silver in wound dressing formulations and their use as antimicrobial agent in wound infections will be presented, along with the most recent efforts and results achieved by several research group in the definition of effective strategies for prevention of wound infection and for enhanced wound healing. Moreover, the most relevant results obtained by the authors of this chapter in the field of silver-based antibacterial treatments for wound-healing application will be presented and discussed.


**1. Introduction**

Numerous studies have already been able to prove that different kinds of food are capable for acting against several types of diseases due to their various medicinal properties. *Sesamum indicum* L., more commonly referred to as sesame, is one of the foods that are known to exhibit pharmacological applications. Sesame, from the Pedaliaceae family [1], has been known way back several decades ago (1600 BC), and is originated from Indonesia according to the Hindu legends. Sesame is considered as one of the oldest condiments in the human history [2,3]. In line with this, sesame is one of the first crops to produce oil [4]. Its herbal medicinal property was first discovered in China and India during

the 8th century BC, and is believed to relieve toothaches, to give energy, to prevent aging, to sooth the mind and body and to treat bites of insects [5,6]. The largest area of sesame cultivation is found in India and provides 27.9% of the world's sesame [7]. Some countries also cultivate sesame especially in the tropical countries of Africa and Asia [8].

Majority of the sesame lignans are found in the sesame seeds. Sesame seeds comprise of 50% oil and 25% protein and the rest are sugars, moisture, fibers and minerals [9,10]. There are four commonly known sesame lignans namely, sesamin, sesamol, sesaminol and sesamolin. These sesame lignans (Figure 1) are known for its various biological activities and applications. Sesamin, a furfuran lignan, plays a role in scavenging free radicals and lipid and glucose metabolism. Sesamol possess high antioxidant activity, which involves membrane protection from peroxidation of lipids [11,12]. Sesaminol exhibits inhibitory property against membrane lipid peroxidation and improves the tocopherols availability of vitamin E through enhancement of concentrations of liver and plasma [13,14]. Sesamolin upregulates the rate of peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation and hepatic mitochondrial and has a synergistic effect on pyrethrum insecticides [15–17]. Not only is sesame oil abundant in sesame seeds, but sesame oil also has excellent quality nutrition and stability [18]. Among other vegetable oils, sesame oil has many uses and has high therapeutic values, which make it interesting to study. The presence of sesame lignans such as sesamin, sesamol, sesamolin and other acylglycerols (oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid and arachidic acid) in sesame oil contributes to its distinct properties [19,20]. This paper presents an in-depth review on the anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties of sesame.

**Figure 1.** Chemical Structures of *Sesamum indicum* L. lignans.


# **Finite-Time Thermodynamics**

Edited by R. Stephen Berry, Peter Salamon and Bjarne Andresen Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in *Entropy*

www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy

**Finite-Time Thermodynamics**


4.5.2. Antibiotic, Antiviral, and Antifungal Activity

Algae's antibiotic activity was demonstrated for several authors through tests of the extracts obtained from algae against Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. Finding these new sources of antibiotics is interesting because microorganisms are getting more resistant to drugs, so providing new drugs is of utmost importance nowadays. That is why novel natural antimicrobial compounds with high potential, good availability, less toxicity, and fewer adverse effects are required [56].

According to a recent article [55], isolated chemical compounds from marine seaweed have been shown to owe bioactivities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as anticoagulant and apoptotic effects. Viral diseases are still one of the main causes of death in the world. Treatments sometimes fail because of the side effects of infectious diseases or because of drug resistance. Therefore, the study of algae compounds with antiviral activity is of great interest. According to other authors [58,76], algae from the three large groups (green, brown, and red algae) produce interesting polysaccharides that show antibacterial activity against some pathogen bacteria such as *Aeromonas salmonicida* or *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, both being of importance because of their high pathogenicity, resistance, and incidence in humans. Specifically, some red algae produce sulfated polysaccharides showing antiviral capacity against viruses responsible for different infectious diseases. As an example, red algae *Gracilaria gracilis* extracts have shown antimicrobial activity against *Bacillus subtilis*, an extreme conditions resistant bacteria [77]. One of the main areas of interest is to find new treatments towards herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), as it is an endemic disease, the virus is developing resistance, and other available drugs have side effects [57].