**5. Methodology**

To study this organization, I adopted a case study method to profile the beliefs and practices of CiM. I conducted eight semistructured interviews with its members, guided by questions and themes that revolved around its ideology/culture and organisation as well as how it negotiates the environment to challenge the mainstream ethic. The length of the interviews ranged from forty-five minutes to one hour. To recruit my interviewees, I relied on snowball sampling. Interview partners referred me to their fellow members. This was the best method of recruitment considering that the security of the interviewees was of concern since they were challenging political elites as well. To guard against undue homogeneity, I used other methods such as a review of grey literature. I also interviewed other people who were not members of CiM. At the beginning of the interviews, I explained to the interview partners that I was the only one who would access the interview recordings and transcripts, and I was going to keep them safe. The transcripts were strictly for academic purposes and nothing more. The interviewees were free to withdraw from the interview without any consequences, had the right to refuse to answer any questions, and their responses would remain anonymous. I proposed to use pseudonyms since the topic of research was politically sensitive. I also deployed the snowball sampling from di fferent angles to be able to be directed from di fferent ways and have a heterogeneous sample of respondents within the organization.

While this article relies heavily on the interviews, my analysis was influenced by other research methods as well. I had email communication with some of its key members, who provided me with background information. I consulted grey literature, which included press statements, publications and booklets. Grey literature helped me to trace the genealogy of CiM, gather information about its official positions, reconstruct its development and acted as a canvass against which to understand the general discourse within which it operates. I also gathered data from online social media such as Facebook, which provided unexpected data. To analyse the data, I systematically coded it according to preset and emergent major themes or codes.

The analysis of the data showed minimal disagreement regarding the ideology and practice of CiM. This can be accounted for by the fact that members studied CiM before committing to it. Absence from participating in some activities demonstrated some of the disagreements. CiM had room for this. A case in point is when some members of the Zimbabwe Assemblies of God in Africa (ZAOGA) who did not subscribe to the radical and confrontational approaches of CiM, such as demonstrations and distributing pamphlets with civic materials at bus termini, chose to take a lead in activities that centred around humanitarian aid, prayer and worship. One of the three prominent Bishops who were part of CiM jumped ship at some point and joined those who supported the ruling regime.

### *The Discourse and Practice of CiM in Pursuing Peace and Reconciliation*

The mission of CiM was to challenge both the mainstream churches' culture of silence and the violence that had engulfed the Zimbabwean political field. CiM is an "ecumenical" gathering of members from Christian denominations and organisations in the eastern province of Zimbabwe called Manicaland. It was formed in 2000, at a time of great uncertainty, intimidation and violence ahead of the elections. It claims that it aims to "seek the guidance of the Holy Spirit in taking action to promote tolerance in society, to give direction to public decision-makers and to enable our people to live Gospel values and principles" (Churches in Manicaland 2006). The use of the word "churches" does not refer to the institutional churches but to individual Christians, who would otherwise not be able to speak at high-ranking platforms such as those of mainstream bodies (Mkaronda 2003, p. 30). We see that the organization does not want to divorce itself from the traditional and recognized churches entirely, hence strategically retains the word "church" in its name. CiM describes itself as "strictly non-partisan regarding party politics and ... available to all for counselling, pastoral care and the building of a Christian vision for ... society" (Churches in Manicaland 2006). An o fficial said:

CiM is a platform of church leaders, laity and clergy who come together to see how best they can intervene in situations that need intervention, especially when we look at the political terrain in Zimbabwe. It started in 2000 during the height of political violence. Manicaland was also very much a ffected, so the church leaders thought it wise to come together and try to intervene ... We focus on human rights. Hence even where there is an unfair distribution of resources, we try to see how we can intervene and talk to the powers that be.

The formation of CiM centred on direct intervention in response to the cries of the victims of political violence. A founding member of CiM described to me how the original group of 14 religious leaders came together, assisted by the World Council of Churches, to begin the process of reflecting on the Zimbabwean crisis. Because these clergy felt they needed high-profile people to gain some legitimacy, they approached Bishop B of the Anglican Church and Bishop C of the Roman Catholic Church to be part of the organisation. The founding member noted that starting to talk about political violence was not easy after a long time of avoiding the topic within religious circles. Eventually, there was consensus that there was a crisis and the churches in Manicaland had to intervene, she asserted. They called together as many churches as they could, regardless of denomination. Their next meeting had about eighty people. They started these meetings against the background of rumours that the Chinese, who have warm political relations with the Zimbabwean ruling regime and carry out many government technical and infrastructural projects, had mounted big satellites with which they could, on behalf of the ruling party, see everyone's vote.

Regarding their motivation to become members of CiM, some asserted that they felt that they had a biblical mandate to participate in issues that a ffect their lives. Others joined through the encouragement of already participating members. Some said that the desire to pursue peace and justice issues was inborn. As one respondent told me, "I would see myself since childhood trying to advocate for other people, when I feel that injustice was being done, hence when I heard about CiM and was invited to a meeting, I just clicked in."

To justify its radical and confrontational approach to peace, CiM members say they feel compelled to react to socio-economic situations, and in that process, they make their faith relevant. Unlike what might be called secular civil society organisations, CiM draws upon both the Old and New Testament texts and figures. Bishop B of CiM had the following to say:

You look back to the time of Micah, Hosiah, and Amos. State religion was there; the Pharisees were there; they had lost the vision, so God had to keep on sending his prophets to tell the Pharisees that what they were doing was wrong. The prophets are not condemning ordinary people; they are condemning the King and his cronies, so it is that kind of prophetic ministry that will make some people look redundant.

CiM members also deploy scriptural texts to argue that they do not separate the religious, the social, the economic and the political. For them, the spiritual is entangled with the socio-economic and political, so they need to deal with life holistically. In the same way that the Old Testament prophets condemned not only religious prostitution but also social and political institutions, so do

they. They mention prophets like Amos, who was concerned with trade, for instance, manipulating trade scales, that is, economic issues. Prophets were concerned with political issues, notably about how kings were using or abusing their power, so they argue.

"No, we can't. There is no way you can separate the two. The problem comes when the church becomes partisan and supports a particular party", remarked a respondent. The relationship of religio-political nonconformist organizations like CiM with the political system contrasts with that of the mainstream churches, the latter of whom are silent, silenced, co-opted or sometimes express outright pronouncements of legitimation in the face of political violence. The mainstream churches seem compromised by bureaucracy, conservatism and proximity to political power. The emergence of organisations such as CiM confirms that in the face of a crisis, dissenting leaders from within may emerge and forge alliances with outsiders. It also shows that "in whatever sort of political system, widespread and profound disaster reopens the question of legitimate authority and the e ffective leadership in the conduct of the church leadership" (Fields 1982, p. 353).

CiM, as I pointed out above, describes itself as strictly nonpartisan regarding party politics (Churches in Manicaland 2006). My observation was also that it had easy access to non-ZANU PF (ruling party) politicians, thereby casting doubt on its nonpartisanship claim and weakening its criticism that mainline churches court ZANU PF politicians. A case in point is when Bishop B spoke at an opposition MDC campaign rally in 2013. He was reported in a Facebook post of the MDC to have

urged all Zimbabweans from all walks of life to rally in commitment behind President' Tsvangirai (the late leader of the opposition). He also noted that we need humble people with love to lead us into a new Zimbabwe, saying that an open palm (the symbol of the MDC) is used to rebuild compared to a closed fist (the symbol of the ruling party ZANU PF) which is used to destroy. He thanked God and called upon Him to usher our nation into a new Zimbabwe which we all need. (MDC Facebook Post 2015)

Surprised by this position of a prominent figure of CiM, I asked one of the founding members about this, and he emailed:

It does not sound like him. Is it possible that he did not say this but someone is deliberately misquoting him? If he did say it, I would not agree with his approach. If (Bishop B) did say what he is quoted as saying, he could be asked to give reasons as to why he adopted this approach. It seems to be out of character with the person that I knew.

This might suggest that principles and action do not always agree, or that while in general there was much agreement amongst the members of CiM, there are cases when there were di fferences. Above we saw members of ZAOGA deciding to participate only in prayer activities, and here we encounter Bishop B participating at an event of an opposition party. My email correspondent shows disagreement with Bishop B's approach.

### **6. The Discourse and Practice of CiM in Pursuing Peace and Reconciliation**

Peace and reconciliation are central to the mission of CiM. What is significant and in line with the argument of this article is that not as expected of religious leaders in Zimbabwe, CiM takes radical, confrontational and grassroots-based approaches to pursue political objectives. It defines reconciliation as "dealing with pain and resentment, hurt and anger leading to healing" (Churches in Manicaland 2006, p. 11). Some members of CiM feel that contrition or repentance is of paramount importance in the process. Bishop B describes reconciliation as a process of "re-membering" with the political other(s) after losing membership through committing atrocious acts:

Genuine reconciliation includes contrition, being inwardly sorry, and if you do not demonstrate that contrition, there is no reconciliation. I can't say, 'Forget about it, it was child's play.' It is warding off the problem. Reconciliation means a person has to swallow his or her pride. It demands a lot of humility—giving oneself on the table and asking to be helped to be 'one of us again' because he or she is no longer one of us. That is when for me reconciliation begins.

In his account of what reconciliation entails, Bishop B accentuates a demonstration of contrition. He emphasizes contrition and being sorry. For him, without an apology, there is no reconciliation. His emphasis on contrition and being inwardly sorry intersects with what I have elsewhere called transformative apology, understood as an apology that comes from deep within the wrongdoer's heart and mind, one that ruptures ideas, narratives and ideologies that made the wrongdoer see it justified in the first place to commit the wrong (Tarusarira 2019). Bishop B is thus against instrumental apologies which guarantee neither the rupture of the epistemic bedrock of wrongdoing, nor that the same wrongdoing will not be repeated to another person.

In Zimbabwe, there is a tendency to separate religious approaches to peace and reconciliation from political ones. It is upon this distinction that religious approaches to dealing with violence and its legacies are classified as "soft", thus possessing soft power (Haynes 2012) and characterised by piety, while political approaches are categorised as "hard" and not bent on piety. The distinction between soft and hard approaches resonates with the concept of religious soft power which was developed by Jeffrey Haynes in discussing how religion affects foreign policy (Haynes 2008), as an extension of Nye (1990) concept of "soft power". Soft power refers to the ability of ideas to make an influence or appeal to a targeted audience without using "hard power" that is often associated with state power. These ideas shape the values and norms of international and local institutions. The concept of soft power was introduced by Nye (1990) to show that hard power is not the only way to achieve political goals. Power is about influencing others towards desired goals. This can be done through the use of sticks, carrots or attraction. Soft power is thus defined as "the ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments." Its power lies not necessarily in influence, but in attraction of the culture, ideas, policies or principles. It thus appeals and does not force. It is about persuasion and encouragement. It is contrasted with the notion of "hard power", that is, military or economic influence, involving overt leverage and/or coercion (Nye 2005; Haynes 2009). Religious soft power should include cultural (including religious) actors who seek to influence foreign policy by encouraging policymakers to incorporate religious beliefs, norms and values into foreign policy (Haynes 2008.) It is when religious organisations seek to influence using religious beliefs, norms and values (Haynes 2009).

While CiM is not opposed to religious soft power, which it also deploys since it is an organisation founded on certain ideals and values, it does not limit itself to it. Religious soft power is connected to piety, but as Bishop B has shown, that is not enough. Nye (2005) acknowledged that soft power works in situations where there are willing interpreters and receivers. We have seen already that this is not the case in Zimbabwe where politicians are not willing interpreters and receivers, but pay deaf ears to the soft power of mainstream churches. Furthermore, soft power tends to produce a diffuse effect, creating general influence rather than producing early observable specific action, which is required in times of violence, like the context under discussion in Zimbabwe. Related to this is that soft power is relevant for what are called "milieu goals", like shaping an environment conducive to democracy, but less relevant to immediate goals like preventing an attack and violence, as we see in the Zimbabwean context in the 2000s. Confronted with these limitations of soft power, CiM appreciates what might be called "hard power", which in this case is represented not by guns, bombs and heavy artillery, but by radical and confrontational demonstrations and petitions.

CiM challenges these distinctions and bridges the religious and socio-political dimensions of reconciliation (see Porter 2003). Unlike in the past when the resolution of the conflict was discussed mainly in political terms of democracy, justice, equality, freedom, rights, stability and the rule of law, today there is an increasing recognition of the importance of terms such as healing, repentance and forgiveness, which were once largely restricted to the religious domain. This intermingling marks the recognition of reconciliation as a political and cultural priority. In describing reconciliation, my CiM informant spoke of "contrition", "inner sorry", "humility", "repentance" and "forgive me". "Forgetting" was ruled out as an option having been associated with the Christian concept of forgiveness in Zimbabwe through the dictum "forget and forgive" at independence in 1980, which I alluded to earlier. Bridging the religious and socio-political dimensions addresses the fear that reconciliation might be no more than a cheap religious, specifically Christian, process which seems to make a necessary connection between apology and forgiveness.

CiM members emphasize that reconciliation is not only political but societal as well. Political reconciliation, which tends to be associated with the top religious, political and military leadership of society or what is called Track 1 diplomacy, does not necessarily translate to the restoration of broken relationships in communities. Yet, communities provide the cement for sustainable reconciliation in society. Thus, CiM members advocated a platform that would facilitate a nationwide process of national healing. They believe that there must be a system that gives perpetrators of violence no option to avoid telling what happened. They argue that, in the context of Zimbabwe, a politically led process is not productive, because the powerful will protect themselves. Rev. D said:

As long as there are people who have power and are unreachable, because they are so powerful, the process will not get anywhere. What we would like to see happening is the formation of an 'independent' body to spearhead this process, which would consult or bring onboard political players. Those who have been perpetrating violence for years seem to be influencing from behind. I would have loved to see independent people like heads of churches and perhaps lawyers for human rights.

Mrs A echoed his sentiments: "what is needed is not a composition of appointed personalities", but "a process that takes on transparency and people feeding in and saying what they want". It was clear that the call for an independent body and the suggestion for church leaders to lead the process was influenced by South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation (TRC), which was dominated by religious leaders, prominent among them being Archbishop Desmond Tutu and Rev. Alex Boraine, the Chair and Deputy respectively. It must be noted, however, that the dominance of religious leaders in South Africa's TRC was not without concerns from representatives of other religious traditions who felt that they were not represented. CiM respondents did not suggest traditional leaders, presumably because the traditional leaders had lost moral credibility because they were co-opted by the ruling regime. Notable here is that CiM members do not mince their words and are not "soft" with the process of peace and reconciliation, as demonstrated by its members' "hard" stance regarding the politicians whom they argue should not be allowed to get away without telling the truth of what they did during the periods of violence. Instead of only dialoguing and continuously engaging them, as would be advocated by the mainstream churches, CiM's nonconformist character mandates it to take robust approaches that compel politicians to be accountable for what they might have done.

Truth-telling was pointed out as a precondition for forgiveness. While truth-telling is generally agreed to be an indispensable element of the reconciliation process, it is not straightforward; it is delicate, sensitive and complicated. The caution would be that it needs not to be taken as a way of escaping justice, especially in cases where truth is exchanged for freedom, as was the case in the South African TRC, where truth-telling was traded for amnesty. No wonder Prof. A said, "Is it possible to just ask people to forgive each other? It will not work because the truth is not out. Truth and justice create healing and reconciliation... subjecting that truth to justice, then you get healing and you get reconciliation." This truth must be gathered from the grassroots people around the country, the majority of whom are victims of the contest between the political elites. Rev. Dr A a ffirmed the need to hear the stories of ordinary people, saying "We need people *vakadimurwa maoko* (who had their hands cut o ff) to tell their stories and what they want, we need people from Matabeleland massacres in the early 1980s to tell their stories." Truth-telling, healing, reconciliation and forgiveness were linked by Bishop A:

There is no way that there is going to be peacebuilding and national healing without truth-telling because only when one tells the truth even before anything happens that brings about some sort of mutual healing. After the truth, we then look at healing and after justice people can then talk about forgiveness and reconciliation is likely to follow.

Mr A confirmed this position: "It is important for the perpetrators of violence, who were involved in destroying property and people's lives, to own up to their actions and acknowledge they were wrong and that they are seeking to turn over a new leaf." Repentance and reparations are possible in cases where stolen goods can be returned or compensation made for destroyed property. Mr B said that the perpetrator should be able to say "I am sorry, what should I do?" The truth involved here comes from the victims and the perpetrators of the abuses. (Tutu 1999) calls this social truth, that is, truth gathered from social interaction, discussion and debate. CiM, therefore, calls for a comprehensive and rigorous process of reconciliation rather than a mere cheap and pious process that covers up for perpetrators.


**0,&RSWLPL]DWLRQPHWKRG**

**Determining the number of neurons in each hidden layer:** In our work, Ni indicates the number of neurons in the ith hidden layer that will be optimized by the MIC method. So, the first variable of MIC is Ni, which is an integer value, Ni ∈ [1, m] where m value is equal to the input size of AsyAE. It forces the AsyAE to be an incomplete network. It means the encoder layer has fewer neurons than the input layer.

**Determining the learning rate in each hidden layer:** μi specifies the learning rate in the ith hidden layer, which will be optimized by the MIC method. Therefore, the second variable of the MIC population is a real value between zero and one, μi ∈ (0, 1). It should be mentioned that we set the decimal digit of μi equal to 5 to examine its effect on SAAE performance.

**Initial value of trainable parameters:** Although deep learning methods have good performance in various problems, they are complicated tasks. Because there are huge factors that strongly influence them, one of the critical factors is initialization.

The DNN parameters need a starting point in the feasible area to be trained. The proper initial parameters can accelerate the convergence. Contrarily, random initialization can trap the network in the local optima.

Optimization algorithms such as GA and PSO can be used in this field. However, the number of DNN parameters (weights and biases) is vast, e.g., 1015, and producing the chromosomes with these dimensions causes a memory error in the processor system and is not efficient in practice. Another method, suggested by Hinton et al., applies the restricted Boltzman machine (RBM) network to tune the auto-encoder's initial parameters [58,59].

According to the ANN-base of an AsyAE and RBM, the AsyAE can be interpreted as two consecutive RBMs illustrated in Figure 4. The input layer is the visible unit, and the encoder layer is the hidden unit for the RBM1. In the RBM2, the encoder layer is the visible unit, and the decoder layer is the hidden unit.

**Figure 4.** Converting auto-encoder to two RBMs for tuning the initial weights of the encoder and decoder layers.

The conventional RBM is based on binary visible and hidden units, called Bernoulli-Bernoulli RBM (BBRBM). If both visible and hidden units have a Gaussian distribution, the Gaussian-Gaussian RBM (GGRBM) is employed [60]. Since the AsyAE input and parameters are real values, we used the GGRBM equations.

The energy function of the GGRBM is defined as Equation (14), where v presents visible units and h shows hidden units. It should be noted that the AsyAE input and the encoder output are the visible units of RBM1 and RBM2, respectively.

$$\mathbf{E}(\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{h}) = -\sum\_{\mathbf{i}=1}^{\mathbf{g}\_{\mathbf{v}}} \sum\_{\mathbf{j}=1}^{\mathbf{g}\_{\mathbf{h}}} \mathbf{W}\_{\mathbf{i}, \mathbf{j}} \frac{\mathbf{v}\_{\mathbf{i}} \mathbf{h}\_{\mathbf{j}}}{\sigma\_{\mathbf{i}} \sigma\_{\mathbf{j}}} - \sum\_{\mathbf{i}=1}^{\mathbf{g}\_{\mathbf{v}}} \frac{\left(\mathbf{v}\_{\mathbf{i}} - \mathbf{a}\_{\mathbf{i}}\right)^{2}}{2\sigma\_{\mathbf{i}}^{2}} - \sum\_{\mathbf{j}=1}^{\mathbf{g}\_{\mathbf{h}}} \frac{\left(\mathbf{h}\_{\mathbf{j}} - \mathbf{b}\_{\mathbf{j}}\right)^{2}}{2\sigma\_{\mathbf{j}}^{2}},\tag{14}$$

where ai and bj are visible and hidden units biases, respectively, σi and σj are their standard deviations. Wi,j is the weight between the visible and hidden units. A probability value is assigned to each possible visible and hidden unit by Equation (15),

$$\mathbf{P}(\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{h}) = \frac{1}{Z} \exp(-\mathbf{E}(\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{h})). \tag{15}$$

Here, Z is the normalization constant calculated by Equation (16).

$$Z = \sum\_{\mathbf{v}} \sum\_{\mathbf{h}} \exp(-\mathcal{E}(\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{h})).\tag{16}$$

Equation (17) shows the loss function, which must be maximized,

$$\text{maximize}\_{\{\mathbf{W}\_{ij}, \mathbf{a}\_i, \mathbf{b}\_j\}} \frac{1}{\mathbf{c}} \sum\_{\mathbf{L}=1}^{\mathbf{c}} \log \left( \mathbf{P} \left( \mathbf{v}^{\mathbf{L}}, \mathbf{h}^{\mathbf{L}} \right) \right), \tag{17}$$

The updating functions are

$$
\Delta W\_{i,j} = \zeta \left( <\,\,\mathrm{v}\_{i}\mathrm{h}\_{\rangle} >\_{\mathrm{data}} - <\,\,\mathrm{v}\_{i}\mathrm{h}\_{\rangle} >\_{\mathrm{model}} \right), \tag{18}
$$

$$
\Delta \mathbf{a}\_{\mathbf{i}} = \mathsf{J}(<\text{v}\_{\mathbf{i}}>\_{\text{data}} -<\text{v}\_{\mathbf{i}}>\_{\text{model}}),
\tag{19}
$$

$$
\Delta \mathbf{b}\_{\rangle} = \zeta \left( < \mathbf{h}\_{\rangle} >\_{\text{data}} - < \mathbf{h}\_{\rangle} >\_{\text{model}} \right), \tag{20}
$$

where < • >data and < • >model are expanded values of sample data and model probabilistic distribution, and ζ is the learning rate.

We described GGRBM briefly, and this is the time to use it. For a traditional autoencoder, first, the initial parameters of the encoder layer are randomly selected and then trained by the GGRBM method. The trained parameters are considered the encoder layer's initial parameters, and its transposition is employed for the decoder layer. However, in the AsyAE, the encoder and decoder parameters are not symmetric and have to be obtained individually. So, the above principle is applied to the decoder layer to obtain the initial parameters.

**The number of hidden layers:** The value of this hyper-parameter is dependent on the performance of AsyAEs. The classification performance of each AsyAE is examined in MIC for each pair of (Ni, μi). For the next AsyAE, the performance has to be better than that of the previous one. If the performance of AsyAE(i+1) is better than that of AsyAE(i), the MIC algorithm is continued.

The performance criterion is different from one problem to another. The Unweighted Average (UA) recall criterion frequently used in personality perception studies is calculated by Equation (21),

$$\text{UA recall} = \frac{1}{2} \left( \text{recalll}\_{\text{LOW}} + \text{recalll}\_{\text{High}} \right) \tag{21}$$

The recallLow means the recall of detecting the low degree of studied personality, and the recallHigh indicates the recall of detecting its high degree.

**The maximum epoch of network training:** Generally, the DNN training process proceeds to reach maximum epoch (updating time) [40]. As discussed in [24], proper data separation does not occur in the maximum epoch. Thus, a J variation is employed as a stopping criterion to finish the training process in the epoch in which the maximum separation is achieved.

J is calculated as follows,

$$\mathbf{J} = \frac{\det(\mathbf{S\_B})}{\det(\mathbf{S\_W})'} \tag{22}$$

where SW is a within-class scattering matrix, and SB is a between-class scattering matrix [61]. **det** represents the determinant of a matrix.

$$\mathbf{S}\_{\mathbf{W}} = \sum\_{\mathbf{i}=1}^{\mathbb{C}} \sum\_{\mathbf{x} \in \mathbf{c}\_{\mathbf{i}}} \left( \mathbf{X} - \mu\_{\mathbf{i}} \right) \left( \mathbf{X} - \mu\_{\mathbf{i}} \right)^{\mathrm{T}},\tag{23}$$

$$\mathbf{S}\_{\mathbf{B}} = \sum\_{\mathbf{i}=1}^{\mathbb{C}} \mathbf{n}\_{\mathbf{i}} (\mu\_{\mathbf{i}} - \mu) (\mu\_{\mathbf{i}} - \mu)^{\mathsf{T}}.\tag{24}$$

Here, ni is the instance number of ith class, **X** is the encoder output matrix, and c is the number of classes, μ is the matrix for average all instances, and μi is the class average matrix of ith class.

**Preventing over-fitting and under-fitting problems:** The over-fitting problem happens when a model trains properly on the training dataset but performs poorly on the testing dataset. The under-fitting problem occurs when a model performs poorly on both the training and testing samples.

The number of layers and the neurons in each layer can excessively lead a model into over-fitting or under-fitting. This can be easily changed by changing the structure. More neurons and layers complicate the model, but fewer cannot pursue the data pattern. Therefore, this is one of the problems that has to be dealt with in designing an optimum structure. So, a new loss function is defined to guide the model toward good fitting.

$$\text{Loss} = \frac{\text{UA}\_{\text{train}}}{\text{a}} \ast \frac{\text{UA}\_{\text{val}}}{\text{b}},\tag{25}$$

where a is the training threshold, and b is the validation threshold. We already discussed the UA recall criterion used chiefly in personality perception. We applied the loss function defined in Equation (25) instead of Equation (21). The aim is the maximization of Equation (25). We set a = 0.8 and b = 0.6 because a UAtrain of more than 80% and UAval of more than 60% are acceptable. The loss value can be in the range of [2.08, 0]. So, the set of (Ni, μi) is acceptable to be maximized in Equation (25).

**Final algorithm:** The pseudo-code of optimizing SAAE hyper-parameters is described in Algorithm 2.

#### **6. Simulations and Results**

In this section, firstly, the results of the MIC method on three benchmarks and comparison with other published methods will be discussed. Then, the MIC will be used to design the structure of five individual DNNs for classifying five personality traits. A final comparison can be found at the end of this section.

#### *6.1. The Results of the MIC on Three Optimization Benchmarks*

Three well-known, multimodal, continuous, and non-separable benchmark functions that have a global minimum value of zero, called Rastrigin [52], Ackley [62], and Griewang [62], are used to validate the MIC method.

The multimodal property means having many local optima or peaks in the function, which can test the ability of an algorithm to avoid being stuck in a local minimum. Nonseparable refers to the independence of obtained solution variables. If all variables are independent, they can be optimized independently, and the function will be optimized [62]. Therefore, these three functions are complex problems in evaluating the performance of any new optimization algorithm.

The formula, feasible range of variables, and the global optima points of three functions are summarized in Table 2.

**Table 2.** Description of Three Benchmark Functions.

Here, n indicates the dimension of the function, which is n ≥ 2 for all mentioned functions. Figure 5 shows the shape of the functions described in Table 2. As can be seen, all three functions have many local optima and are suitable to show the ability of optimization methods to escape from being stuck in local optima.

**Figure 5.** Benchmark functions ( **A**) Rastrigin, (**B**) Ackley, and ( **C**) Griewang.

In order to show the performance of MIC against the conventional optimization methods, the comparison results of the mentioned four islands and MIC are reported in Table 3.

Given the fact that the problem complexity increases with increasing dimensionality, increasing the number of the variables (dimension) grows the search space, which makes exploring the best solution difficult [62]. To investigate the effect of dimension on searching quality in MIC, we compared our results with 30D and 10D in Table 3.

For a fair comparison, all parameters and initial populations for the basic algorithms and MIC were set to the same values.

The following six criteria were utilized for a more reliable analysis. It should be mentioned that these criteria are common in optimization problems.

It was concluded by AvI numerical results that MIC can reach more accurate solutions with a faster convergence speed than traditional algorithms in n = 10. Although for the n = 30, the MM performance diminishes, LM and EM preserve their performance with increasing complexity. It is demonstrated that LM and EM improve solutions steadily for a long time without getting stuck in local minima. It is clear that MIC is more powerful than the four basic algorithms alone when it comes to solving global optimization problems.

Table 3 shows the simulation outcomes of MIC and four basic optimization algorithms. According to the AvP values in n = 10 and n = 30, traditional algorithms are often unsuccessful in finding favorable solutions in comparison to MIC, especially EM. Additionally, it can be concluded from AvP that the MIC speeds up the convergence to the global optima. The AvP values in n = 30 in comparison to n = 10 decreased about 0.1 in Rastrigin and remained constant for the other two functions in LM and EM. The change in the AvP values in MM is meaningful, which indicates getting stuck in the local optimum with the increase in the complexity of the problem, like the traditional methods.

Our SI outcomes show that the MIC method, especially EM and LM, reaches the stop criterion in a few iterations. It means the MIC method speeds up convergence. Moreover, the SI criterion shows that although the MM method performs better than the basic optimization methods in simpler functions (n = 10), its performance drops in complex functions (n = 30). LM and EM not only show their effectiveness in simple functions, but also perform well in complex problems compared to other methods.

The evaluation results of criterion BOP show that the LM and EM methods achieve the global optimal value more accurately than the basic methods in n = 10 and n = 30. However, MM implementation results decrease with increasing complexity.

It can be seen that the SD values of MIC, except for MM, are very small in comparison to those of the four basic algorithms in n = 10 and n = 30, which means the repeatability and robustness of the new algorithm are due to pruning search space.

The SR results prove that the MIC is very promising in bringing higher reliability than traditional algorithms because the number of times that LM, EM, and MM reached the desired value of the function was 100% in n = 10. As can be seen, as the complexity of the function increases (n = 30), the LM and EM methods are still successful in reaching the desired value.

From Table 3, it is concluded that despite increasing dimensions, the implementation outcomes of all algorithms decrease, except EM and LM.

Our study indicates that the quality of the solutions found using our proposed method for widespread global optima functions is higher than that of the solutions provided by traditional algorithms. This is due to a more appropriate tradeoff between exploring new individuals and exploiting highly fit individuals found at the parallelism level. By means of three widespread test functions, it is demonstrated that the new method has great potential for substantial improvement in search performance.

Due to the wide usage of these benchmarks, a comparison with other published works is presented in Table 4. It can be observed that LM and EM achieved the best solution in Ackley and Griewang functions (30D).

**Table 4.** Comparison with Other Published Methods in 30D. N/A means not available.

#### *6.2. The Results of Personality Perception with The MIC Method*

After the successful outcomes with the MIC method to find the global optima of three complex benchmark functions, we applied our novel method to find the near-optimal values of hyper-parameters for classifying five personality traits. We used "near-optimal" instead of "optimal" structure because tuning of MIC hyper-parameters such as mutation and crossover rating is chosen randomly.

Taking into account that different personality traits have different effects on speech characteristics [24,42], using the same DNN structure for all traits to extract features is not recommended. Assuming the five personality traits were independent, five separate neural networks were designed and trained to classify the five personality traits.

Hence, the network's depth was determined by classifying the output of each AsyAE encoder layer by the SVM with radial basis function kernel. The AsyAE with higher classification results is considered as the output layer of the SAE.

Table 5 shows the comparison results of our proposed method with other works in the SPC dataset in terms of UA recall and accuracy. In our previous work, the structure of SAAE was chosen by trial-and-error, which was time-consuming, and two traits (extraversion and openness) achieved lower accuracy than reported by other research [24]. N/A means not available.

**Table 5.** Comparison Results of Our Proposed Method with Other Works in the SPC Dataset in Terms of UA Recall % (Accuracy %).

In the present study, not only were the accuracy of extraversion and openness improved, but UA recalls were also increased more than before. This evidences that the performance and robustness of trained models are highly dependent on their hyper-parameter settings.


**7.2 Dolastatin 15**

*Dolabella auricularia*, cyanobacteria associated sea hare contained another cytotoxic peptide called as dolastatin 15 (**Figure 8**). It was discovered by the process of bioassays guided fractionation and purified it as a minor fraction of about 6.2 mg from 1600 kg of wet sea hare. It was evident that this compound is well associated with the sea hare from its cyanobacterial diet. Dolastatin 15 is a linear heptadepsipeptide composed of the dolavaline (N,N- dimethyl valine), valine, N-Me-valine, proline (x2), 2-hydroxyisovaleric acid. New Dpy moiety present in this peptide was proposed to be originated biosynthetically from the N-acetyl-phenyalanine methyl ester by intramolecular condensation. This peptide showed specific activity towards the P388 lymphocyte leukemia cell line of the national cancer institute (NCI) [61]. Dolastatin 15 was found to bind in the Vinca alkaloid domain of the tubulin complex, a definitive binding site was not identified. On the other hand, this peptide was shown to weakly bind tubulin with concurrent weak inhibition of crytptophyccin 1 binding, its specific acts are still unclear. Further on going work could determine the molecular mechanism of dolastatin 15 activity, although it has been stopped to enter the preclinical trials due to its general toxicity.


*4.2. Seized Blotter Sample*

A plastic bag containing one blotter paper labeled as "1B-LSD Blotters 25 MCG" was seized at Stockholm Arlanda Airport, Sweden, together with one plastic bag containing 10 flualprazolam tablets and one plastic bag containing 0.5 g of 2-fluorodeschloroketamine (both bags were correctly labelled). No sub-sample was available for any of the seized materials.

#### *4.3. Sample Preparation*

The material was extracted at the Swedish Customs Laboratory with 0.5 mL of MeOH, followed by filtration. After GC–MS analysis, aliquots of the samples were shipped to the JRC for further analysis. A direct injection of the methanol sample was carried out for the UHPLC–qTOF-MS analysis, while for the HR-Orbitrap-MS, the extract was diluted 1:50 with acetonitrile.

#### *4.4. Instrumental Analysis*


**2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Preparation and storage of experimental diets**

Half-washed basin of fresh red chilli pepper (*Capsicum annum*) was procured from a local market in Nigeria. It was washed and sun-dried for 4 days. The dried samples were then pulverised using electric blender to obtain a fine powder. The pepper powder was then stored in air-tight rubber container from which pepper diets were prepared.

Capsaicin (95% pure) was obtained from Wuxi Gorunjie natural-Pharma Co. Ltd., Jiangsu China.

#### **2.2 Animal treatment**

Thirty (30) male mice of CD-1 strain weighing between 22 and 34 g were used for the study. They were kept in a well-ventilated room under room temperature (25 ± 2°C), humidity of 8 ± 5% and 12/12 h light/dark cycle and allowed 1 week for acclimatisation to the research environment before the experiments. They were randomly assigned into three groups, namely; control group that received normal rodent

**175**

*The Effects of Consumption of* Capsicum *on Some Neurobehavioural Parameters*

their beddings, feed and water were hygienically handled and changed daily.

chow, pepper group that were fed 20% chilli pepper diet and capsaicin group that were given 10% capsaicin diet. Each group comprised 10 mice. Each mouse was allowed drinking water *ad libitum*. This treatment was done for 28 days and within this period,

Approval for this study was obtained from the Faculty Animal Ethics Committee of Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Calabar with Protocol number

The elevated plus maze apparatus designed according to the description of Lister

) with 15 cm high walls radiating from a central square (5 × 5 cm).

) with 0.25 cm high edges and two closed

[14], and the test protocol adapted by Okon et al. [15] were used in this present study. This apparatus is used to assess the anxiety and fear levels of the mice. The test is based on the inborn aversion of rodents to open or bright illuminated spaces.

The open arms contain a slight edge (4 mm high) to prevent the mice from slipping

Prior to the test, the plus maze arms, surfaces and closed sides were cleaned with methylated spirit to eliminate olfactory clues and to remove faecal boll and urine. The mice were placed in the central square of the plus maze such that the mice faced an open arm away from the experimenter upon placement. Immediately after placement, a stop watch was started and the mice were allowed to explore the apparatus for 5 min. The test sessions were recorded and videotaped. Behaviours scored included open arm entry, open arm entry duration; head dip, rearing and

The beam walking assesses fine motor coordination and balance [17]. This test examines the ability of the mice to remain upright and to walk on an elevated and relatively narrow beam [17]. The beam has a length of 120 cm, a width of 0.6 cm and is suspended about 60 above some foam pads. The beam is marked at 5 cm and 1 cm intervals. It is composed of wood and is coated with black paint. The mouse was placed on one end of the beam. The trial was started after the mouse has secured its grip on the beam and lasted for approximately 5 min. The tests were videotaped for

This test used by Ramabadran et al. [18] assesses the basic pain response in mice

to thermal stimuli. This test measures spinally driven aspects of pain. Here, the

scoring. The parameters scored included the number of foot slips and falls.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91744*

**2.3 Approval for animal use**

**2.4 Behavioural protocol**

*2.4.1 Assessment of anxiety levels*

The maze has two open arms (45 × 5 cm2

*<IP_ADDRESS> The elevated plus maze*

and falling off the edge [16].

stretch attend posture frequencies.

*2.4.3 Assessment of pain perception*

*<IP_ADDRESS> Tail immersion test*

*<IP_ADDRESS> Beam walking*

*2.4.2 Assessment of motor coordination*

014PY20314.

arms (40 × 5 cm2

chow, pepper group that were fed 20% chilli pepper diet and capsaicin group that were given 10% capsaicin diet. Each group comprised 10 mice. Each mouse was allowed drinking water *ad libitum*. This treatment was done for 28 days and within this period, their beddings, feed and water were hygienically handled and changed daily.


*3.2. Protein Composition*

Further analysis of proteins by RP-HPLC revealed the results shown in Table 3. It is obvious that the application of crossflow MF, even with a membrane of 1.4 μm pore size, resulted in the fractionation of casein micelles, since protein permeation depends on the interaction between membrane pore and protein size. Both ovine and bovine milk permeates had significantly (*p* < 0.05) higher κ-casein (κ-CN) contents and lower β-casein (β-CN) contents than their counterpart's retentates. Similar, but not statistically significant, results have been reported by Tziloula et al. [28], who showed that micelles of bovine milk with a diameter greater than 550 nm were retained during MF (1.4μm). In ovine permeate, except for β-CN, the αs1-CN and αs2-CN contents were significantly (*p* < 0.05) lower. The loss of casein fractions and especially those of κ-CN in retentate may be due to the damage of the casein micelles surface, which is caused by the shear forces in the membrane circuit pump [11]. In the case of ovine milk, the shear forces were lower because of the lower flux compared to bovine milk and, thus, more κ-CN remained in permeate. On the other hand, α-lactalbumin (α-La) and β-Lg were concentrated in the permeates because of their smaller volume. The particle diameter of bovine α-La and β-Lg was less than 10 nm [29].

**Table 3.** Effect of microfiltration on casein fractions (% of total protein) and the main whey proteins (% of total protein) of partially defatted bovine (B) or ovine (O) milk, bovine permeate (BP), bovine retentate (BR) (mean ± SD, n = 3), ovine permeate (OP) and ovine retentate (OR) (mean ± SD, n = 5).

For the same milk, means with different superscript in the same row differ significantly (*p* < 0.05).


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**Author details**

Chu-Yuan Luo and Yasu S. Morita\*

*Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and*

*Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA*

*Functional Microbial Genomics, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Australia*

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**Chapter 7**

© 2013 Uchiyama and Kominami, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

properly cited.

**Autophagy Regulates Lipid**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Yasuo Uchiyama and Eiki Kominami

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51447

**1. Introduction**

**Droplet Formation and Adipogenesis**

Proteolysis in eukaryotic cells can be separated into two major pathways: one is mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome system and by the autophagy-lysosome system. Substrates of lysosomes may be taken through heterophagocytosis, endocytosis, or autophagy into heterophagosomes, early endosomes, or autophagosomes, which receive lysosomal enzymes via transporting vesicles from the trans-Golgi network or lysosomes and become heterophagolysosomes, late endosomes, or autolysosomes [1-4]. Different from endocytosis and heterophagocytosis, substrates of autophagy are limited to intracellular constituents and include various membranous organelles together with a part of the cytoplasm [3]. Until recently, 18 autophagy-related proteins (Atgs) have been shown to be involved in autophagosome formation, although more than 30 Atgs have been uncovered to regulate autophagy [2, 5]. Such autophagy contributes to the maintenance of cellular homeostasis [6]. Impairment of autophagy, therefore, causes severe degenerative alterations in various tissue cells [1, 4, 7]. In addition to the maintenance of basal cellular metabolism, autophagy is

induced in response to various stresses such as starvation and diseases [8-13].

Since one of the major sources in living organisms is lipid, the metabolism of lipid is finely regulated. Besides adipose tissues, neutral lipids, most of which are mainly triacylglycerol (TAG) and cholesterol ester (CE) in cells, are stored in a sort of inclusion body, called the lipid droplet or lipid body [14-16]. Under nutrient-rich situations, excess fatty acids may be converted to TAG through lipogenesis and stored in lipid droplets, whereas lipid droplets under starvation conditions may be a source to produce lipids by lipolysis for cell usage [16]. Under stress or starvation states, proteins are also degraded to produce an amino acid pool that is used in part for energy metabolism through glyconeogenesis, while free fatty acids (FFAs) from adipocytes are delivered to hepatocytes and cardiac myocytes where they are used as an energy source via -oxidation [15, 16]. At the initial stage during fasting,

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Chapter 7**