**4.6 Lead**

In contrast to manganese or nickel, lead is not a trace element and is well known to be toxic [90]. In general, absorption by ingestion is the predominant route of exposure to lead. After ingestion, lead absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract enters the bloodstream by attaching to red blood cells, which transport it to various tissues or organs in the body [91]. This distribution of Pb in the body is independent of the route of absorption. As it cannot be destroyed in the body, lead accumulates in the bones. In fact, in adults, more than 90% of the lead present in the body is stored in the adult bones, compared with 70% in children. However, certain phenomena such as pregnancy, breastfeeding, menopause and osteoporosis increase the passage of lead from the bones to the blood [92, 93].

The mechanism of lead toxicity is manifested by the ability of this metal to replace cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+ Na + that have important functions in the cell [94, 95]. This disrupts the metabolism of the cell and leads to significant changes in various biological processes such as cell adhesion, intra- and intercellular signalling, protein folding, ion transport, enzyme regulation and neurotransmitter release. Furthermore, this substitution may also affect protein kinase C, which regulates neuronal excitation and memory storage [96]. These phenomena will therefore lead to adverse effects on human health regardless of the age group, even if infants and young children are more at risk [96, 97]. Organic forms are more toxic to humans than inorganic forms of lead. These reach humans through the food chain [93]. The pathologies resulting from lead poisoning are numerous and can be separated into two categories: physiological disorders and neurological disorders [53]. About physiological disorders [98], demonstrated that an average concentration of 29 μg.L−1 caused arterial hypertension in men. Studies have also shown that blood lead concentrations below 100 μg.L−1 are associated with kidney failure [98]. Moreover, according to Robert and et al., in 2004 [99] prolonged exposure to lead can cause sterility or serious problems for the fetus in the case of a pregnant woman. There are numerous studies demonstrating the existence of neurotoxic effects of lead in adults and children. According to Oscar and al, 2017 and Sanders and al, 2009 [53, 101], lead is believed to cause a decrease in intelligence quotient in children. Also, in their studies, Hsiang and Díaz in 2011, [102] showed that this metal was the basis of neurological dysfunctions and neurodegenerative effects. According to the same authors, these disorders generally follow chronic exposure to lead. In addition, other studies have shown disturbances in cognitive and behavioural functions, resulting from changes in the brain caused by lead poisoning [100]. According to these authors, children were more affected by these disorders than adults. Also, lead poisoning leads to lead

poisoning, which manifests itself by anaemia, digestive disorders and damage to the nervous system with memory loss and disturbances in cognitive and behavioural functions [103].

#### **4.7 Zinc**

The absorption of zinc after ingestion takes place in the central part of the small intestine (jejunum). Zinc is transported by metallothionein from the enterocytes to the blood. In the blood, zinc is bound to albumin which distributes it throughout the body [104]. As an essential element for living beings, it plays a major role in cellular metabolism. It is involved in enzymatic systems either as an integral part of the active site of numerous enzymes or as a cofactor regulating the activity of so-called "zinc-dependent" enzymes [32]. Zinc is therefore an essential micronutrient for human health [105]. This metal is involved in major metabolic pathways through its role in enzyme systems. It is also essential in the structure and function of a large number of macromolecules. It is implicated in gene expression and stabilises the structure of proteins [106]. Zinc also plays a role in cell signalling, hormone release and nerve transmission.

However, at high concentrations of zinc in the body, the concentration of metallothionein increases to regulate zinc. This leads to a decrease in the concentration of certain metals such as copper, whose homeostasis is ensured by metallothionein. This leads to a malfunction in the metabolism of copper, which can have several adverse effects. It is true that the acute toxicity of Zn is found in rare abnormal food conditions (poisoning). According to studies, several cases of gastrointestinal disturbances and diarrhea have been caused by high zinc ingestion [107, 108]. In a study by Samman and Roberts in 1989, and reported by the US Environmental Protection Agency [109] symptoms such as abdominal cramps, vomiting and nausea appeared in 26 of 47 healthy volunteers after six-week ingestion of zinc sulphate tablets, containing 150 mg.kg−1 of elemental zinc, for six weeks.

In addition, Gary in 1990 [110], stated that an ingestion of 1–2 g of zinc sulphate would have resulted in a concentration of nausea and vomiting, epigastric pain, abdominal cramps and diarrhoea (often bloody), while a young boy who ingested 12 g of elemental zinc over two days suffered only lethargy, dizziness, a slight shift in gait and difficulty in writing. These studies also show that the acute effects of zinc also depend on the form of zinc ingested.

In addition, chronic toxicity can manifest itself in bone marrow effects and polyneuropathy due to concomitant copper deficiency. It may also manifest itself as anaemia resulting from the malfunction of copper metabolism. Also, excessive zinc intake over a prolonged period of time increases the risk of prostate cancer and prostate cancer-related mortality [111].


**4. Conclusions**

Carbon supports such as activated carbon and MWNTs can be irreversibly sulfonated to yield materials with sulfonic groups surface concentrations of about 3 milimols per gram.

Sulfonation of activated carbon does not yield materials with meaningful concentration values of surface acid sites unless a graphitic precursor such as naphthalene is coimpregnated during sulfonation.

MWNTs are more efficiently sulfonated at 230 ºC. In this case, only 1/6 of the surface carbon atoms are exposed.

Esterification of glycerol with acetic acid can be carried out at room temperature, but in these conditions, the selectivity is biased toward monoacetin because the esterification rate is low and monoacetin cannot be acetylated. The selectivity to TAG and DAG is increased at higher temperatures (e.g., 60% at 100 ºC).

Etherification of glycerol with tert-butyl alcohol is a complex reaction with many undesired by-products being produced. All catalysts tried were effective for converting glycerol, but obtaining selectivities higher than 70-80% to di- and tri-ethers is still a challenge.


**5. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics**

384 Hearing Loss

interesting application of intratympanic medication was reported by Bryan in 1973, when he described the use of intratympanic steroids in a patient with facial paralysis (8). Itoh (9), in 1991, used steroids for Meniere's disease. Silverstein (10) in 1996, used steroids for

The cochlea can be thought of as a long coiled tube looking much like a snail shell (11). It is composed of three compartments.  The lower and upper fluid compartments respectively are the scala tympani and scala vestibuli, both of which are filled with perilymph. These two compartments communicate with each other at the apex of the cochlea through the helicotrema. The round window is a membranous opening in the bone within the scala tympani. It sits at the base of the scala tympani and is very compliant, capable of bulging into the middle ear. It separates perilymph from the middle ear space. The oval window, in the scala vestibuli, contains the footplate of the stapes, one of the middle ear bones, that

Most of the structures of the cochlea are protected from the systemic circulation by the presence of a blood-cochlear barrier (or blood-labyrinthine barrier), similar to the bloodbrain barrier. There is exchange between the different compartments of the inner ear: between tympanic perilymph and vestibular perilymph and between endolymph and perilymph. But also between the inner ear fluids and cerebrospinal fluid and between the inner ear fluid and plasma (12) (13). Exchanges between endolymph and plasma are through the stria vascularis and between perilymph and plasma through the capillaries perilymphatic. At this level makes a pass filtering products: blood-labyrinthine barrier

This blood–inner ear barrier consist of tight junctions and other mechanisms that limit access of molecules to inner ear targets. In fact the endothelial cells are connected with tight junctions and without fenestrations (14). This network of tightly coupled endothelial cells is the dominant component of the blood-cochlear barrier which make this solid barrier impermeable to macromolecules. In addition to this physical barrier, there is a chemical barrier between blood and endolymph/perilymph wich has a selectivity to electrolytes and

In the fluid of the inner ear, there are other obstacles to the spread of drugs administered systemically: Because the scala media has a relatively high positive charge due to the endocochlear potential, the charge the drug carries will be a significant factor in its ability to

The relatively high protein content of perilymph will tend to bind drugs (16). Protein interactions with drugs are as important in the perilymph as in blood. Albumin levels are high and can bind acidic drugs, and acid glycoproteins can bind basic drugs (16). Partition coefficients of drugs with these proteins will determine free concentration of the drug. The

enter the scala media, with positively charged drugs at a disadvantage (13).

free fraction of the drug binds to the sensory cells and exerts its effect (13).

transmits acoustic vibrations from eardrum to the inner ear.

Sensorineural Hearing Loss.

**3. Anatomy**

**4. Physiology**

water-soluble molecules (15).

(13).

Treatment given by intratympanic will diffuse in liquid of the inner ear. There are 3 practical entry points: 1) through round window membrane RWM (at the base of the cochlea on the scala tympani side), 2) through or near the oval window (at the base of the cochlea on the scala vestibuli side), 3) through the bone of the cochlea via application in the middle ear. This infusion is mainly through the round window.

The RWM has three layers (18): an outer epithelial layer on the middle ear side, a middle fibrous layer, and another epithelial layer facing the inner ear. The outer epithelial layer contains some microvilli and abundant mitochondria, suggesting that it may be able to absorb substances and carry out metabolic activities. The inner epithelial layer has areas of discontinuous basement membrane that may provide space for substances to traverse the membrane.

Plontke (19), and colleagues have extensively modeled the distribution of drugs applied at the RWM. They suggest that in addition to diffusion along the length of the cochlea, diffusion through the tissue of the cochlea from one scala to another must be considered as well.

Some factors facilitate the passage of molecules through the round window membrane: low molecular weight, water-soluble nature, the ionic charge, histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, endotoxin of E. coli, Staphylococcus exotoxins (20). The contact time with the round window membrane has the most important effect. Wang (21) demonstrates that the inner ear pharmacokinetic profile of steroids administered intratympanically is dependent upon the nature of the vehicle as well as the physicochemical properties of the steroid drug itself. In fact the degree of aqueous solubility of the drug has a major impact on its residence time and exposure in the inner ear (21).

Glucocorticoid receptors have been identified in the inner ear and are more abundant in the cochlea (22). The presence of glucocorticoid receptors in the inner ear provides a cellular means by which circulating glucocorticoids can directly affect the inner ear physiology. Corticosteroids have been used extensively for inner ear disease because of their antiinflammatory effects but also affect the vascularity of the inner ear. Corticosteroids have many effects : they prevent a decrease in cochlear blood flow, reduce degeneration of the stria vascularis and have an antioxidant effect (23).


**3. Irrigation operation: the need for being climate smart**

Observed climate change impacts are already affecting food security through increasing temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and greater frequency of some extreme events [16]. Increasing temperatures are affecting agricultural productivity in higher latitudes, raising yields of some crops (maize, cotton, and wheat), while yields of others are declining in lower-latitude regions [17]. Changes in land use and an increasing demand for water resources have affected the capacity of ecosystems to sustain food production, ensure freshwater resources supply, provide ecosystem services, and promote rural multifunctionality [18]. According to the special report "*Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and governance gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems*"—recently published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)—agriculture, forestry, and other land use (AFOLU) activities accounted for 23% of total net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) by the period 2007–2016. However, agriculture is not only a contributor to climate change, it will also be severely affected by climate change [19]. Moreover, some effects of warming on crop yields, increased pest occurrences, and the effects of extreme events (e.g., floods, storms, and droughts) on agricultural production are already observed [20]. Although farmers have long adapted to environmental conditions, the severity of the predicted climate changes may be beyond many farmers' current ability to adapt and improve their agricultural production systems and livelihoods [21].  In order to address this gap, increasing interest has been focused on ensuring that both agriculture and irrigation become climate smart as a driven factor to ensure food security, improve rural livelihoods, and alleviate environmental risks for small-scale farmers [24]. The multi-dimensional aspects of agricultural production under climate change are captured by the climate-smart agriculture (CSA), an approach in which agriculture is transformed and reoriented under the projected scenarios of climate change [25]. The CSA has three concurrent objectives: (i) sustainably increasing farm productivity and income, (ii) increasing adaptive capacity to climate change, and (iii) reducing GHG emissions [26]. In fact, CSA seeks to enhance productivity, water conservation, livelihoods, biodiversity, resilience to climate stress, and environmental quality [27]. Despite the recognized importance of CSA by the Global Alliance for Climate Smart Agriculture (GASCA) and a range of international and national initiatives focused on climate-smart technologies (CST), the dissemination and uptake of climate smart technologies, tools, and practices is still largely an ongoing, challenging process [28]. At this point, some questions should be addressed:

• To what extent is irrigation an enabler of other CSA technologies and under what conditions (soil/market/demography/crop/water management, etc.)?

**3**

**sources**

*Introductory Chapter: Addressing Past Claims and Oncoming Challenges for Irrigation Systems*

• Which type of irrigation technology is more climate resilient to extremes and long-term change (watershed management, small-scale pumping, small

• Who benefits and what are the implications for food security and food sover-

According to the FAO-IPCC Expert Meeting on "Climate Change, Land Use and Food Security" celebrated in 2017 [29], to secure a resilient food system under climate change requires a range of appropriate sustainability metrics to better support integrated and multidisciplinary scenario analyses combining socio-economic and ecological dimensions. Among other measures, experts highlighted (1) the need to integrate technical and economic assessments when measuring the impact of improved water use efficiency (maximizing "crop per drop") vs sustainable water use (optimized renewable use of water within a river basin) and (2) the promotion of participatory research to develop frameworks to manage water, land, agroforestry, and crops under different water demand, supply, and pricing conditions.

eignty if irrigation becomes an integral part of CSA technologies?

**4. Irrigation impacts and risks: fixing the environmental limits**

on the environment [30]. While negative impacts are serious and can include pollution and degradation of soil, water, and air [31], agriculture can also positively affect the environment, for instance by trapping GHG within crops and soils [32], or mitigating flood risks through the adoption of certain farming practices [33]. In recent years, there have been some encouraging signs that the agriculture sector and irrigation activities are capable of meeting its environmental challenges. In particular, farmers have made improvements in the use and management of nutrients [34], pesticides [35], energy [36], and water [37], using less of these inputs per unit of land and adopting more environmentally beneficial practices, such as conservation tillage [38] or soil nutrient testing [39]. Taking into account the urgent challenge of matching demand for food for a larger population using the same land footprint, the Global Water Forum (an initiative of the UNESCO Chair in Water Economics and Transboundary Water Governance) discussed the expansion of irrigated areas and their affection to agroecosystems and sustainability [40]. To mitigate that risk while responding to increased global water needs, agricultural management options could include blending different qualities of water sources [41], matching irrigation methods or promoting deficit irrigation [42], and selecting salt tolerant crops [43]. Whatever methods and strategies are used to increase food production, they must also preserve soil ecological functionality and minimize environmental risks.

**5. Irrigation adaptation: water management and alternative water**

As freshwater resources are under increasing stress in several world regions, with a mismatch between availability and demand and temporal and geographical scales [44], new approaches have been promoted in order to guarantee the agricultural activity (by considering social and economic issues) and irrigation

According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), a key challenge for the agriculture sector is to feed an increasing global population, while at the same time reducing the environmental impact and preserving natural resources for future generations. Agriculture can have significant impacts

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89787*

reservoirs, etc.)?

*Introductory Chapter: Addressing Past Claims and Oncoming Challenges for Irrigation Systems DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89787*

According to the FAO-IPCC Expert Meeting on "Climate Change, Land Use and Food Security" celebrated in 2017 [29], to secure a resilient food system under climate change requires a range of appropriate sustainability metrics to better support integrated and multidisciplinary scenario analyses combining socio-economic and ecological dimensions. Among other measures, experts highlighted (1) the need to integrate technical and economic assessments when measuring the impact of improved water use efficiency (maximizing "crop per drop") vs sustainable water use (optimized renewable use of water within a river basin) and (2) the promotion of participatory research to develop frameworks to manage water, land, agroforestry, and crops under different water demand, supply, and pricing conditions.


**MICROWAVE MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION**

Edited by **Sandra Costanzo**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/2687 Edited by Sandra Costanzo

#### **Contributors**

Matteo Pastorino, Andrea Randazzo, Andrea Salvadè, Ricardo Monleone, Samuel Poretti, Andrea Massimini, Maria Rosaria Scarfì, Olga Zeni, Giuseppe Di Massa, Sandra Costanzo, Anna Angela Barba, Matteo D'Amore, Luan Ahma, Mimoza Ibrani, Enver Hamiti, Irena Zivkovic, Axel Murk

#### **© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2012**

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#### **Notice**

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in Croatia, 2012 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia

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**5. Applications**

The use of nanomaterials to assemble architectures of defined size, composition and orientation allows researchers to utilize the particular electrical, optical, catalytic and magnetic properties of those materials for:

**5. Applications**

magnetic properties of those materials for:

carboxylic(C104E) cation exchange resin.

magnetization curves for Pd@Co MNPs supported on a sulfonic (C100E) and

**Figure 19.** XANES spectra of Ag in comparison with Ag standards for Ag@Co-C100E sample (blue line in the graphic) and the linear combination fitting among all of the compounds analyzed is also shown

**Figure 20.** SQUID Magnetic curves obtained of Pd@Co-NPs stabilized in C100E and C104E supports

The use of nanomaterials to assemble architectures of defined size, composition and orientation allows researchers to utilize the particular electrical, optical, catalytic and

in a fitting range from -20 to 30 eV. Ag0 (red) and AgNO3 (green) are standards.

To achieve these goals, it is necessary to use multidisciplinary approaches; inputs from physicists, biologists, chemists, and engineers[59-61] are required to advance our understanding of nanomaterials.[62] In fact, NPs properties are already used for developing new products[63, 64] such as paints, where they serve to break down odour substances, on surgical instruments in order to keep them sterile, in highly effective sun creams, slow release pharmaceuticals and many others.[50, 65-67] Bench-marketing studies on main current industries[53, 68] revealed that market opportunities that are illustrated in Figure 21.

As it is clearly shown, most of these market opportunities are involved in the development of new materials. Moreover, among the applied NPs, metal nanoparticles and metal oxide nanoparticles are of the most importance. However, because of the aforementioned toxicity and stability concerns have driven the research to develop nanomaterials with higher levels of safety. In this sense, here two different examples of safe and stable nanocomposites applications are discussed: their use for organic catalysis or for water disinfection.

**Figure 21.** Possible marketable applications of nanocomposites in different fields.


*4.3.1 Mission objectives*

*Mars Exploration - A Step Forward*

*<IP_ADDRESS> Ambient and atmospheric conditions*

Mars called Heat Sink Rock [34].

simply overwhelming.

*explore habitability.*

layers of the plateau. These structures are formed on Earth by the rocks falling on soft surfaces, which would confirm the presence of stable water bodies heated up by

In addition to water-related discoveries, both Spirit and Opportunity helped performing many other discoveries and studies to further the knowledge of the red planet. Opportunity became an expert on the geology of Martian craters [31] after visiting more than 100 impact craters, which allowed understanding their formation and erosion on the Martian atmosphere. The Martian environment was monitored as well, studying the cloud formation and the suspended powder and opacity, and how it affected the solar panels of the rovers (curiously, the next rover sent to Mars would be equipped with a nuclear battery instead of being solar-powered). The dust-devils on the surface (firstly detected by the Pathfinder) were photographed by Spirit, and were key for the mission extension, as they helped recovering power for the rovers by cleaning the powder accumulating on the solar panels [32]. A complete temperature profile of the Martian atmosphere was performed by Opportunity, combining Mini-TES data [33] with the Mars Global Surveyor orbiter TES instrument data. Also, Opportunity found the first extra-Martian meteorite on

Spirit and Opportunity rovers were decidedly successful missions that provided prolifically scientific evidences of the past presence of water on the Martian surface among other things. Whichever of those discoveries would have absolutely justified the missions by themselves; but considering MER missions' success all together is

In order to prepare for the missions to come, NASA launched the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) in 2005, with the objective of mapping and facilitating communications. And the *follow the water* motto would be closed after the limited results obtained by the Phoenix lander in 2008, which landed in the polar regions of Mars (68° N latitude), but did not keep up with the very high expectations of this unexplored area. So, once the existence of an ancient wet Mars had been proved, the next milestone in the Martian exploration was to understand if the water presence could facilitate conditions favorable for the appearance of life:

**4.3 Curiosity (MSL) 2011: explore habitability—seek for signs of life**

The foundations laid by the Mars Exploration Program, with communications guaranteed by several orbiters on Mars (ODY, MEX, and MRO were operative in 2012; with two other on their way: MVN and TGO), and the experience gathered during the MER missions in many aspects, including the power source for the rovers, facilitated a science-centered design for the next rover to be operated on Mars. The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), or Curiosity rover, landed in 2012 with only a small mass dedicated for communications (an UHF antenna) with orbiter relays. It also incorporated a light radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) as a power source, which would also guarantee a stable power source for the rover (contrary to the solar-based power system on the MER). Furthermore, MSL introduced a new landing method based on the famous *sky crane*, which greatly reduced the mass of the entry, descent, and landing (EDL) system, being this mass allocated for the rover itself. This way, on August 5, 2012, the heaviest scientific mobile platform was deployed on Mars, with almost 900 kg of mass devoted to the exploration of the

volcanic activity, which could also be favorable for microscopic life.

**100**

Martian surface.

The Curiosity rover, equipped with the most powerful set of scientific instruments ever on another planetary body, was bound to determine if Mars could have harbored life at any time in its past, as well as continue understanding the role played by the water to this end; of course, it was also prepared to study the Martian climate and geology. So, the new exploration paradigm migrated from *follow the water* to *explore habitability*, by studying the chemical and structural properties of the soil and rocks, especially those presenting water-related formation scenarios.

Contrary to MER, Curiosity included instrumentation capable of performing analysis which can be related to biological studies or processes in order to address the following objectives: the search of organic carbon compounds or biosignatures; geological and geochemical analysis based on the analyzed rocks; analysis of the Martian climate and its evolution; and also to prepare potential future manned missions by being able to characterize the planet radiation on the surface.