**Search Engine Optimization**

Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in *Future Internet* Andreas Veglis and Dimitrios Giomelakis Edited by

www.mdpi.com/journal/futureinternet

**Search Engine Optimization**


*Toward Management Based on Knowledge DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86757*

*Current Issues in Knowledge Management*

**The cognitivist perspective of knowledge within organizations (representationism)**

• Knowledge is seen as a representation of a pre-defined world. This implies that reality, whether objects, events, or states, lies outside the subject of knowledge and is given objec-

• Knowledge is universal: two cognitive systems should lead to the same representation of the

• Cognition (the ability to know) is seen as information processing and rule-based

• The cognitive approach considers that the key task of the brain (or any other cognitive system) is to represent or model reality as

• For cognitivists, knowledge is explicit, can be encoded and stored, and is easily transmitted

*Knowledge within organizations from two perspectives.*

tively for everyone

same object or event

symbol manipulation

accurately as possible

to others

**Table 1.**

*2.3.1 First postulate: knowledge is not an object*

interpretative framework, it becomes knowledge" (p. 88).

sense-reading within the structure of Tacit Knowing" (p. 301).

This postulate is based on the theories of [20] concerning organizational learning. Drawing on the concepts of "tacit knowledge" and "sense-giving" and "sense-reading" studied by [21, 22], he observed that "Although terms 'datum', 'information', and 'knowledge' are often used interchangeably, there exists a clear distinction among them. When datum is sense-given through interpretative framework, it becomes information, and when information is sense-read through

The sense-giving and sense-reading processes are defined by [22]: "Both the way we endow our own utterance with Meaning and our attribution of Meaning to the Utterances of others are acts of Tacit Knowing. They represent sense-giving and

**The constructivist perspective of knowledge within**

• Knowledge resides in ourselves. It is closely linked to

• Knowledge is not universal; we are driven to create

• Cognition (the ability to know) is considered an act of construction or creation rather than an act of

• The constructivist approach considers the cognitive system to work when knowledge enables effective

• For constructivists some knowledge is explicit, but others may be tacit, highly personal, not easily expressed, and therefore difficult to share with others. Tacit knowledge involves talents, dexterity, and skills characterized by perception and intuition

**organizations (anti-representationism)**

our senses and past experiences

the one world for ourselves

representation

actions

Tsuchiya added the concept of "interpretative framework," which from our perspective can be considered a mental model as defined by [23]: "Mental models are personal, internal representations of external reality that people use to Interact with the world around them. They are constructed by individuals based on their unique life experiences, perceptions, and understandings of world. Mental models are used to reason and make decisions and can be the basis of individual behaviors. They provide the mechanism through which new information is filtered and stored." In short, tacit knowledge that resides in our brain results from the sense given, through our interpretative frameworks, to data that we perceive among the information transmitted to us. Tsuchiya [20] emphasizes how organizational knowledge is created through dialog and highlighted that "commensurability" of the interpretative frameworks of the organization's members is indispensable for an organization to create organizational knowledge for decision and action. Here, commensurability is the common space of the whole interpretative frameworks of each member. Let us quote Tsuchiya: "It is important to clearly distinguish between sharing information and sharing knowledge. Information becomes knowledge only when it is sense-read

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through the interpretative framework of the receiver. Any information inconsistent with his interpretative framework is not perceived in most cases. Therefore, commensurability of interpretative frameworks of members is indispensable for individual knowledge to be shared" (p. 89).

Therefore, we postulate that knowledge is not an object processed independently of the person who has to act. This individual knowledge is tacit knowledge, selfexplanatory or not, and can be later transformed into collective knowledge, as it is shared with other people. Tacit knowledge involves talents, dexterity, and capacities characterized by the perception and the intuition.

Consequently, formalized and codified knowledge that are independent from individual, are not more than information. We call it **"**information source of knowledge for someone." Furthermore, taking back [24], we must discern the knowledge of knower and the codification of that knowledge (p. 295).

The *conditions and limits under which knowledge can be thought of as an object* and therefore can be managed as information as follows: Knowledge is explicit, stable and well defined, recognized by a specific homogeneous population. Knowledge is "apparently" independent of people and situations. Knowledge is dissociated from action and can be thought of as an object.

*Exception cases*: Knowledge is highly complex and/or has a very high degree of specialization.