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## Meet the editors

Antonella Petrillo is a professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples "Parthenope," Italy. She received her PhD in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include sustainability, multicriteria decision analysis, industrial plant, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of the AHP

Academy and a member of several editorial boards.

Fabio De Felice is a professor at the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy, where he received his PhD in Mechanical Engineering. His current research focuses on multicriteria decision-making analysis (with an emphasis on AHP and ANP) and industrial, project, and supply chain management. Currently, he serves as a member of the Scientific Advisory Committee of the International Symposium on the Analytic Hierarchy Process.

He is the founder of the AHP Academy that promotes the diffusion of culture and methodologies of decision-making, with particular reference to those based on AHP. He is a member of the editorial boards of several international organizations and journals and has authored/coauthored numerous articles in the areas of decision science and business management.

Contents

Application in Italy

Southampton, UK

*and Antonino Pérez-Hernández*

**Preface III**

**Chapter 1 1** Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment

**Chapter 2 19**

**Chapter 3 37**

**Chapter 4 49**

**Chapter 5 63** Perspectives on Subnational Carbon and Climate Footprints: A Case Study of

**Chapter 6 83**

The Industrial Symbiosis of Wineries: An Analisys of the Wine Production

*by Agata Matarazzo, Fabio Copani, Matteo Leanza, Aldo Carpitano,*

End-of-Life Tire Destination from a Life Cycle Assessment Perspective *by Thiago Santiago Gomes, Genecy Rezende Neto, Ana Claudia Nioac de Salles,*

*by Laurence A. Wright, Ian D. Williams, Simon Kemp and Patrick E. Osborne*

Suggestion of Life Cycle Impact Assessment Methodology: Selection Criteria

*by Magali Rejane Rigon, Rafael Zortea, Carlos Alberto Mendes Moraes*

*Leila Lea Yuan Visconte and Elen Beatriz Acordi Vasques Pacheco*

*by Antonella Petrillo, Salvatore Mellino, Fabio De Felice and Iolanda Scudo*

Biogas Power Energy Production from a Life Cycle Thinking *by Enrique Alberto Huerta-Reynoso, Hector Alfredo López-Aguilar,*

*Jorge Alberto Gómez, María Guadalupe Gómez-Méndez*

Chain According to the Preliminary LCA Model

*Alessandro Lo Genco and Graziano Nicosia*

for Environmental Impact Categories

*and Regina Célia Espinosa Modolo*

### Contents

Preface

In recent years, the topic of life cycle management has become a challenge for the industrial and service sectors. There is a growing understanding that businesses

At the same time, process optimization and efficiency are profoundly characterizing the industrial sector, requiring the application of new algorithmic and theoreti-

The deep integration of the circular economy with industrial systems is also chang-

In this regard, life cycle assessment (LCA) is a "holistic approach" that supports decision-makers in various decisions such as the selection of processes, materials,

The book contains original research and application chapters from different

In detail, Chapter 1 proposes an LCA study to quantify which components of a bicycle have the highest environmental impact. The use of two different bicycles in Italy, an electric pedal-assisted bike and a hydrogen fuel cell-operated bike, is analyzed. Chapter 2 presents a generalized model for the construction of inventories regarding the production of electricity through biogas. The LCA of two types of plants is presented as case studies: (1) the generation of electrical energy from organic waste in sanitary landfills and (2) the generation of electric energy from dairy cattle manure. Chapter 3 analyses the wine production chain according to the preliminary LCA model. LCA has been implemented on the whole production chain of the product "Lenza di Munti," a bottle of wine by "Nicosia S.p.a." The chapter aims to provide a complete picture of the interactions between the product and the environment, to understand the environmental consequences and provide the necessary information to define the best solutions. LCA for waste tires is presented in Chapter 4. Tires are complex materials manufactured from vulcanized rubber and various other reinforcing materials. LCA has been used to quantify their impact and support the decision-making process to determine the most beneficial alternative from an environmental standpoint. Perspectives on subnational carbon and climate footprints, a case study of Southampton, UK, are analyzed in Chapter 5. This chapter develops the data and methods required for subnational territorial, transboundary, and consumption-based carbon and climate footprints. The results and implications of each footprinting perspective are discussed in the context of emerging international standards. The study clearly shows that the carbon footprint (CO2 and CH4 only) offers a low-cost, low-data, universal metric of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and subsequent management. Finally, Chapter 6 focuses on the topic of renewing a university to be able to support the adaptation of Industry 4.0 within a region. The chapter introduces the main LCIA methods used and the most relevant categories of environmental impact. In total, 87 articles were

ing the relationship between products, processes, and society.

perspectives. It is enriched through the analysis of case studies.

cannot focus only on short-term profitability.

initially retrieved using relevant keywords.

cal techniques.

and supply chains.

## Preface

In recent years, the topic of life cycle management has become a challenge for the industrial and service sectors. There is a growing understanding that businesses cannot focus only on short-term profitability.

At the same time, process optimization and efficiency are profoundly characterizing the industrial sector, requiring the application of new algorithmic and theoretical techniques.

The deep integration of the circular economy with industrial systems is also changing the relationship between products, processes, and society.

In this regard, life cycle assessment (LCA) is a "holistic approach" that supports decision-makers in various decisions such as the selection of processes, materials, and supply chains.

The book contains original research and application chapters from different perspectives. It is enriched through the analysis of case studies.

 In detail, Chapter 1 proposes an LCA study to quantify which components of a bicycle have the highest environmental impact. The use of two different bicycles in Italy, an electric pedal-assisted bike and a hydrogen fuel cell-operated bike, is analyzed. Chapter 2 presents a generalized model for the construction of inventories regarding the production of electricity through biogas. The LCA of two types of plants is presented as case studies: (1) the generation of electrical energy from organic waste in sanitary landfills and (2) the generation of electric energy from dairy cattle manure. Chapter 3 analyses the wine production chain according to the preliminary LCA model. LCA has been implemented on the whole production chain of the product "Lenza di Munti," a bottle of wine by "Nicosia S.p.a." The chapter aims to provide a complete picture of the interactions between the product and the environment, to understand the environmental consequences and provide the necessary information to define the best solutions. LCA for waste tires is presented in Chapter 4. Tires are complex materials manufactured from vulcanized rubber and various other reinforcing materials. LCA has been used to quantify their impact and support the decision-making process to determine the most beneficial alternative from an environmental standpoint. Perspectives on subnational carbon and climate footprints, a case study of Southampton, UK, are analyzed in Chapter 5. This chapter develops the data and methods required for subnational territorial, transboundary, and consumption-based carbon and climate footprints. The results and implications of each footprinting perspective are discussed in the context of emerging international standards. The study clearly shows that the carbon footprint (CO2 and CH4 only) offers a low-cost, low-data, universal metric of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and subsequent management. Finally, Chapter 6 focuses on the topic of renewing a university to be able to support the adaptation of Industry 4.0 within a region. The chapter introduces the main LCIA methods used and the most relevant categories of environmental impact. In total, 87 articles were initially retrieved using relevant keywords.

This book is intended to be a useful resource for anyone who deals with environ mental and sustainability problems. Furthermore, we hope that this book will provide useful resources, ideas, techniques, and methods for further research on these issues.

As editors of this book, we very much thank the authors who accepted to contribute with their invaluable research, as well as the referees who reviewed these papers for their effort, time, and invaluable suggestions. Our special thanks go to Ms. Marina Dusevic, Author Service Manager, for her precious support and her team for this opportunity to serve as guest editors.

> **Antonella Petrillo**  Professor, Department of Engineering, University Parthenope of Naples, Naples (NA), Italy

**Fabio De Felice**  Professor, Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino (FR), Italy

#### **Chapter 1**

## Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy

*Antonella Petrillo, Salvatore Mellino, Fabio De Felice and Iolanda Scudo*

#### **Abstract**

 Transport is one of the economic sectors within the European Union with the most detrimental effects on climate change. In this context, electric bicycles (e-bikes) are considered as a potentially effective technological innovation to reduce carbon impacts. The present research aims to propose a life cycle assessment study to quantify which components of a bicycle have the highest environmental impact. The use in Italy of two different bicycles, an electric pedal-assisted bike and a hydrogen-fuel cell-operated one, is analyzed. The final aim of the study is to quantify and to evaluate the bike's energetic and environmental performances, focusing the analysis on the vehicle production and use phases. To achieve the abovementioned purpose, two approaches, the "from cradle to grave" approach and "well to wheel" approach, are considered.

**Keywords:** sustainability, smart mobility, LCA, electric pedal-assisted bike, hydrogen-fuel cell bike

#### **1. Introduction**

Transport is one of the main causes of air pollution, climate change, and urban noise problem [1]. In fact, it is responsible for about one-third of the global consumption of energy and more than one-fifth of the damage caused by the greenhouse effect, global warming, CO2 emissions, and human health [2]. In recent years, policies and incentive campaigns have been promoted for electric mobility in order to reduce the use of fossil resources and to limit the use of polluting motor vehicles.

 The aim is to promote sustainable mobility, preserving the environment and improving the quality of life. Modern society is increasingly moving toward the use of zero-impact transport systems able to satisfy the needs of the user while achieving a reduction in consumption and harmful emissions [3]. The academic community and producers are paying close attention to a particular type of electric mobility that is represented by the *electric pedal-assisted bikes*. Electric pedalassisted bikes have conquered the electric vehicle market, positioning themselves at the top of the classification, thanks to the technological innovation and to the cost reduction of electronic components [4]. Also known with the term *pedelec*, in the last decade, they have become one of the most used means of transport in the city thanks to the presence of the electric motor to support the pedaling [5].

The sector of electric bikes underwent strong development from 2006 to 2016 [6]. According to recent statistics, conducted in Italy, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Holland, and Austria by Claus Fleischer, CEO of Bosch eBike Systems, it emerged that 10% of interviewed is already an e-bike owner, while 16% are considering buying one within the following year; preferences are oriented toward e-bike by city (29%), followed by trekking models (11%), urban (9%), and e-mountain bikes (8%), thus expecting an even more exponential growth for the next decade [7].

These ecological vehicles have their specific characteristics: (1) electric bicycles are not mopeds and (2) their speed is modest. This feature makes electric bikes usable by anyone, even without a license and without wearing a helmet.

 These vehicles make it possible to combine the advantages of traditional bikes with those of mopeds, so much so as to be called the "ecological bicycles of the planet." The tendency is confirmed by the fact that the fight against pollution has pushed many cities of the world to rethink their mobility by favoring zero-impact vehicles.

 The analysis of the state of the art of life cycle assessment (LCA) studies applied to the electric pedal-assisted bikes showed that studies on pedelec are still very few [8]. An interesting study was conducted by Blondel et al. [9] in November 2011 on behalf of the Financial European Commission, where a complete LCA analysis was carried out by the different types of transport (bicycle, pedelec, bus, car) in order to evaluate the CO2 emissions from each of these vehicles during production, use, and disposal.

The aim of the present research was to evaluate the energy-environmental performance of an electric pedal-assisted bike, using the SimaPro© software. Specifically, the analyzed pedelec is the e-bike produced by an *Italian artisan company located in Milan (North Italy)*, active in the two-wheeler sector since 1908. The study followed the approaches "from cradle to grave" and "well to wheel."

The rest of the chapter is organized as follows: Section 2 presents a brief history of electric bikes; Section 3 analyzes the main rules and regulations governing electric bicycles; in Section 4 systems under study are presented; in Section 5 the methodological approach and the main assumptions of the study are explained; and, finally, Section 6 summarizes the main results and implications of the study.

#### **2. A brief history of electric bikes**

 Normally, it is thought that e-bike is a relatively recent invention. The history of the ebike was made by brilliant and passionate inventors. The first bicycles with electric motors appear at the end of 19th century [10]. More precisely in 1895, Ogden Bolton Jr., an American inventor, decided to apply for the first time an electric motor on the rear hub of a traditional bicycle [11]. For many years, due to reduced autonomy, the production of electric bikes was difficult; electric bikes remained as simple prototypes. Only in the 1930s, more and more European companies began to produce complete models of e-bikes, even if the currently available technology did not yet give the possibility of producing light vehicles with great autonomy as happens today. One of the first successful models was made in 1937 by Philips, a famous and active company in the radio sector, in partnership with Gazelle, a company that produces traditional bikes of great renown in the Netherlands and in Europe (**Figure 1**). The model, which made 117 sales, had a weight of 50 kg net of the battery that was characterized by a range of 40 km. It needs to do a full day to charge the battery. The vehicle reached a speed of about 18 km/h.

Later in 1946, Benjamin Bowden, an Anglo-American industrialist very active in the automobile sector, launched the Spacelander, known as "The Bike of the Future" (**Figure 2**).

The bike, characterized by a modern design, was very interesting from a technical point of view, introducing ideas still valid today. Both the battery and the cables *Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81737*

**Figure 1.**  *The Philips-Gazelle 1937 electric bike (source: bikeitalia.it).*

**Figure 2.**  *The Spacelander (source: bikeitalia.it).*

were integrated into the chassis, while the engine positioned in the rear hub also functioned as a dynamo to recharge the battery. Furthermore, according to the original patent, in a 10% climb, it could reach a speed of 8 km/h. However, the bike that represented a very high-end product, evidently too advanced for the time, was never produced on a large scale.

It is worth mentioning that from the second half of the twentieth century the low ecological conscience and cheap oil encouraged mass motorization reducing the interest in traditional and electric bikes. Only later, in the 1970s, the enormous rise in the price of crude oil and the spread of the first ecological movements renewed interest in electric vehicles [12]. The years following 1973 were of extreme importance for the technology behind electric bicycles. More and more designers began to patent e-bike models. In 1990, Michael Kutter developed what some people feel is the first Pedelec (PEDal-ELECtric). It later came to be referred to as Pedal Assist System (PAS). The first production models were sold in 1992 under the Dolphin name for the Swiss company Velocity, but they did not survive. In 1993 Yamaha developed its first electric bicycle, which included the now popular Pedal-Assist-System (PAS). Similarly, in the same period, other companies started their productions in Europe and Italy.

 Subsequently, thanks to the use of sealed lead batteries and the experimentation of the lightest nickel-cadmium, electric bicycles were produced which are very similar to those of today, on a large scale and with affordable prices.

In the last 20 years, the electric bike models available to the public have multiplied dramatically, and several manufacturers have experimented with innovative technical solutions to achieve a better integration between pedaling and engine assistance. Today, the technological innovations have made the e-bike a vehicle to all effects capable of optimally replacing a car over medium-short distances.

#### **3. Rules and regulations governing electric bicycles**

 To be considered as "lawful" bicycles and to be treated as traditional bicycles, electric bicycle models must possess the famous "Pas," i.e., the Pedal Assist Systems, facilitated by the electric motor [13]. There are two *macro categories* of electric bicycles: (1) *electric bicycles* (or e-bike) with acceleration system and (2) *electric pedal-assisted bicycles* (or pedelec).

 The *electric bicycle* that owns the acceleration system is equipped with an electric motor driven by an accelerator lever, generally positioned on the handlebar that allows you to accelerate independently of the use of pedals. This type of ecological vehicle is not really an electric bike but is categorized as an "electric scooter," and as such, it is the object of matriculation, license plate, insurance, wearing a helmet, and all the operations to be carried out in the case of motor vehicles.

The *electric pedal-assisted bicycle*, on the other hand, is equipped with an intelligent electronic control unit that understands when the driver is using the pedals and when not activates the electric motor only if the pedals are in motion.

The European Directive 2002/24/EC specifies the characteristics of pedelecs and defines the pedal-assisted cycles as "bicycles equipped with an electric auxiliary motor having a maximum continuous nominal power of 0.25 kW, whose power is progressively reduced and subsequently interrupted when the vehicle reaches 25 km/h, or sooner if the cyclist stops pedaling" [14].

This definition is included in the Italian regulations or in Article 50/2009 of the Highway Code. The definition does not limit to this value the maximum speed of the bike but indicates that it can be overcome by relying only on the capabilities of the user, not being the pedelec equipped with an acceleration system.

The European Standard EN 14764 standard "City and trekking bicycles: Safety requirements and test methods," specifies safety and performance requirements for the design, assembly, and testing of bicycles and sub-assemblies intended for use on public roads, and lays down guide lines for instructions on the use and care of such bicycles.

In addition, the Directive 2002/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 March 2002 relating to the type-approval of two or three-wheel motor vehicles and repealing Council Directive 92/61/EEC establishes that all two or three-wheel motor vehicles must be equipped with the CE conformity marking consisting of the homonymous "CE" symbol.

In addition, each bicycle in accordance with the law must be accompanied by an instruction manual useful to the purchaser, containing the main information for the correct use of the vehicle and for its maintenance.

#### **4. Systems description**

 The product analyzed in this study is not a generic pedelec is not a generic pedelec, but rather an electric pedal-assisted bike. Specifically, the prototype studied is the classic Corinto model produced by Italian artisan company located in Milan (Northern Italy), to which the bike + all-in-one system of Zehus human+ has been incorporated, as shown in **Figure 3**.

The prototype has the following features:

*Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81737*

**Figure 3.**  *The pedelec prototype.*

 The battery, recharged by a simple power outlet, powers the engine, which is started as soon as the pedal sensor detects the movement of the pedals. The whole system, thanks to the presence of the control unit and the Bluetooth unit, is controlled using a telephone app for Android and iOS systems.

 The characteristics of the H-bike considered as well as the data refer to the articles of Kheirandish et al. [15], Cardinali et al. [16] and Mellino et al. [17] and are summarized in the following. The H-bike has a 250 W PEM fuel cell system, an electronic control unit (ECU), a rechargeable nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) battery of 25 V and 9 Ah, 2 converters 150W DC/DC, a 150 W electric motor and a hydrogen storage tank. The PEM cell, consisting of 3 main parts: cathode, anode and proton exchange polymer membrane (Nafion), transforms the chemical energy, released during the electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, into electrical energy.

#### **5. Materials and methods**

#### **5.1 Goal and scope definition**

The aim of the study was to evaluate the energy-environmental performance of a pedal-assisted bicycle prototype, according to the ISO 14040 series standards and the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) [18, 19].

The study, conducted according to the life cycle assessment (LCA), is focused on the analysis of the *production* and *use* phases of the vehicle. Specifically, the phases of the life cycle were examined, involving the extraction of raw materials up to the finished product and from the finished product to use. A comparative analysis was carried out between the pedelec prototype and the H-bike, an equally innovative technology. The analysis was carried out considering two main approaches one for each phase:

*Phase #1: "From cradle to grave" approach.* An assessment was carried out of the environmental impacts of the production of vehicles and of the elementary components starting from the extraction, production, and use, up to the recycling and disposal of the residual waste.

 • *Phase #2: "Well to wheel" approach.* The environmental impacts and energy vectors used during pedelec prototype operation have been estimated. Materials and the energy used have been evaluated according to a "well to wheel" approach, i.e., considering the phases of production of energy carriers (electricity and hydrogen).

In the first case, a bicycle unit was chosen as the functional unit, to which all materials, emissions, and energy consumption were referred.

Instead, in the second case, it was used as a functional unit 100 km.

Really, transport studies use a functional unit expressed in passengers for kilometers traveled p-km. However, in our study, being the pedelec prototype used by a single person it was considered appropriate to refer to the distance only. Nevertheless, in the **Figure 4** the scheme used for the assessment of the usage phase is given.

#### **5.2 Main assumptions**

Once the functional units have been defined, some assumptions have been made to conduct the study, as defined below:

*Hypothesis 1*: The same bicycle structure (for both bikes) was considered in terms of size, composition, and materials to concentrate the study on electrical technologies and evaluate the real environmental impacts of the two different systems.

*Hypothesis 2*: For the pedelec prototype, which has a lithium battery of 30 V and 5.3 Ah, 1000 recharging cycles have been considered, for which an efficiency of the processes of charge and discharge constant throughout the life span has been

**Figure 4.**

*LCA scheme used for assessing the usage phase.*

*Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81737*

 assumed. Moreover, during use, the speed of the vehicle was set at 25 km/h. It was considered that compared to a full charge the autonomy is 35 km with activation of the kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) system and 25 km in case of absence energy recovery braking.

*Hypothesis 3*: According to *Hipotesis 2*, a life span of 35,000 km was considered in the first case and 25,000 km in the second.

*Hypothesis 4*: For H-bike, on the other hand, a duration of the PEM fuel cell equal to 120,000 km was hypothesized, as suggested by the US Department of Energy (https://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/accomplishments.pdf).

*Hypothesis 5*: Subsequently, according to hypothesis 1, for both cases, a life span of the bicycle and the other system components of 120,000 km was assumed.

 *Hypothesis 6*: Furthermore, it was assumed that the hydrogen, used during the use phase, was produced by electrolysis from a photovoltaic refueling station; while for recharging the lithium battery, electricity taken directly from the network was used first, then from the typical Italian energy mix, and then subsequently, the electricity withdrawn from the grid, produced through a renewable electric mix. For this purpose, the mix proposed by the Enel Green Power society was used (https://www.enelgreenpower.com).

#### **5.3 Inventory analysis**

In the inventory analysis phase, the input and output flows of material and energy were identified and quantified, and the emissions into the air, water, and soil involved in the production phase of the e-bike. The data were provided in part by the company (see **Tables 1** and **2**) and partly retrieved from the literature and from the databases contained in SimaPro©. Ecoinvent database was used since it is one of the most complete and the most used for European LCAs [20].

In particular, for the structural part of the bike, a process already existing in SimaPro© was used with the name "bicycle," which was appropriately modified according to the information obtained and the values identified in order to adapt it to the prototype.

For the propulsion system, it was considered an electric motor of a scooter, which for size was close to that of Zehus. While, the control unit has been schematized with a generic process called "electronics, for control unit", having no detailed information on the sensors and the materials used.

Instead, for the lithium battery, we used the "battery cell, Li-on" process that reproduces it faithfully, modifying the data on the battery capacity and inserting the weight of the battery. **Figure 5** shows the process tree for production phase of pedelec prototype.

**Table 1.**

*Pedelec prototype frame data (source: Italian artisan company located in Milan (North Italy)).*

**Table 2.**

*Bike + all-in-one propulsion system data (source: Zehus).*

#### **Figure 5.**  *Process tree for production phase of pedelec prototype (SimaPro©).*

 Instead, with reference to the H-bike, used as a comparison system, the data necessary for the reconstruction of the model were taken from the study conducted by Mellino et al. [17]. Specifically, for the bike structure, the same e-bike process was used, to analyze the two models with the same chassis, while for the innovative technology, all the processes necessary for the reproduction of the PEM cell were recreated. In the hydrogen bike model, have been added the following processes:

 Instead, for the use phase of the e-bike, not yet this commercialized, reference was made to data in the literature and in the Zehus manual. In fact, 1000 cycles of recharging have been considered for the lithium battery, and the speed of the bike has been set at 25 km/h. Thus, the manual has been identified as the autonomy of the bike in terms of km traveled equal to 35 km with activation of the KERS and 25 km in the absence of energy recovery during braking. Depending on the cycles and speed, and therefore of the kilometers traveled, the battery wear was defined not in terms of cycles but in terms of km having to relate to the functional unit (100 km). In fact, it was equal to 35,000 km in the first case and 25,000 km in the

*Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81737*

**Figure 6.**

*Process tree for production phase of H-bike (SimaPro©).*

second. Based on this information, a complete recharge of 160 Wh is required; the use phase reconstructed in the following figures has been reconstructed.

For the use phase of the H-bike, the data were retrieved only from the literature. A study conducted by the Department of Energy of the University of the United States has identified the data on the wear of the PEM cell equal to 120,000 km. The study conducted by Mellino et al. [17] has found the amount of hydrogen equal at 75 g, to complete 100 km. For which the information is known similarly before the tree has been recreated for the use phase of the H-bike.

Similarly, process trees for use phase were performed with SimaPro©.

#### **5.4 Results from the Impact Assessment**

The energy-environmental performance of the prototype was assessed in the production and use phases of the vehicle, using the IMPACT 2002+ method [21].

#### *5.4.1 Classification*

Impact categories have been chosen according to the Impact 2002+ method to have a global vision of the impacts of the pedelec in the production and use phases. In all, 14 impact categories were analyzed. The considered midpoints are shown together with the respective reference substances in **Table 3**.

#### *5.4.2 Characterization*

Using characterization factors typical of the IMPACT method, the scores of the different elements according to the kilogram equivalents of the reference substance of each category were quantified for each impact category. **Figure 7** shows the environmental impacts of pedelec and H-Bike for each impact category for production phase.

Similarly, we calculated the impacts for the use phase.

**Figure 8** shows the results obtained from the comparison of the e-bike, in the case with and without KERS activation, with the hydrogen bike.

 For the use phase, the process was also recreated assuming that the energy used to recharge the battery is produced from renewable sources through the "Green Mix of Enel" project. **Figure 9** shows environmental impacts of pedelec, with and without KERS, and H-Bike for each impact category for use phase and in the case of Enel Green Power.

#### **Table 3.**

*Impact and damage categories; IMPACT 2002+ method.*

#### **Figure 7.**

*Environmental impacts of pedelec and H-Bike for each impact category for production phase.*

#### **Figure 8.**

*Environmental impacts of e-bike, with and without KERS, and H-Bike for each impact category for use phase.*

*Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81737*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Environmental impacts of e-bike, with and without KERS, and H-Bike for each impact category for use phase (Enel Green Power).*

#### **Figure 10.**

*Comparison of the impact categories between e-bike and H-bike for production phase.*

#### *5.4.3 Normalization*

This phase aims to determine the importance of the individual environmental effects, dividing the impacts of each category by the respective reference values, represented by average data in a world, regional, or European scale, referring to a given time interval, generally 1 year.

**Figure 10** shows comparison of the impact categories between pedelec and H-bike, for production phase.

The results show that of the 14 impact categories the ones that most weigh on the final pollution are essentially the following three:

Similarly, the procedure was subsequently applied to the use phase.

A greater impact of the categories has been confirmed: respiratory inorganics, global warming, and nonrenewable energy.

#### *5.4.4 Damage assessment*

In this phase, the impacts, identified in the characterization, were grouped into four categories of damage, human health, ecosystem quality, climate change, and resources, according to the logic shown in **Table 4**.

#### *New Frontiers on Life Cycle Assessment - Theory and Application*

#### **Table 4.**  *Damage categories.*

#### **Figure 11.**

*Comparison of the damage categories of pedelec with H-bike for production phase (normalized).*

**Figure 11** shows the four endpoints identified for the production of the pedelec. The values identified were then normalized.

Similarly, the damage categories for the use phase of the pedelec, with and without KERS (with and without normalization), were identified.

The comparison of the impact categories of the pedelec has also been calculated with and without activation of the braking energy recovery system with those of the H bike, again in the use phase.

#### **5.5 Discussion**

#### *5.5.1 Comparative analysis of the production phase*

The results show that the processing of the e-bike is less impactful in all the categories considered than that of the H-bike.

This result is due to a greater complexity of the H-bike, which requires the use of special materials and complex processes for the control unit and the PEM fuel cell along the production chain.

Both processes mainly impact on the respiratory inorganics category, even if there are not negligible effects on the categories of global warming and nonrenewable energy, while in the others, there are minor impacts, almost negligible.

*Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81737*

As far as respiratory inorganics is concerned, the pedelec generates a 1.2 times lower impact than the H-bike (respectively, 0.4 and 0.519 kg PM 2.5 eq), thanks to the presence of a structurally simpler propulsion system than to what characterizes the hydrogen bike.

Specifically, analyzing the different contributions of the processes related to the construction of the pedelec, it is clear that the greatest impacts are generated by the structure of the bike, due to the processing of large quantities of aluminum.

As the objective of the present research was to assess the sustainability of electrical technology, the impact categories for the bike + all-in-one propulsion system were analyzed. It emerges that the major impacts are caused by the electric motor of the Zehus system, which accounts for 61.31%, followed by the control electronics and the lithium battery, with the respective percentages of 17.46 and 17.38%.

Regarding the impact of the electric motor, the cause is closely linked to the use of copper for the construction of the rotor, as well as the use of high- and mediumvoltage energy, produced from nonrenewable source, used during the process of engine production.

For the control unit, the impact is associated with the main body of the control unit, i.e., the board, which requires rather complex operations for the realization of the components that constitute it, as well as the use of not negligible energy, for which it has been supposedly a world energy mix, considering that most of the electric elements are not manufactured in Italy, but rather imported.

For the lithium battery, the greatest impact is related to the production processes carried out for the construction of anode and cathode.

 For the global warming impact category, it is still the engine that generates the greatest impact with 60%, even if this time the cause is no longer made of copper but rather the harmful substances emitted during the processing of permanent magnets used in the brushless motor and to an equal extent by the production processes of aluminum and by the use of medium-voltage energy always produced from fossil fuels, followed by the control electronics and lithium battery whose cause is always represented by aluminum.

Despite this, the electric bike is still better than the H-bike, whose high impacts are linked to the nickel metal hydride accumulation battery, to the processing of platinum used in the construction of the cell and to the complex control unit. In fact, unlike the one installed on the e-bike, it is responsible for supervising the system parameters such as stack temperature, hydrogen pressure, cell voltage and current, battery voltage, and start-up and shutdown of the system, to control the environmental conditions that influence the behavior of PEM.

#### *5.5.2 Comparative analysis of the use phase*

The results show that unlike what is seen for production, it is the H-bike that impacts less in all the midpoints considered, except for ozone layer depletion and mineral extraction.

 The pedelec bike with or without KERS causes respiratory categories inorganics, global warming, and nonrenewable energy the greater pollution than the hydrogen bike.

More specifically, in the case of activation of the energy recovery system, it generates a lower impact than the bike without KERS but 3.2 times higher than the H-bike in the respiratory inorganics, 2.34 times in global warming, and 2.46 times in nonrenewable energy.

In the absence of the braking energy recovery system, the impacts are even higher.

**Table 5.**

*Enel Green Mix project data (source: Enel Green Power).*

The pollution, for all three midpoints, is closely linked to two causes:

 1. The battery recharge process, and

2. The use of the Italian electric mix produced for the most part (a nonrenewable source).

In fact, in the case of H-bike, the energy used to produce hydrogen is generated by solar radiation.

Since energy is the main cause of pollution, the use phase has been repeated assuming the use of renewable energy, in order to evaluate the dependence on the performance of the e-bike from the Italian electric mix. In fact, a green and renewable production scenario was built, starting from the data of the "Green Mix" project by Enel Green Power reported in **Table 5**.

The impacts of the pedelec have been reduced compared to the phase previously shown. In addition, in the categories where it first had the most impact on the pedelec, the impacts decreased compared to the H-bike. This demonstrated the sustainability of the vehicle and the strong dependence of the pedelec performance of the electric mix used.

#### **6. Conclusions**

 In the present research, the life cycle assessment methodology was used to evaluate the energy-environmental assessment of the pedelec prototype during the production and use phases of the vehicle. The results identified were compared with the results obtained in H-bike. The main consideration of the study can be summarized as follows:

*Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81737*

the vehicles, due to the use of the Italian electric mix for the battery charging process.

Considering these results, future efforts are still needed to further reduce the impacts of the pedelec; improvements can be made on the materials used to build the pedelec structure and the propulsion system.

The aluminum, copper, and steel components could be replaced with recycled or more innovative materials. However, electrical technology is still a valid and clean solution for the world of transport, even if now the costs remain quite high.

In addition, future research aims to investigate the disposal and recycling phases.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors certify that they have no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

Antonella Petrillo1 \*, Salvatore Mellino2 , Fabio De Felice3 and Iolanda Scudo1

1 Department of Engineering, University of Napoli "Parthenope", Napoli, Italy

2 Department of Science and Technology, University of Napoli "Parthenope", Napoli, Italy

 3 Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Cassino, Italy

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[3] Todorovic M, Simic M. Current state of the transition to electrical vehicles. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies. 2019;**98**:130-139

[4] Behrendt F. Why cycling matters for electric mobility: Towards diverse, active and sustainable e-mobilities. Mobilities. 2018;**13**(1):64-80

[5] Munkácsy A, Monzón A. Impacts of smart configuration in pedelec-sharing: Evidence from a panel survey in Madrid. Journal of Advanced Transportation. 2017;**2017**:4720627. 11 pages

[6] Abagnale C, Cardone M, Iodice P, Marialto R, Strano S, Terzo M, et al. Design and development of an innovative e-bike. Energy Procedia. 2016;**101**:774-781

[7] European Bicycle Market. Confederation of the European Bicycle Industry. Brussels, Belgium; 2017

[8] Lee J-S, Jiang J-W, Sun Y-H. Design and simulation of control systems for electric-assist bikes. In: Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 11th Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, ICIEA 2016. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Operations Center; 2016. pp. 1736-1740

[9] Benoît B, Mispelon C, Ferguson J. Cycle more often 2 Cool down the planet! Quantifying Co2 savings of cycling. Brussels, Belgium: European Cyclists' Federation aSBl; 2011

 [10] Ji S, Cherry CR, Bechle MJ, Wu Y, Marshall JD. Electric vehicles in China: Emissions and health impacts. Environmental Science and Technology. 2012;**46**(4):2018-2024

[11] Rios I, Golab L, Keshav S. Analyzing the usage patterns of electric bicycles. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Electric Vehicle Systems, Data, and Applications, EV-SYS 2016. Waterloo, Canada; 2016

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[13] Simons M, Van Es E, Hendriksen I. Electrically assisted cycling: A new mode for meeting physical activity guidelines? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2009;**41**(11):2097-2102

[14] Directive 2002/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 March 2002 relating to the typeapproval of two or three-wheel motor vehicles

[15] Kheirandish A, Kazemi M-S, Dahari M. Dynamic performance assessment of the efficiency of fuel cell-powered bicycle: An experimental approach. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2014;**39**:13276-13284

[16] Cardinali L, Santomassimo S, Stefanoni M. Design and realization of a 300 W fuel cell generator on an electric bicycle. Journal of Power Sources. 2002;**106**(1)

*Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81737*

[17] Mellino S, Petrillo A, Cigolotti V, Autorino C, Jannelli E, Ulgiati S. A life cycle assessment of lithium battery and hydrogen-FC powered electric bicycles: Searching for cleaner solutions to urban mobility. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2016;**42**(3):1830-1840

[18] ISO 14040. International Standard. Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment-Principles and Framework. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization; 2006. Available from: www.iso.org

[19] International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook—General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment—Provisions and Action Steps. Luxembourg, Belgium: Publications Office of the European Union; 2010. ISBN: 978-92-79-15855-1

[20] Sonnemann G, Margni M. Life Cycle Management. Netherlands: Springer; 2015

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**19**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Biogas Power Energy Production

The purpose of this chapter is to present a generalized model for the construction of inventories for the production of electricity through biogas. This general framework can be adjusted to any power plant that uses biogas, since it complies with the main material and energy balances. This chapter describes the main technologies used in biogas power energy production, separating them into five main subsystems that integrate the general life cycle inventory, as well as the inputs and outputs considered in the development of the inventories. The life cycle assessment (LCA) of two types of plants is presented as study cases: (i) the biogas power energy generation with organic waste in landfills as substrate and (ii) the biogas power energy generation using dairy cattle manure as substrate. Both systems, in addition to using different types of substrate, present differences in their substages. It is concluded that the generation of studies of life cycle analysis of technologies facilitates decision makers, producers, and government agencies to develop and

**Keywords:** biogas, emissions, smart industry, sustainable energy, cleaner energies

Energy is a critical factor for global decision-making. The energy supply is not only an important support in the daily anthropogenic activities, but also an important macroeconomic element [1]. Månsson [2] suggests a relationship between the energy sector of a country and the adaptation to changes, such as environmental degradation and the food price increase. This adaptation is carried out in a political, economical, and social context. Consequently, the energy topic has increased its relevance in international relations and dependencies. According to Overland [3],

The development and the recent social growth are highly dependent on nonrenewable energies. This dependency has several disadvantages. Nonrenewable energies (NRE) are directly associated with climate change [4]. Since the last century, the atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have increased from ~290 to 400 ppm in 2015 [5]. This period is related to an exponential increase in the

from a Life Cycle Thinking

*Hector Alfredo López-Aguilar, Jorge Alberto Gómez,*

*Enrique Alberto Huerta-Reynoso,*

*María Guadalupe Gómez-Méndez*

identify areas of opportunity from life cycle thinking.

energy is a sensitive factor in globalization.

*and Antonino Pérez-Hernández*

#### **Chapter 2**

## Biogas Power Energy Production from a Life Cycle Thinking

*Enrique Alberto Huerta-Reynoso, Hector Alfredo López-Aguilar, Jorge Alberto Gómez, María Guadalupe Gómez-Méndez and Antonino Pérez-Hernández*

#### **Abstract**

The purpose of this chapter is to present a generalized model for the construction of inventories for the production of electricity through biogas. This general framework can be adjusted to any power plant that uses biogas, since it complies with the main material and energy balances. This chapter describes the main technologies used in biogas power energy production, separating them into five main subsystems that integrate the general life cycle inventory, as well as the inputs and outputs considered in the development of the inventories. The life cycle assessment (LCA) of two types of plants is presented as study cases: (i) the biogas power energy generation with organic waste in landfills as substrate and (ii) the biogas power energy generation using dairy cattle manure as substrate. Both systems, in addition to using different types of substrate, present differences in their substages. It is concluded that the generation of studies of life cycle analysis of technologies facilitates decision makers, producers, and government agencies to develop and identify areas of opportunity from life cycle thinking.

**Keywords:** biogas, emissions, smart industry, sustainable energy, cleaner energies

#### **1. Introduction**

Energy is a critical factor for global decision-making. The energy supply is not only an important support in the daily anthropogenic activities, but also an important macroeconomic element [1]. Månsson [2] suggests a relationship between the energy sector of a country and the adaptation to changes, such as environmental degradation and the food price increase. This adaptation is carried out in a political, economical, and social context. Consequently, the energy topic has increased its relevance in international relations and dependencies. According to Overland [3], energy is a sensitive factor in globalization.

The development and the recent social growth are highly dependent on nonrenewable energies. This dependency has several disadvantages. Nonrenewable energies (NRE) are directly associated with climate change [4]. Since the last century, the atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have increased from ~290 to 400 ppm in 2015 [5]. This period is related to an exponential increase in the

energy demand. Another disadvantage is the resources depletion. Oil, for example, demands gradually more investment for few products. According to the Mexican government reports, the investment in oil extraction and exploration has increased 140% between 2004 and 2012; meanwhile, 30% less of the daily production initially perceived was obtained [6]. In general, both climate change and the resources depletion are issues of great importance at present [7]. This panorama incentivizes the investment for economic, scientific, and technological development for alternative and renewable energies.

 Nowadays, several potential renewable energy sources are known. Its usage depends on its accessibility and transformation capacity. The energy obtained from biological sources, such as wood, crop residues, municipal waste, or even organic industrial waste, is called biomass energy [8]. This is widely used for heating and cooking activities [9] and is one of the oldest renewable energies. Biomass can be harnessed in several ways; energy sources can be obtained as many products, such as hydrogen, ethanol, methanol, and methane for transformation into mechanical energy and electricity. The biomass use comes with disadvantages. Overexploitation of biomass could damage natural areas by promoting the creation of monocrops to meet the energy demand [10]. However, the energy obtained from biomass waste could be a useful renewable energy source.

A product derived from the biomass fermentation is the biogas. It is obtained by a bacterial degradation denominated anaerobic digestion (DA) [11]. It is commonly used to obtain two main products: biogas to produce energy and digestate used for agricultural soil treatment.

The production of energy through biogas is a key element for future global projections. In Mexico, the potential for power energy generation through biogas is between 652 and 912 MW [6]. The use of renewable resources needs to be developed at an accelerated growth rate to meet global energy demand [12]. Its implementation must be successful too, oriented toward sustainability [13]. An applicable methodology to evaluate by this approach is the life cycle assessment (LCA).

Currently, the LCA has been applied to various energy production systems. The adoption of technologies such as biogas is generally promoted by environmental issues [14], specifically for waste disposal. The LCA methodology is an important tool in the use and implementation of anaerobic digestion for the generation and use of both biogas and soil improvers. Harder et al. [15] conducted a study of wastewater sludge treatment and integrated a quantitative microbial risk analysis into the LCA results. Dressler et al. [16] and Van Stappen et al. [17] carried out LCA studies of biogas production, the first about maize in three different areas of Germany; the second is about the installation of a farm biogas plant. Based on a sequential approach, both studies conclude on the importance of carrying out regional inventories for their application in decision-making. In China, Xu et al. [18] studied the generation of biogas from food waste. They found that the electrical consumption and transport of raw materials comes with the highest potential impacts. Moreover, Hijazi et al. in Germany analyzed 15 different biogas systems and found from life cycle thinking that the type of raw material is a key factor in environmental impacts. Furthermore, the spatial distribution of the plant and the management of by-products presented the highest environmental impacts. On the other hand, Huttunen et al. [14] identified that the use of biogas and the final use of digestate are the most critical points in the production of biogas in Finland. The construction of local inventories is a necessity to improve the LCA studies quality.

LCA is a useful tool for sustainability assessment in biogas systems. There are several studies of LCA in biogas. A general framework for biogas production has been established by other authors in independent studies. However, the recent studies focus on particular stage improvements or new technologies implementation.

In order to facilitate the construction of biogas power generation inventories, a general framework is desirable. This chapter presents the life cycle analysis of the generation of electrical energy by biogas, dividing the biogas power generation in individual subsystems. Two scenarios were considered for the elaboration of the ACV study, the use of biogas from the dairy corral excreta and the one from the municipal sanitary landfill.

#### **2. A biogas background**

 Biogas is produced by anaerobic bacteria that degrade organic matter in four general stages: hydrolysis, acidification, acetic acid production, and methane production. The gas phase product of anaerobic digestion is named biogas and its yield depends significantly on the substrate (raw material). Biogas is composed by a mixture of 50–75% methane, 25–50% carbon dioxide, and 2–8% other gases (nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, among others). The percentage of methane in the biogas mixture is the main component for its use as an energy source; this also depends on the substrate that is used. **Table 1** shows the potential production of methane with different types of substrate, as well as its yield.

Before converting biogas into electricity by motor generators, the biogas must be purified by a desulfurization and drying process [11].

The requirements of the biogas quality depend on its different applications. In general, the costs of biogas purification are associated with the technology used and the location of the biodigestion system [20]. The choice of the most appropriate technology for the removal processes will depend on the use of this energy, as well as the compounds present in the biogas.

The toxic effect of H2S, which is a colorless, flammable gas, has been documented, at levels of 0–5 ppm in the air, it can be easily detected; at concentrations higher than 10 ppm, it can affect human health, and at 600 ppm, it can cause death [21]. This gas is in the top five of pollutant compounds by Environment Canada's National Pollutant Release Inventory [22]. The main problems in the use of biogas, due to high concentrations of this gas, are the corrosion that damages the engines and the production of sulfur oxides from their combustion, whose emissions are subject to international regulations [23]. Therefore, desulphurization of biogas and its purification are necessary to increase the possible applications of this energy [24]. The main removal technologies for this compound are presented in **Table 2**.

The design of an optimal digester depends mainly on the characteristics of the substrate, as well as the amount of dissolved, volatile solids, biodegradability,

#### **Table 1.**

*Biomass characteristics for biogas production [19].*

#### **Table 2.**

*Types of biogas purification technologies [25].*

*Biogas Power Energy Production from a Life Cycle Thinking DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82250*

 density, buoyancy of the solids and particle size [26]. Bioreactors can be classified as dry and wet. Some common configurations are: (i) dry batch reactors, (ii) continuously stirred tank reactors, and (iii) dry continuous reactors.

Technological advances have focused on new configurations, variants and modifications of conventional biodigesters. The anaerobic membrane reactors (AnMBR) have attracted attention in the field of research. This technology consists in the use of a membrane for the separation of solids and liquids inside the reactor, facilitating the handling of the effluent [27]. The membranes can be of different materials, in general they can be polymeric, metallic and ceramic, each one with its particular advantages [28]. The configuration of the use of these membranes varies according to the design of the reactor and the particular needs, from internal membranes, to membranes that operate by vacuum [29].

 The production of electricity through biogas has been a notable increase in recent years. It is known that only in the European Union, the energy generated by biogas increased to 20,467.20 GWh in the period 2010–2013 [30]. Likewise, in other countries it has been found feasible to generate electricity through biogas. Arshad [31] carried out an economic study of the feasibility of generating energy using biogas from poultry residues. In his study he lists AD technology with a high potential to reduce Pakistan's local power deficit. Likewise, there are studies related to the application of improvements in order to increase the efficiency and feasibility of studies. Markou [32] presents an economic study where he uses the heat energy generated by the production of energy with the incorporation of greenhouses in the biogas plant, and they conclude that this modification contributes favorably from the economic point of view. In general, energy demand, as well as the need to search for new technologies, has favored the research and development of DA technology.

#### **3. Biogas in the life cycle inventory process**

The process of generating biogas, as well as its consecutive stages for the production of electrical energy, consists of several stages. **Figure 1** mentions the components for the design of a biogas utilization plant. Each of the stages can have a different design depending on the needs and the type of substrate to be fermented.

The development of the life cycle assessment can be separated into five main stages: (i) the collection of the substrate and its storage, (ii) pretreatment of the

**Figure 1.**

*Boundary limits for a biogas power plant life cycle inventory.*

substrate, (iii) anaerobic digestion, (iv) pretreatment of biogas, and (v) generation of electric power. **Figure 1** shows a gate-to-gate flow diagram of the inputs and outputs of each of the stages of energy generation using biogas. The limits in **Figure 1** indicate the use of biomass and digestate in the pretreatment and anaerobic digestion stages, respectively, as well as outside the process of producing electricity through biogas. These processes can be considered by-products, which would allow them to be included within the limits as outputs to the technosphere. However, depending on the activities of the producers and the type of substrate, this digestate can be considered as waste. For a general analysis focused on the generation of electrical energy, these processes are considered as beside to the generation of energy, for the present work.

The essential part to be considered in the life cycle inventory (LCI) in a biogas plant is the infrastructure. Da Costa et al., mentioned infrastructure as part of the processes to consider in carbon dioxide emissions. Studies catalog the generation of emissions by infrastructure as low [33]. However, the contribution percentage of this system depends on the useful life of the plant because they are not constant emissions [32]. The maintenance, the configuration of the processes, and the type of bioreactor among other factors influence the useful life of the plant.

 The first stage in the balance of matter and energy is the collection and storage of the substrate. It has been found that the variety of substrates used is wide. The types of substrate most used are: animal manure, agricultural residues, agroindustrial waste and even municipal organic waste [34]. These residues vary in composition, condition, density, as well as the type of collection and storage. In **Figure 1**, electricity was considered as an entrance; however, transportation plays a key role in this stage. Usually, substrates such as municipal waste are confined in landfills. The sealing of the cell favors anaerobic microbial consortiums that allow the generation of biogas. The same storage system fulfills the function of bioreactor, suppressing the pretreatment stage. For cases such as the use of animal waste, a more complex collection and storage system is necessary. These types of plants are usually of small or medium scale and are located near the source of the substrate. The collection of the substrate can be carried out by tractors or cargo vehicles. Also, transport and storage depend on the logistics, as well as the source of the substrate. The main factors to consider in this stage are the use of land and the emissions generated by transportation.

As mentioned in Section 2, the pretreatment stage varies according to the technology used. The access and availability of water are essential for the balance of material in this process. The relationship between the percentage of water and the content of solids in the substrate influences the yield and production of biogas [35]. Veluchamy and Kalamdhad [36] considered in their study a range of 80–85% humidity for an optimal methane yield in the DA of lignocellulosic substrate. Good practices mainly influence this stage and the use of water. Likewise, the electrical energy consumed is a key factor in this stage depending on the separation technology. Another important outlet is the residual organic matter. As already mentioned, this biomass can be considered as waste or as a byproduct depending on the use. This chapter focuses mainly on the generation of biogas and electricity. So the use of biomass and digestate (in the DA stage) were not considered.

The DA is the main stage of the biogas utilization plant. In addition to the infrastructure, it is necessary to consider the inputs and outputs in the monitoring and control of the parameters. Anaerobic digestion occurs in three main levels: psychrophilic (<25°C), mesophilic (25–45°C), and thermophilic (>75°C) conditions. Usually, digesters work at mesophilic conditions [34]. The energy consumption depends mainly on the temperature difference between the environment and the level of thermal conditions in which the plant works. Occasionally, producers

#### *Biogas Power Energy Production from a Life Cycle Thinking DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82250*

opt for psychrophilic conditions due to the climatic conditions of the region [37]. Likewise, other parameters such as pH, micronutrients, and ammonia should be considered in the balance of inputs and outputs if necessary.

 The pretreatment stage of the biogas is necessary for an optimal operation in the generation of electrical energy. As mentioned in Section 2, there are various techniques for removing unwanted components. The LCI depends on consumed inputs and the waste generated by the processes. So, the consumption of electricity and other energy inputs must also be considered in the balance.

The electric power generation stage is a key factor, not only for the construction of the LCI, but also for the design of the plant. The generation of electrical energy depends mainly on the technology used. It also depends on the composition of the biogas used. In this stage, the generation-consumption balance for the knowledge of net energy is crucial. The understanding of the energy flows consumed throughout the plant, compared with the energy generated, is critical for the optimization of the plant [38].

 The five stages mentioned in **Figure 1** are the general scheme of an LCI for the generation of electric power. However, the configuration and stages may vary depending on the needs and the type of substrate. A system that uses urban solid waste sometimes lacks a pretreatment stage for the substrate. Also the collection methods may vary or belong to other linked operations. For example, the collection of animal excreta is a process also considered as cleaning stables on a farm. If the plant is in production, the collection is part of the cleaning system. The main outputs of the process are the residuals of the pretreatment stage of the substrate, the biogas, the digestate emitted by the anaerobic digestion and the emissions of combustion gases by the generation of electrical energy.

 The development of the LCA is a comprehensive process. The form of construction of the inventory is explained in ISO 14044 [39]. **Figure 1** shows a gate-to-gate diagram of the system boundaries. However, the inclusion of other subprocesses should be considered according to the boundary conditions of the particular study.

#### **4. Biogas and impact categories**

In accordance with ISO 14040 [40], the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is intended to assess how significant the potential impacts of LCI emissions are. Generally, this evaluation is carried out through impact categories according to the emissions generated by the system. Currently, there are databases with impact categories already established. Some of the most used databases are ReCiPe, CML 2001, IMPACT 2002+, and IPCC 2013, in which the carbon footprint is obtained [41].

For a gate-to-gate study like the one shown in **Figure 2**, generally, the main emissions are air and water. However, depending on the system to be studied, additional emissions to the soil can be considered. For example, sometimes the digestate produced by the DA with a subsequent treatment can be used as a soil improver. However, if this is not carried out, it is possible to consider it as emission to the ground. This happens with the treatment and use of biomass in general. The consideration of these emissions within the limits of the system depends on the objective of the LCA.

The emissions to the air are carried out as a result of the generation of electrical energy by combustion, mainly. The exhaust gas mixture contains CO2, CO, and H2O, and other pollutant compounds such as SOx and NOx. The main impact of these emissions is the potential global warming. However, some of these compounds can generate from air toxicity to carcinogenicity.

**Figure 2.**  *Life cycle impact assessment of the landfill biogas power generation.*

 Regarding emissions to water, there is a considerable consumption of water, which is dependent on the technology and the size of the plant. As already mentioned, the composition of the digestate may contain micronutrients, which can be used for soil improvement. However, the emission into water of these compounds derived from phosphorus and nitrogen can cause eutrophication in water. Moreover, the emission of elements such as arsenic, lead, magnesium, etc. could contribute to the freshwater toxicity. It is advisable to carry out chemical analysis of the digestate at the exit of the system and in case of being disposed to bodies of water, consider it in the hydric balance.

The impact categories were selected based on the characterized emissions. For a standard biogas power plant, it is recommended to chose impact categories related to air toxicity and water contamination.

#### **5. Study cases**

In this section, two studies are presented. The first study case presents power generation from landfill organic matter biogas. The second study case presents the power energy generation from dairy manure biogas. Both studies are common examples of biogas-producing substrates.

#### **5.1 Biogas from landfill**

The electric power generation plant is located in the cd. Juárez, Chihuahua Landfill, road N °45, Juárez-Chihuahua (coordinates: 31° 33′15 "N 106 ° 29'33" W). The usage of different functional units allows to assess the sensibility of a system. For this study case, three separated periods of time were selected: (i) the generation of electricity from biogas during 1 hour of production, (ii) the annual production of electricity, and (iii) the generation of electricity for 10 years of production. Most of the inputs-outputs diagrams increase their scores linearly. However, it does not mean that the impact categories replicate this behavior.

 The life cycle inventory is shown in **Table 3**. Inventories of the Ecoinvent v3.3 database were taken for the infrastructure of the plant [41]. It was considered a

#### *Biogas Power Energy Production from a Life Cycle Thinking DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82250*

 land use of 25,949 m2 . Furthermore, four generators with a generation capacity of 1230 kW of electricity were considered. These quantities were defined with the scale of the real power plant; however, the inventories were obtained from the Ecoinvent database. The construction of the plant was not considered due to the lack of information access. On the other hand, the air emissions provided by the producers were considered. The landfill biogas is generated by the anaerobic degradation of the organic matter. This process is carried out without any parameter control inside the landfill. For that reason, both biogas production and consumption is not considered for the study.

#### **Table 3.**

*Life cycle inventory for each functional unit in the landfill biogas power plant.*

The characterization for the life cycle impact assessment and the scenario comparison were calculated using SimaPro v8.5.2. **Table 4** and **Figure 2** show the results of the life cycle impact assessment of electric power generation in the Juarez biogas power plant. It can be seen in **Table 4**, a high score of emission equivalents in climate change and human toxicity categories. This is mainly due to the emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants generated in combustion. On the other hand, emissions in both categories of human toxicity and marine eutrophication have indirect contribution like the equipment manufacture and the infrastructure.

**Figure 2** shows the comparison of the potential impacts in the selected functional units. It can be seen that according to the increase of the time in the functional unit, the most sensitive categories scores are: climate change, ozone depletion, photochemical oxidation, particulate matter formation, and terrestrial acidification, which are mainly associated with air emissions. The results show a high sensitivity of gas emissions to the generation of electrical energy through biogas from landfill.

Moreover, the impact categories associated with soil such as terrestrial ecotoxicity, ionizing radiation, freshwater ecotoxicity, marine ecotoxicity, etc. (**Figure 2**) remain constant with increase in time in the functional unit. It is because of the secondary inventories, which are linked to the infrastructure and the manufacture of the power generators, whereby they are associated to indirect emissions.

According to **Figure 2**, air emissions are highly sensitive compared to other emissions. It is because of the biogas combustion caused by the power generation. Additionally, there are many volatile compounds generated with biogas produced in the landfill.

#### **Table 4.**

*Life cycle impact assessment for each functional unit in the landfill biogas power plant.*

#### **5.2 Biogas from dairy manure**

A well-known substrate for this activity is the waste of the livestock systems. Nowadays, there are several producers that use the manure of cattle for the generation of biogas [42–44].

The main objective of the LCA was to characterize the potential impacts of an electric power plant through biogas from dairy manure.

The study case scenario was a small-industrial generating plant with a generation capacity of ~ 22 kW, located in the dairy barn named "Establo Los Arados". The power plant is located in Meoqui, Chihuahua, Mexico (coordinates: 28° 14′35 "N 105 ° 28'14" W). The main activity is the dairy production; however, a biogas power plant was installed for both reduce operating cost in electricity consumption and managing the cattle manure generated.

 In order to obtain the impact associated in 1 hour in the power plant, a functional unit of 22 kW h of electricity generation was selected. It is equivalent of the average power generated by the turbine installed. The boundary limits range from the manure collection to the power energy generation. These boundaries were defined based on the information access and the control parameters monitored in the power plant.

The harvesting system was divided into five main subsystems:

The pretreatment systems of both the substrate and biogas are included in the stage of biogas generation. Furthermore, a plant life of 30 years was assumed, considering a minor maintenance.

The unit processes and the boundary limits are illustrated in **Figure 3**. The water used in this process (blue line in **Figure 3**) is supplied by the barn. The green line (**Figure 3**) indicates the internal power supply. There are two different electricity sources considered: the municipal power supply and the biogas power energy generated.

The process of using biogas begins with the collection of manure. Because the power plant and the barn are in the same location, it is not necessary to travel long distances to transport the manure. The transport considers the route taken by the manure collector tractor, as well as the transport to the biogas production area. The continuous black line indicates the path of the substrate (manure). The substrate is transformed into the so-called stage of biogas production. This stage is separated into three substages: (i) pretreatment, (ii) anaerobic digestion, and (iii) purification. In this stage, waste is generated, such as solids (biosol) and effluent (biol). The biogas produced is taken to the stage of generation of electrical energy, which is incorporated into the supply line and for the self-consumption of the stable. In the stage of production of biogas, combustion gases are emitted, which were considered in the development of the inventories.

The operating conditions in the stages of the power generation, the water consumption and the energy consumption are information provided by the producers.

**Figure 3.**  *Boundary limits for the dairy manure biogas power plant.*

Literature information was included, mainly from the Ecoinvent database [41] and the parameters of the EPA-AP42 [45]. The literature information complemented the in situ measurements, which were carried out for both combustion gases (power energy generation) and effluent elements emitted (**Figure 3**).

The impact categories with a midpoint approach allow to assess the contribution of each of the systems with precision. **Figure 4** shows the percentage of contribution of each subsystem in the impact categories. This subsystem comparison allows to identify weak points and supports the technical decision making. Likewise, it allows to identify the direct impacts of production and the indirect impacts obtained from the consumption of resources.

**Figure 4** shows a high contribution of infrastructure. It was identified that the electric power generation plant has an important effect in the categories related to depletion of resources, such as agricultural land occupation, ionizing radiation, urban land occupation, natural soil transformation, water depletion, metal depletion, and fossil depletion. It was found that the barn infrastructure contribute more than 80% of the total score in the categories of fossil depletion, freshwater ecotoxicity, and ozone

**Figure 4.**  *Contribution for each impact category for biogas dairy manure power plant.*

#### *Biogas Power Energy Production from a Life Cycle Thinking DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82250*

depletion. Likewise, it was considered maintenance of the barn was not relevant for the study. It was found that these categories show opportunity skills for decision-making.

The importance of the manure collection stage in the environmental load was identified. The usage of a machinery for transport and collection of excreta is difficult to modify due to the infrastructure adapted to the daily activities. However, it is possible to optimize the routes in the manure collection stage to mitigate the fuel consumption. With the appliance of this improvement, the environmental impact could be considerably reduced in the categories of human toxicity, photochemical oxidant formation, particle matter formation, and terrestrial acidification.

It was found that the generation of electrical energy is the main contributor to the climate change category due to the biogas combustion. Furthermore, the score in the categories of photochemical oxidant formation, particle matter formation, and terrestrial acidification is related to the generation of energy. However, this contributes to <10% of the total. So the power generation is the main opportunity skill in the category of climate change.

The identification of opportunity skills in the life cycle impact assessment allows stakeholders to make decision from a sustainable approach. On the other hand, in the life cycle assessment of the biogas landfill power generation, Section 5.1, sensitivity was analyzed by the comparison of different values in the functional unit to identify the most critical impact categories through the LCA.

#### **6. Conclusions**

Energy generation through biogas has gained relevance in recent years due to its potential capacity as a renewable energy source. An analysis of these technologies from the life cycle thinking is essential for sustainable development.

It was found that the separation of complex systems into subsystems or unit operations facilitates the development of inventories and the life cycle impact assessment. The infrastructure of the power plant initially implies an important contribution of potential impacts. However, with better practices and maintenance, better efficiency and useful life period, it mitigates the environmental impact.

The main impact categories (in the study cases) are related to the air emissions and water emissions. However, considering an efficient usage of the by-products, these emissions could be reduced. In the case of the power energy from biogas can be optimized if the by-products of the generation of biogas, like the digestate and solid phase inputs, are processed and conditioned to their usage as soil improvers. It reduces the environmental impact associated with the use of agrochemicals.

The LCA is a very useful tool for decision-making and environmental engineering. By using the general framework, any improvement in biogas power energy production could be incorporated in the system. In the study cases discussed in this chapter, the opportunity skills were detected, specifically, the combustion heat usage and the by-products coprocessing to mitigate the emissions. For future studies, more measurement data could be included.

#### **Acknowledgements**

This chapter was supported and funded by Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados S. C., Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua. The authors

 would like to thanks the Sectretaría de Energía in Mexico and Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (proyect SENER-CONACyT N°243715)**.**

### **Conflict of interest**

None declared.

#### **Author details**

 Enrique Alberto Huerta-Reynoso1 , Hector Alfredo López-Aguilar1 , Jorge Alberto Gómez2 , María Guadalupe Gómez-Méndez3 and Antonino Pérez-Hernández1 \*

1 Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados, S. C., México

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Biogas Power Energy Production from a Life Cycle Thinking DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82250*

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### **Chapter 3**

### The Industrial Symbiosis of Wineries: An Analisys of the Wine Production Chain According to the Preliminary LCA Model

 *Agata Matarazzo, Fabio Copani, Matteo Leanza, Aldo Carpitano, Alessandro Lo Genco and Graziano Nicosia*

### **Abstract**

 The circular economy refers to a term that defines an economy designed to be able to regenerate itself. Agri-food is one of the areas where the tools and strategies of the circular economy are implemented. The wine sector involving numerous stages of production and processing causes many impacts on the environment. Starting from the transport, to the distribution of wine products, there are several impacting processes on the environment. For the assessment of negative results although not of every product production process, the circular economy provides a more than suitable tool: the LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) has been implemented on the whole production chain of the product "Lenza di Munti", a bottle of wine by "Nicosia S.p.A.". The grapes used in the production of red wine are Nerello Mascalese and Nerello Cappuccio; instead of Carricante and Catarratto grapes used for white wine. This chapter provides a complete picture of the interactions between the product and the environment, to understand the environmental consequences and to provide the necessary information to define the best solutions.

**Keywords:** circular economy, LCA, agri-food, wine sector, Sicilian economy

#### **1. Introduction**

 In recent years, along with the continuous development of the binomial environment industry, strong critical attention and assessment in the risks and impacts on the environment has matured. In the agri-food sector, it becomes very important to define carefully what are the environmental impacts and evaluate their weight, in order to improve or consolidate the quality of the production process. In the past, corporate objectives had little to do with the assessment of environmental impacts, rather they aimed almost exclusively at maximizing the quantity produced, remaining unrelated to everything that the production process caused. Today, it is essential to know more fully "what" is used in the production processes of agricultural products and "how" is used. In line with this trend, in the wine sector, in Italy, in recent years, we aim to produce quality wines, putting

 the quantity in the background; this allowed small producers to enter the market, thanks to the production of quality wines [1]. However, there is a change in trends regarding the size of producers: from small companies to large industrial companies. As a consequence this means more consumption, therefore higher emissions and impacts. The food industry disproportionately contributes to many global environmental problems. The production of wine is not an exception to the rule: it contributes to a variety of environmental burdens, mainly related to the use of pesticides and fertilizers in the vineyard and to the production of glass bottles. Target markets nowadays are more aware of ecological concerns than ever before; which means that costumers are increasingly more conscious of the products they are willing to buy and companies have to deal with this new context. The concept of sustainability is taken into account seriously in the Italian wine sector. The total vineyard area in Italy is approximately 656,000 hectares, and it is the third most important country per vineyard area in the world [2]. Moreover, the wine industry is an important contributor to the Italian economy, as it registers a sales volume of 9.5 billion euros. Sicily, in particular, widely contributes to the Italian wine industry: it is the region with the largest area of vineyards (for a total of 111,000 hectares), corresponding to around 17% of the overall Italian vineyard area and to 10.4% of the Italian total grapes production [3].

For this reason, this study will analyze a proactive company in the field, Nicosia S.p.A. To this end, the European Union has identified an instrument that evaluates and analyzes the entire life cycle of a product, from its cradle to its grave: the life cycle assessment. Thanks to this tool, companies can take steps toward the Green Economy road implemented by industrial symbiosis, also called industrial ecology. Industrial symbiosis, provided by industrial ecology, is an integrated management tool, which designs industrial infrastructures as if they were a series of interconnected ecosystems interfaced with the industrial ecosystem. It involves traditionally separate industries through an integrated approach aimed at promoting competitive advantages through the exchange of matter, energy, water, and/or by-products. The basis of this process is collaboration and the opportunity for synergy between companies. For example, in the case of Cantine Nicosia, the residual vinecce from the vinification process are reused for the production of spirits; this is the demonstration of how relationships, albeit simple, are able to constitute examples of industrial symbiosis. In particular, the study will focus on the inventory of a bottle of wine, the Lenza di Munti, by Nicosia S.p.A., in order to highlight any introduction in the process of any type of input, and to take note of the weight it has on the environment the output produced. The inventory is a real phase of the LCA, and in reference to the inherent standard [4, 5], this consists in the quantitative description of all the flows of materials and energy that cross the boundaries of the business system, both incoming and outgoing. Specifically, flow charts and data collection tables are used to prepare, with certainty of particulars, a complete and representative inventory of the product. In this study, each type of impact will be described, but above all that of CO2 emissions. In this regard, many studies have highlighted what are the sources of CO2 emissions in the wine sector, and they are: the phase of transport of inputs and outputs and waste management process and post process [6]. It will highlight the inter-company and inter-company functional relationships, representing those that are the subjects of the activity studied and the main actors, understanding those that are the bonds and relationships that exist between them.

The main actors involved in the activity studied are the company and its respective internal and external stakeholders including suppliers and customers.

*The Industrial Symbiosis of Wineries: An Analisys of the Wine Production Chain… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82212*

The subject of the study is the wine sector and specifically the set of interactions that exist between the products and the environment and therefore the environmental impacts that arise from these interactions.

#### **2. Materials and methods**

 As customers of goods and services we often don't think about all the consequences, it has got on what surrounds us: the environment and ecosystem in which we live are submitted to continuous stress and that determines its deterioration.

Companies of any dimensions are trying to modify their actions to handle their impact, to protect their reputation, and get prepared for stricter rules [5].

 Using the LCA as an assessment tool of the impact of the wine sector sets some difficulties; in order to produce a bottle of wine several resources are needed, not only for the materials used for bottling but also we can have a great impact on the environment and also on mankind during the process of cultivation and treatment of grapes. Until a decade ago, producers used to think that a moderate use of pesticides and fertilizers gave a higher quality of wine. Indeed, during the last years, different choices have been made like leaving vines to their natural process without adopting solutions intrusive for the environment as the use of pesticides. In some particular cases, like Etna's vines, even irrigate is forbidden, if not in case of necessity, ensuring the natural growing process of grapes of wine.

 The production sector begins by taking care of the vine which generally causes dangerous emissions neither for the environment nor for mankind unless pesticides are used; then during the harvest, it is time to harvest grapes in plastic containers with a useful life of 3 years. The harvest is then carried by trucks from the vine to the factory; once in there, the product is processed by a mechanic wine press which extracts juice and pulp from grapes creating in this way the must that has to be then transformed in wine. It is a particular and delicate operation that must be performed carefully. It is essential that the grapes have not been pressed by crushing during the transport because that could cause unwanted fermentation.

Subsequently or simultaneously with the pressing, the grapes are placed in a special automatic crusher-stemmer that separates the skeleton of the bunches, or the green part, from the berries. The result will be the destemmed crushed grapes, consisting of 80% of pulp, 15% of skins, and 5% of grape seeds, while the must has a composition of about 70–80% of water, 10–30% of sugars, and other substances.

Once the must is obtained, it is left to ferment in special containers; the aim of this phase is to transform the sugars into alcohol and give the wine the desired features and smells; depending on the type of vinification, in white or red, the skins are removed from the must (draining phase).

The duration of this phase varies from 5 to 15 days, and the main source of emission is that of CO2 by the fermenter.

 Once the fermentation days have passed, we proceed with the racking, in which the yeasts and the solid parts are separated from the wine. From this apparent waste, it is possible to obtain a second raw material, the marc, which is a primary part of the production process of some distillates such as grappa.

Once the racking is finished, the wine is subjected to the refining phase and at the right moment, the product is finished with the most invasive phase from an environmental point of view, which is bottling.

The use of LCA in environmental management and sustainability has grown in recent years as seen in the steadily increasing number of published papers on

 LCA methodology and on case studies that have been performed to use LCA [7]. In many cases, these studies show that the most polluting phases of a food production system consist in the agricultural ones. Therefore, the research about innovations and environmental improvements should be addressed, above all, to the agricultural stages, also taking into consideration the economic feasibility [8]. Life cycle assessment is the factual analysis of a product's entire life cycle in terms of sustainability and allows the determination of input factors and output of the lifecycle of each product, evaluating the consequent environmental impact. This tool allows the phases where environmental issues are focused on to be identified as well as those who are responsible for the burden. LCA is a standardized methodology, which gives it its reliability and transparency. The standards provided by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) describe the four main phases of an LCA: "goal and scope", "inventory analysis", "impact assessment," and "interpretation." These standards have been developed by the ISO/TC 207 Technical Committee and they are: UNI EN ISO 14040 (1998) [2, 3], by which the principles and the requirements for an LCA study are established; UNI EN ISO 14041 (1999), in which the objective and the field of application are defined and an inventory analysis is performed; UNI EN ISO 14042 (2000), that evaluates impacts: in particular, the main impact categories to be taken into consideration are the use of resources, human health, and ecological consequences; finally, with the UNI EN ISO 14043 (2000), improvements are analyzed. According to the ISO standards on LCA, it can assist in: identifying opportunities to improve the environmental features of products at various points in their life cycle; decision making in industry, governmental or nongovernmental organizations (e.g., strategic planning, priority setting, product and process design or redesign); selection of relevant indicators of environmental performance, including measurement techniques; and marketing (e.g., an environmental claim, eco-labeling scheme, or environmental product declarations). Lately, research about LCA shows how the concept of "economic sustainability" is spreading, and how helpful this tool is to achieve this objective. The agricultural sector provides a lot of examples about this usefulness: in Australia, for example, the GHG emissions from agricultural sector will continue to increase as Australia's agricultural export production is predicted to double over the next decade and the population is to reach 42.5 million by 2056. An LCA compiles the inputs and outputs from a production system, and in turn evaluates their potential environmental impacts, for example, GHG emissions [9]. Thus, the current research focuses on the determination of global warming impact or carbon footprint, that is, life cycle GHG emissions of horticultural products and identifies "hotspots" requiring mitigation strategies to reduce GHG emissions from the production and delivery of three important producers in Australia [10]. But it is not necessary to go far away from Catania; in less than 100 km, the environmental impacts of olive oil production have been studied by using the LCA. The Italian olive-growing sector has to face both the growing competition on the international olive oil market and the shift of the common agricultural policy (CAP) from market and price policies toward direct aids decoupled from production. A possible strategy to address this highly competitive scenario could be the renewal of olive groves through the adoption of innovative olive-growing models able to reduce production costs without worsening environmental sustainability. Two innovative olive-growing models are considered: the "High Density" (HDO) and the "Super High Density" (SHDO) olive orchards. From the environmental point of view, goal of the LCA is to build up the environmental profile of the two systems, in order to assess them and to identify their hot spots [8]. Depending on the complexity of the problem that a company wants to face, it is possible to choose between different types of LCA, each of which allows an in-depth solution to be found. These instruments are: LCA conceptual, preliminary LCA, and complete LCA. The first one is used only in the first phases, so that it often does not

*The Industrial Symbiosis of Wineries: An Analisys of the Wine Production Chain… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82212*

consider numerous aspects of the product lifecycle and does not make a comparison with other products. The second one, even if it does not consider the entire lifecycle of the product, allows the comparison between different products. The last one is the best methodology used to provide product improvements. A similar instrument to the LCA is the LCCA (lifecycle cost analysis). It is a methodology used for the economical evaluation of projects, in which the costs that come from owning, using, maintaining, and disposing of a certain product are considered vital to take a decision. In the end, this tool allows the determination of the overall cost of a certain product, considering its entire lifecycle [11].

#### **3. Case study: Cantine Nicosia**

Cantine Nicosia was founded in 1898 when Francesco Nicosia, the great-grandfather of the current owner, decided to open the first wine shop in Trecastagni, on the eastern side of Etna. The decisive entrepreneurial turnaround took place at the end of the twentieth century, thanks to the tenacity and innovative spirit of the current owner, Carmelo Nicosia, who, investing in the expansion and renovation of the vineyards and in the construction of a modern winery, will bring the family business to be the protagonist of the rebirth of Sicilian wine.

 Today, Cantine Nicosia is a dynamic, modern, and efficient company, capable of looking to the future with full respect for tradition. The Trecastagni winery is the place where tradition combines with the most advanced technology. In the covered area of 4000 m2 , on a total surface of 27,000 m2 , between the wide winemaking area, the analysis laboratory, the modern bottling line, and the underground barrel cellar, the heart of the company pulsates.

 Cantine Nicosia produces prestigious autochthonous wines, promoting the territory in full respect of the environment and enhancing the raw materials. In relation to this goal, the company has fully embraced the cause of organic and biological and sustainability, to combine environmental protection and food safety, with the aim of bringing to the tables of consumers a "zero impact" wine. Over the years, several milestones have been achieved in terms of international environmental certifications: from UNI EN ISO 9001:2015 to UNI EN ISO 14001:2015 Environmental Certification, from BRC Food & Beverage to the International Food Standard (IFS). Also recent is the achievement of an international "ethical" certification issued by SEDEX (Supplier Ethical Data Exchange), thanks to the environmental, biological, and vegan certifications. The company's future goal is the achievement of further certifications such as carbon footprint, water footprint, and LCA. Cantine Nicosia is a sustainable company actively involved in the protection of natural resources, and the optimal management of water resources is one of the essential points. Cellar work involves a high consumption of water, especially for cleaning and sanitation. In order to limit consumption, a system is implemented which, through the collection of both rainwater and reverse osmosis waste water, allows irrigation of farm lawns.

#### **3.1 Functional unit**

The subject of this study is a bottle of Lenza di Munti. It is necessary to list what the components of the bottle itself are: the glass bottle, the cork stopper, the label, and the aluminum cap. The supplier of glass bottles is O-I SALES. The cargo route starts from Vufflens-la-Ville (Switzerland), moves on to Aprilia (LT), and from there to Marsala (TP). At this point, the load will reach the Nicosia estates by road transport. The cork stoppers come from the Colombin company, located

 in Trieste. The company is certified: the used cork comes from Portuguese forests certified FSC. The transport of the caps takes place through the sea. The label is supplied by the company Moduli Continui s.r.l. (Padua), and transport is by road vehicles. The capsule is supplied by Enoplastic S.p.A. located in Bodio (VA); the delivery is carried out by road transport. Below, we will describe the uses and consumption of the listed parts. The final packaging consists of two elements: the cardboard containing the bottles and the packaging cellophane. The first is provided by the AICO company, Mascalucia (CT); the second, purchased in reels, is supplied by the company VIRAPACK, Acireale (CT). The Lenza di Munti is a wine intended for large retailers. Its winemaking process takes place in red and white. The first one is obtained from Nerello Mascalese and Nerello Cappuccio vines (80–20%); the second one is obtained from Carricante and Catarratto vines (60–40%). The analysis will focus on both vinification methods, generalizing the related consumption.

### **4. Results and discussion**

Before moving on to the data collection, creating a flowchart in order to summarize and outline the production plant, in order to better understand which phases of the process we should analyze, according to our interests turned to be a useful practice. This study has, therefore, highlighted the main phases of the production plant, namely the ones which need an attentive analysis of the consumption (**Figure 1**; **Tables 1** and **2**).

**Figure 1.**  *Flowchart of the production plant.*

*The Industrial Symbiosis of Wineries: An Analisys of the Wine Production Chain… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82212*

**Table 1.**

*Water consumption.*

The data collection concerning any kind of consumption of the production plant makes it possible to make a list of the values about the main Nicosia S.p.A. water and energy consumption, noticing the related impacts. As far as water consumption is concerned, it is possible to distinguish consumption in three macro consumption areas:

Microfiltration plant; Cross-flow filtration equipment; General consumption of winemaking.

 It is possible to notice that water consumption is closely connected to winemaking, since the daily consumption represents a larger amount than the week consumption of the other two activities which take advantage of water, namely microfiltration and cross-flow filtration equipment. Microfiltration is a filtration process, which removes solid particles from a fluid or from a gas, making them pass through a micro-porous membrane. Typically, the diameter of the small holes of these membranes is between 0.1 and 10 μm. In the field of winemaking, it is a process which is used in order to separate wine from all undesired substances; while, cross-flow filtration, which represents one of the most innovative processes in the field of filtration, improves the performance, not possible by any of the other processes concerning solid-liquid separation. In the field of drinks and winemaking,

**Table 2.**  *Energy consumption.*  this process aims at making perfectly transparent the product, stabilizing it microbiologically and, in case, it is necessary, eliminating partially colloides and oxidant enzymes, all in one phase. Doing so, all the following filtrations (included the centrifuge), pasteurization, and an improvement in the processes of stabilization of the product would be eliminated. This would lead to a lesser loss and manipulation of the product, saving on coadjuvants and on the cost of labour, with an overall reduction of the costs and a greater protection of the initial qualities of the product.

 Concerning energy consumption, and, consequently, the related impacts, this study as made a list of the kW consumed per month by the production plant. The consumption values highlighted are between 29,000 and 43,000 kW (specifically, the month with the minor consumption was November, while the one with the most consumption was April). The total amount of energy consumption is high and amount to about 413,000 kW per year.

In order to finish the product, thus producing the bottle of wine ready to be delivered to the consumer, it is necessary to put together some components, coming from different geographical areas.

 Consequently, this study cannot end just with the water and energy consumption. In order to have an overall view of how much impact the production of a bottle of wine has, this study has to calculate the kilometers which exist between the different components of the containers and the place where the product is bottled.

Inside an enterprise, the production of an item is not all produced by the enterprise; taking into consideration the case of Nicosia S.p.A., the main suppliers come from different regions and, in some cases, the first phase of the production of the item starts abroad (**Table 3**).

As far as the cork concerns, the raw material comes from Portugal, from certified FSC forests, that is an international certification, an independent and of third party, specific for forests and the products—wooden and nonwooden ones derived from the forests. Specifically, not only is the forest certified but also the producer located in Trieste is, in particular for the chain of custody, the certification which ensures and makes the product trackable.

The transport of the bottle's components is made by tir from many parts of Italy to Trecastagni (CT). It is important to show the table of EURO Regulation referred to the emission limits of gas and fine dust. This case study takes into consideration an EURO 5 tir (**Table 4**).

The index (g/kWh) is a unit of measurement which could be considered as both an emission or a consumption index. In particular, it measures the grams of fuel for kW in an hour of the working system in full power.

In the years, the evolution of the EURO Regulation has entailed an increase of emission limits; in particular from EURO 5 to EURO 6, the limits of NOx emission

**Table 3.**  *Distance and fuel consumption.*  *The Industrial Symbiosis of Wineries: An Analisys of the Wine Production Chain… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82212*

**Table 4.**

*EURO norm.*

**Table 5.**

*Transport emission.*

passed from 2.0 to 0.4 g/kWh, and particulate emission in EURO 6 foresees 50% less than EURO 5 (**Table 5**).

It is easy to see that the major impact on the environment is due to the NOx and particulate emissions which increase the greenhouse effect.

#### **5. Results and discussion**

 The quality of the waters is constantly monitored with analysis and controls. It also has a purifier for the waste waters of the cellar to re-insert clean water into the strata. The company also embraces three pivotal points on which the concept of sustainable development is based: economic, environmental, and social. Regarding the first aspect, the main aim is to increase the local economy through local suppliers and workers—a motivated choice also to reduce CO2 emissions in a transversal way. The second aspect is the protection of the environment, which is why the terraces in the Monte Gorna vineyards as well as dampen the impact of the water—thus reducing the possible hydrogeological risks—enhance and protect the old technique of dry lava stone walls.

 The choice of using cork stoppers is important. Thanks to this use, the demand is kept high, as following a lower demand for plugs, due to the greater use of alternative closures (synthetic and aluminum screw), there would be a sudden deforestation because the economic value of those trees it is only linked to the cork industry and to the production of corks. The cork, unlike alternative closures, is 100% sustainable, recyclable, and renewable, and it should not be forgotten that in the process of removing the bark, from which the corks are obtained, no tree is cut. A cork oak can live up to 250 years with decortic interventions every 9 years. Deforestation would also cause extensive damage to its huge ecosystem of 135 species of plants, 24 of reptiles and amphibians, 160 of birds, and 37 of mammals.

Last but not least is the environmental aspect. For 8 years, now the company has managed the care of the green in two roundabouts of the urban area of Trecastagni. The goal is to sensitize the population in the care of the common good.

#### **6. Conclusion**

It is estimated that winemaking industry involves an increase of gases in atmosphere:

152 kg of CO2/ton (for the winemaking activity).

235 kg of CO2/ton (for cellar activity).

Europe represents 60% of wine production in the world, in particular in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and France, which have a perfect climate allowing the growth of the grapes. The data of Nicosia S.p.A. represent an evident example of how it is possible to reduce impacts made by the wine production field over the environment. The company is proactive in all the chain of production. The solution is using innovative systems like cross-flow filtration equipment and cork certificated by FSC (Forest Stewardship Council).

It is clear too that there are some sources of air pollution, in particular the NOx and the particulate emitted by tir during the transports.

A solution could be using means of transport "eco-friendly" which pollute less, like tir powered by GPL, metan or electricity.

#### **Author details**

Agata Matarazzo1 \*, Fabio Copani1 , Matteo Leanza1 , Aldo Carpitano2 , Alessandro Lo Genco 1 and Graziano Nicosia<sup>2</sup>

1 Department of Economics and Business, University of Catania, Catania, Italy

2 Nicosia S.p.A., Catania, Italy

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*The Industrial Symbiosis of Wineries: An Analisys of the Wine Production Chain… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82212*

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**49**

**1. Introduction**

**Chapter 4**

**Abstract**

Perspective

End-of-Life Tire Destination

from a Life Cycle Assessment

*Ana Claudia Nioac de Salles, Leila Lea Yuan Visconte and*

Tires are complex materials manufactured from vulcanized rubber and various other reinforcing materials. One billion end-of-life tires (ELTs) are discarded annually, drawing attention from society. Options for their disposal include reuse, retreading, regeneration, co-processing, pyrolysis, and recycling; however, the ideal alternative has yet to be established. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been used to quantify their impact and support the decision-making process, in order to determine the most beneficial alternative from an environmental standpoint. Scientific studies on LCA have been carried out on different continents, mainly Europe, Asia, and America. The aim of this chapter was to review studies on the life cycle assessment of end-of-life tire disposal. The main treatment and final destination options were reviewed as well as the most important limitations and aspects of the technologies studied. The most common form of disposal is recycling, with mechanical recycling for use in synthetic grass exhibiting the best environmental performance according to scientific research. Energy recovery also shows good performance, largely due to the emissions prevented through energy conversion. Co-processed and retreaded tires are regularly used for comparison but typically display poor

*Thiago Santiago Gomes, Genecy Rezende Neto,*

environmental performance in relation to the first two alternatives.

other chemicals [4]. **Figure 1** shows the main components of a tire.

**Keywords:** life cycle assessment, rubber, final destination, recycling, impacts, tire

Approximately 1 billion unserviceable tires are discarded annually. The largest contributors are from the United States and the European Union, producing about 300 and 260 million, respectively [1–3]. Tires are a complex system containing 41% synthetic and natural rubber; up to 30 wt.% of additives such as silica and carbon black; 15 wt.% of reinforcing materials such as steel, polyester, and nylon; 6 wt.% of plasticizers and vulcanizing agents; and up to 2 wt.% of antiaging agents and

Selecting the final destination of tires requires significant knowledge and responsibility, since inappropriate disposal can result in a range of negative effects, including fires and the proliferation of mosquitoes. According to the waste

*Elen Beatriz Acordi Vasques Pacheco*