2. Dialog with the hydrological nature

Keywords: general system, hydrology system, watershed hydrology, hydrological experimentation, experimental basin, critical zone experimental block, eight trigrams,

The most difficult is that the hydrology science perhaps cannot take the natural objects to laboratory for experimental studies, but the development of hydrology will depend mostly on the field observations and experiments; even the foundation of scientific hydrology recognized by UNESCO in 1974 is not from the work in laboratory but from the two field basin studies in France [1]. The first modern basin studies commenced in Switzerland at Emmental during 1890s; after that, a multitude of basin studies have developed from many parts of the world since the early twentieth century. Following it, a period of rapid development of hydrological basin studies was resulted from the International Hydrology Decade (IHD) Representative and Experimental Basin Program 1965–1974; during this period, it is estimated that ca. 3000 experimental basins (EBs) have been conducted [2]. If we designate the first phase of basin study until ca. the middle twentieth century as the stage of foundational and the second phase during/after the IHD as the stage of developmental, which has been going on for more than five decades up to now, a third phase of renovation seems ready to come out inevitably. A paper coauthored by 12 scientists pointed out that "Yet, most field experiments and observations in watershed science to date, remain largely descriptive..., have not set out to seek fundamental truth or understanding (nor test any formal theory or hypothesis per se)" [3] while Sivapalan alarmed that "catchment hydrology is trapped in a dead-end track, a theoretical impasse" [4], but the field study also meets its risk of decline, more complicated chal-

Question was then raised that "What's wrong with the status quo" [3]? Yes, there are many objective causes to look for, e.g., "many times things do not work out, weather does not cooperate," "field studies can be difficult to publish in international journals if they are seen as case studies" [5]. "There has been a movement away from field work and towards an almost complete dependence on modeling," as "computing power has become less expensive and field work more expensive (and risky, compared to model approaches)" [6]; this impacts researchers to flinch from field study rather modeling. However, to remind of especially the inherent objective roots have the significance. Learned from Chinese decades' experiences in their field basin studies with zigzagging process [7] especially those based on the concept of experimental basin, the inherent defects have been summarized mainly as the following: (1) designs of the experimental basins have been limited by the black box concept, as well as by many misconceptions (e.g., the linearity, nonheterogeneity, additivity of hydrologic systems, etc.), (2) operation has been substantially bounded by the hydraulic conception of these watersheds as isolated hydrological systems, (3) the studies of experimental basin are focused just on the surface hydrology, and (4) all of these watershed studies monitor only total runoff at the stream-outlet, and the subsurface responses of the watershed are only estimated by

lenges, as Burt and McDonnell asked: "Field work: A dying art?" [5].

Tai-Chi Tu

228 Hydrology of Artificial and Controlled Experiments

hydrograph separation [7, 8].

1. Introduction

The hydrological experimentation appears as a dialog with the hydrological nature via designed objects aimed at knocking up its hiding doors of "black boxes" involved in for her true features. However, such a dialog seems not easy, it depends mostly on the adequate method of questioning, i.e., on the designed objects and the keys for it. Facing with the inevitable transition phase of the experimental watershed hydrology, it appears worth to have a fundamental rethinking on our previous methods of dialog, which seems challenged, sometimes having a successful beginning but becoming increasingly inadapted with the dynamic nature. In this paragraph, we will report the following: (1) from the viewpoint of general system theory based on the paralleled concepts of the ancient Chinese and the Western, it is considered that the adequate method of questioning should face with the characters of the complex dynamic system instead of previously the static, linear system, (2) from the viewpoint of the philosophy of the Middle Way ("golden mean"), based also on the paralleled concepts, it is considered that the adequate method of questioning should also face with the operation and organizing of the mesoscopic systems of organized complexity, (3) from these considerations, a suggested framework of watershed hydrological experimental system (WHES) is reported.

#### 2.1. The quest for the watershed hydrological experimental system

#### 2.1.1. What sort of system the watershed hydrology is?

A system is in general a set arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unity or organic whole, also in interaction with environment [12]. For watershed hydrology, it is essentially an open system, it is bound up with the continuous exchanges, inflow and outflow, materials and energies to maintain in a so-called steady state. The fundamental characters of it consist of twofold: (a) complexity of various constituents of the system includes mainly the components which are correlated each other in the way of nonlinear and nonsymmetric and (b) complexity of the system itself includes mainly the evolution mechanism, never being in a state of dynamic equilibrium but always in changing with also the self-organization mechanism, etc.

So the watershed hydrological experimental system (WHES) is defined as an experimental system, which is designed to dialog with the complex watershed hydrological nature, to drive opening of various door of their black boxes aimed at revealing mechanisms hidden deep in the system.

#### 2.1.2. Main components of the watershed hydrological experimental system: the Capra's parallels-1

In a radical manner, the WHES is a system of material, however refer to operation manner it is manifested itself in three aspects: (a) Mass. It is the material aspect involving "rock, soil, water, air, and living organisms" according to NRC of USA on 2001 for the components of the critical zone [13]. Magically, it happens to coincide with the ancient Chinese philosophy for nature 1000 years ago, the so-called "Five-Xing," which holds the five fundamental elements from the Earth nature ("Jin," Mu," "Shui," "Huo," and "Tu") [8]. (b) Energy and force. It is the driven aspect including external solar energy from its environment, and various inherent forces, gravity, surface tension, intermolecular forces, capillary force, etc., from material system internally itself. (c) Information. It is the philosophical aspect including organization, entropy, gene, etc. [8]. This living open system of structural dissipative processes and irreversible evolution tends to increase its entropy spontaneously and go towards disorder, even the exchange of entropy fluxes across its boundaries is continuous [14]. However, the role of feedbacks of this nonlinear system will promote "self-organization" as energy dissipates, providing opportunities for dissipating energy to act again within the system towards the direction of order. "Conservation without evolution is death. Evolution without conservation is madness" [15, 16]. The material system with "Five-Xing" can be so arranged following the Chinese general philosophical imagine thinking, the archetypal symbols of "eight trigrams" for all cosmic and human situations [8], every trigram is composed with three lines, solid ("Yang") or broken ("Yin"). Such "eight trigrams" corresponding to the "Five-Xing" in different weights (shown later) can also be the image thinking of the WHES, schematically shown in Figure 1 (left) which is quoted from Capra's book [17]. The "parallels" between modern physics and eastern mysticism has been explored firstly by him, and it is even vaguely similar to the meson octet (Figure 1, right). "The eight trigrams are symbols standing for changing transitional states; they are images that are constantly undergoing change. Attention centers not on things in their state of being—as is chiefly the case in the Occident- but upon their movements in change" (Richard Wilhelm, from [17]). "In modern physics, we have come to see the 'things' of the subatomic world in very much the same way, laying stress upon movement, change, and transformation and regarding the particles as transient stage in an ongoing cosmic process [17]."

#### 2.1.3. Boundary and environment of the watershed hydrological experimental system

It was suggested that in addition to the three operation manners: mass, energy, and information, manifested by the material system itself, there should have the fourth subjective component [12], i.e., the view of the observer. It is true e.g., in our case, for the boundary of the watershed system to be studied, it depends actually on what is the purpose of studying and largely on the view of point for the watershed system as well. During the first and second stages of basin study aforementioned, the boundary of the WHES is limited mostly by the surficial watershed, and it appears as the narrow system of interest (NSI) according to Yan et al. [12] as shown schematically in Figure 2. It holds relevantly an around environment, and a wider environment as well. For the new stage, it will be inevitably renovated into a wider system of

interest (WSI) [12], i.e., taking the critical zone as its system boundary with a much wider

Figure 2. Development of the system boundary, around environment, and wider environment of the watershed hydrological experimental system from its previous stages I and II to the renovation stage III (sketch following Yan et al. [12]

Figure 1. The eight trigrams are symbols with opposite coupled "Yin" and "Yang" lines interchanged, standing for changing transitional states. It appears as an image of the WHES (left). This pattern is even vaguely similar to the meson

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, κ, and η (right) [17].

As an open, dynamic, and evolving WHES, all of its system components ("eight trigrams") are never just the aggregate of heaps but are correlated with each other, and are merely in the transitional stages of hydrological process. "The eight trigrams therefore are not representation

2.1.4. The image thinking for the system evolution: the Capra's parallels-2

, πo , π, κ+ , κo , κo

environment involving the Earth spheres.

with explanations for our systems).

octet with different charges including π+

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opening of various door of their black boxes aimed at revealing mechanisms hidden deep in

2.1.2. Main components of the watershed hydrological experimental system: the Capra's parallels-1

the particles as transient stage in an ongoing cosmic process [17]."

2.1.3. Boundary and environment of the watershed hydrological experimental system

It was suggested that in addition to the three operation manners: mass, energy, and information, manifested by the material system itself, there should have the fourth subjective component [12], i.e., the view of the observer. It is true e.g., in our case, for the boundary of the watershed system to be studied, it depends actually on what is the purpose of studying and largely on the view of point for the watershed system as well. During the first and second stages of basin study aforementioned, the boundary of the WHES is limited mostly by the surficial watershed, and it appears as the narrow system of interest (NSI) according to Yan et al. [12] as shown schematically in Figure 2. It holds relevantly an around environment, and a wider environment as well. For the new stage, it will be inevitably renovated into a wider system of

In a radical manner, the WHES is a system of material, however refer to operation manner it is manifested itself in three aspects: (a) Mass. It is the material aspect involving "rock, soil, water, air, and living organisms" according to NRC of USA on 2001 for the components of the critical zone [13]. Magically, it happens to coincide with the ancient Chinese philosophy for nature 1000 years ago, the so-called "Five-Xing," which holds the five fundamental elements from the Earth nature ("Jin," Mu," "Shui," "Huo," and "Tu") [8]. (b) Energy and force. It is the driven aspect including external solar energy from its environment, and various inherent forces, gravity, surface tension, intermolecular forces, capillary force, etc., from material system internally itself. (c) Information. It is the philosophical aspect including organization, entropy, gene, etc. [8]. This living open system of structural dissipative processes and irreversible evolution tends to increase its entropy spontaneously and go towards disorder, even the exchange of entropy fluxes across its boundaries is continuous [14]. However, the role of feedbacks of this nonlinear system will promote "self-organization" as energy dissipates, providing opportunities for dissipating energy to act again within the system towards the direction of order. "Conservation without evolution is death. Evolution without conservation is madness" [15, 16]. The material system with "Five-Xing" can be so arranged following the Chinese general philosophical imagine thinking, the archetypal symbols of "eight trigrams" for all cosmic and human situations [8], every trigram is composed with three lines, solid ("Yang") or broken ("Yin"). Such "eight trigrams" corresponding to the "Five-Xing" in different weights (shown later) can also be the image thinking of the WHES, schematically shown in Figure 1 (left) which is quoted from Capra's book [17]. The "parallels" between modern physics and eastern mysticism has been explored firstly by him, and it is even vaguely similar to the meson octet (Figure 1, right). "The eight trigrams are symbols standing for changing transitional states; they are images that are constantly undergoing change. Attention centers not on things in their state of being—as is chiefly the case in the Occident- but upon their movements in change" (Richard Wilhelm, from [17]). "In modern physics, we have come to see the 'things' of the subatomic world in very much the same way, laying stress upon movement, change, and transformation and regarding

the system.

230 Hydrology of Artificial and Controlled Experiments

Figure 1. The eight trigrams are symbols with opposite coupled "Yin" and "Yang" lines interchanged, standing for changing transitional states. It appears as an image of the WHES (left). This pattern is even vaguely similar to the meson octet with different charges including π+ , πo , π, κ+ , κo , κo , κ, and η (right) [17].

Figure 2. Development of the system boundary, around environment, and wider environment of the watershed hydrological experimental system from its previous stages I and II to the renovation stage III (sketch following Yan et al. [12] with explanations for our systems).

interest (WSI) [12], i.e., taking the critical zone as its system boundary with a much wider environment involving the Earth spheres.

#### 2.1.4. The image thinking for the system evolution: the Capra's parallels-2

As an open, dynamic, and evolving WHES, all of its system components ("eight trigrams") are never just the aggregate of heaps but are correlated with each other, and are merely in the transitional stages of hydrological process. "The eight trigrams therefore are not representation of things as such but of their tendencies in movement" [17]. In fact, the changing items revealed in the schematic eight trigrams (left of Figure 1) are twofold, i.e., internally between different trigrams showing by lines within opposite "Yin" and "Yang," they are standing in interrelations, and externally between the system and the environment, they are standing in interrelations as well. According to the Chinese saying, it seems that "pulling one hair, the whole body is effected," e.g., a change of soil moisture even partly in the watershed will result in the changes of surface and subsurface runoff generation, the groundwater recharge, the land evapotranspiration, the living organisms, and perhaps the far-sited outlet discharge.

It was illustrated by another symbol called "Tai-Chi Tu" or "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate." It is generated by a symmetric arrangement of dark Yin and bright Yang with cyclic interplay, with fishlike image in opposition, coordination, conjunction, and in blended harmony of Yin and Yang. Such "archetypal pair of nature is the grand leitmotiv that permeates Chinese culture" [17]. Two dots imply the inherent connections of the primordial pair of opposites Yin and Yang and symbolize the idea that both contain always the "seed" of the opposite sides. The curved interface can be derived mathematically from periodicity, it also seems to be "the closest analogy to S-matrix Theory in Eastern Thought" [17] while the S-matrix Theory is "a framework which seems to be most appropriate for the description of hadrons and their interactions" [17]. Fritjof Capra used Tai-Chi Tu on the cover of his book "The Tao of Physics: an exploration of the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism" with which over 1 million copies was sold worldwide during its third edition (Figure 3a). In our case, it can be revealed for different sorts of WHES, or for subsystems, e.g., reconciliations of the WHES and the environment (Figure 3b). It is also being used recently as the book cover (Figure 3c) on the theory of irregularities [18], which is closely related to the rationale of our WHES. Niels Bohr was well aware of the parallel between his concept of complementarity and Chinese thought, when he was knighted, he had to choose a suitable motif for his coat-of-arms, his choice of feel on the Chinese symbol of Tai-Chi representing the complementary relationship of the archetypal opposites Yin and Yang. In choosing this symbol for his coat-of-arms, he also put together the inscription Contraria sunt complementa (Figure 3d) [17]. In fact "opposites are complementary" just describes a rationale of the WHES as well.

the changes of materials," "so that as long as there is material, the material will have to move" [19]. For the coupled "Tai-Chi Tu" and the "eight trigrams," time is in fact hidden in the

Figure 3. The image thinking for the system evolution based on the ancient Chinese philosophy, the "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate" (Tai-Chi Tu) and the "Eight Trigrams" (Bagua). (a) The Tai-Chi Tu Fritjof Capra used on the cover of his book [17], (b) system concept for the experimental catchment of the previous stages and the suggested new stage, (c) the Tai-Chi Tu, which OuYang and Lin used on the cover of their book of irregularities [18], (d) the Tai-Chi Tu Niels Bohr used on his coat-of-arms during he was knighted, put together with the inscription Contraria sunt complementa for his theory, (e) the coupled diagram of the Tai-Chi Tu and Eight Trigrams (Bagua). The eight trigrams are related to the five materials of system with different weights, it forms four couples with their peripheral arrangement following the philosophy of Five-Xing, in mutual promotion and restriction to each other, and (f) schematically showing the hidden parameter time, it also

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2.1.5. The mathematical descriptions for the system evolution: the Bertalanffy's differential equations The concept of changing evolution interrelated between the system components and between the system and its environment as well can be revealed by the combined eight trigrams and Tai-Chi; they are bound up with the continuing exchanges for maintaining their steady state. Such an image thinking for the system concept of interrelations was illustrated mathematically

Suppose there are n elements in a given system, Xið Þ i ¼ 1; 2; ⋯n , denoting some measure of

dt ¼ f 1 Q1; Q2; ⋯⋯Qn ð Þ

dt ¼ f 2 Q1; Q2; ⋯⋯Qn ð Þ ⋮

continuous, then the interaction between system elements can be described as follows:

, for a finite number of elements, and in the simplest case, while dQi=dt is

dt ¼ f n Q1; Q2; ⋯⋯Qn ð Þ (1)

continuous movement and evolution as schematically shown in Figure 3f.

reveals the unceasing moving of materials and the unceasing evolution of system as well.

by Ludwig Von Bertalanffy [19] and discussed by Yan et al. [12].

dQ1

dQ2

dQn

elements Xi by Qi

"Tai-Chi Tu" (Figure 3) and the "eight trigrams" (Figure 1 left) are always coupled, the eight trigrams revolved around the Tai-Chi including four couples oppositely distributed symmetrically to the circle center of Tai-Chi with their trigram lines in contrary (full or broken) with each other as shown in Figure 3e (numbers 1 and 8; 2 and 7; 3 and 6; and 4 and 5).The eight trigrams are also related to the five materials of system described both by NRC and the Five-Xing with different weights (Figure 3e). The peripheral arrangement of "eight trigrams" is strictly made according to the philosophy of Five-Xing i.e., in mutual promotion and restriction to each other to maintain dynamic balance of the system, which in fact are the initiator of the complexity and irregularity of the watershed hydrological system. However, the important parameter time of this coupled "Tai-Chi Tu" and the "eight trigrams," which is the diagram of imagine thinking for the watershed hydrological system and also that of WHES, lies deep hidden, resulted from the philosophical concept of time. Traced to the ancient Chinese concepts on time and space since 2000 years ago, OuYang S.C and Lin Y. suggested that " Time dwells in the rotational movements of materials so that it cannot exist independently outside the materials," "time is an attribute of materials so that it does not occupy any material dimension," "time is parasitic on Practice on the Watershed Hydrological Experimental System Reconciling Deterministic and Stochastic Subjects… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78721 233

of things as such but of their tendencies in movement" [17]. In fact, the changing items revealed in the schematic eight trigrams (left of Figure 1) are twofold, i.e., internally between different trigrams showing by lines within opposite "Yin" and "Yang," they are standing in interrelations, and externally between the system and the environment, they are standing in interrelations as well. According to the Chinese saying, it seems that "pulling one hair, the whole body is effected," e.g., a change of soil moisture even partly in the watershed will result in the changes of surface and subsurface runoff generation, the groundwater recharge, the land

It was illustrated by another symbol called "Tai-Chi Tu" or "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate." It is generated by a symmetric arrangement of dark Yin and bright Yang with cyclic interplay, with fishlike image in opposition, coordination, conjunction, and in blended harmony of Yin and Yang. Such "archetypal pair of nature is the grand leitmotiv that permeates Chinese culture" [17]. Two dots imply the inherent connections of the primordial pair of opposites Yin and Yang and symbolize the idea that both contain always the "seed" of the opposite sides. The curved interface can be derived mathematically from periodicity, it also seems to be "the closest analogy to S-matrix Theory in Eastern Thought" [17] while the S-matrix Theory is "a framework which seems to be most appropriate for the description of hadrons and their interactions" [17]. Fritjof Capra used Tai-Chi Tu on the cover of his book "The Tao of Physics: an exploration of the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism" with which over 1 million copies was sold worldwide during its third edition (Figure 3a). In our case, it can be revealed for different sorts of WHES, or for subsystems, e.g., reconciliations of the WHES and the environment (Figure 3b). It is also being used recently as the book cover (Figure 3c) on the theory of irregularities [18], which is closely related to the rationale of our WHES. Niels Bohr was well aware of the parallel between his concept of complementarity and Chinese thought, when he was knighted, he had to choose a suitable motif for his coat-of-arms, his choice of feel on the Chinese symbol of Tai-Chi representing the complementary relationship of the archetypal opposites Yin and Yang. In choosing this symbol for his coat-of-arms, he also put together the inscription Contraria sunt complementa (Figure 3d) [17]. In fact "opposites

"Tai-Chi Tu" (Figure 3) and the "eight trigrams" (Figure 1 left) are always coupled, the eight trigrams revolved around the Tai-Chi including four couples oppositely distributed symmetrically to the circle center of Tai-Chi with their trigram lines in contrary (full or broken) with each other as shown in Figure 3e (numbers 1 and 8; 2 and 7; 3 and 6; and 4 and 5).The eight trigrams are also related to the five materials of system described both by NRC and the Five-Xing with different weights (Figure 3e). The peripheral arrangement of "eight trigrams" is strictly made according to the philosophy of Five-Xing i.e., in mutual promotion and restriction to each other to maintain dynamic balance of the system, which in fact are the initiator of the complexity and irregularity of the watershed hydrological system. However, the important parameter time of this coupled "Tai-Chi Tu" and the "eight trigrams," which is the diagram of imagine thinking for the watershed hydrological system and also that of WHES, lies deep hidden, resulted from the philosophical concept of time. Traced to the ancient Chinese concepts on time and space since 2000 years ago, OuYang S.C and Lin Y. suggested that " Time dwells in the rotational movements of materials so that it cannot exist independently outside the materials," "time is an attribute of materials so that it does not occupy any material dimension," "time is parasitic on

evapotranspiration, the living organisms, and perhaps the far-sited outlet discharge.

232 Hydrology of Artificial and Controlled Experiments

are complementary" just describes a rationale of the WHES as well.

Figure 3. The image thinking for the system evolution based on the ancient Chinese philosophy, the "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate" (Tai-Chi Tu) and the "Eight Trigrams" (Bagua). (a) The Tai-Chi Tu Fritjof Capra used on the cover of his book [17], (b) system concept for the experimental catchment of the previous stages and the suggested new stage, (c) the Tai-Chi Tu, which OuYang and Lin used on the cover of their book of irregularities [18], (d) the Tai-Chi Tu Niels Bohr used on his coat-of-arms during he was knighted, put together with the inscription Contraria sunt complementa for his theory, (e) the coupled diagram of the Tai-Chi Tu and Eight Trigrams (Bagua). The eight trigrams are related to the five materials of system with different weights, it forms four couples with their peripheral arrangement following the philosophy of Five-Xing, in mutual promotion and restriction to each other, and (f) schematically showing the hidden parameter time, it also reveals the unceasing moving of materials and the unceasing evolution of system as well.

the changes of materials," "so that as long as there is material, the material will have to move" [19]. For the coupled "Tai-Chi Tu" and the "eight trigrams," time is in fact hidden in the continuous movement and evolution as schematically shown in Figure 3f.

#### 2.1.5. The mathematical descriptions for the system evolution: the Bertalanffy's differential equations

The concept of changing evolution interrelated between the system components and between the system and its environment as well can be revealed by the combined eight trigrams and Tai-Chi; they are bound up with the continuing exchanges for maintaining their steady state. Such an image thinking for the system concept of interrelations was illustrated mathematically by Ludwig Von Bertalanffy [19] and discussed by Yan et al. [12].

Suppose there are n elements in a given system, Xið Þ i ¼ 1; 2; ⋯n , denoting some measure of elements Xi by Qi , for a finite number of elements, and in the simplest case, while dQi=dt is continuous, then the interaction between system elements can be described as follows:

$$\frac{dQ\_1}{dt} = f\_1(Q\_1, Q\_2, \cdots, \cdots, Q\_n)$$

$$\frac{dQ\_2}{dt} = f\_2(Q\_1, Q\_2, \cdots, \cdots, Q\_n)$$

$$\vdots$$

$$\frac{dQ\_n}{dt} = f\_n(Q\_1, Q\_2, \cdots, \cdots, Q\_n) \tag{1}$$

It follows that the change of any measure Qi, i.e., dQi dt , therefore, is a function of all Q0 s, from Q1 to Qn, conversely, change of any Qi in the right side of above equation will introduce the change of other elements (dQj dt Þ and of the system as a whole. It also reveals that not only the Q1, acts on Qj, i.e., Q1 is the cause and Qj is the effect, but also Qj will act on Q1 that also existed, they are in causation. It means a feedback, a cycle causation, e.g., the soil and the plant in our system. Furthermore, such an interaction of causation and feedback existed not only for several elements of the system but also for all of the elements, it in fact reveals the systematicness and complexity [12, 19].

The foregoing considerations are a set of n simultaneously first-order differential equation called dynamic equations or equations of motion of the system [19]. In order to avoid expressing it in partial differential and integro-differential equations, the above equation abstracts from spatial and temporal conditions, the previous history of the system, etc., even so, it is quite useful for discussing several general system properties [19].

#### 2.2. The middle-ground perspective for the watershed hydrological experimental system

2.2.2. The middle-ground perspective: one of another parallels

artificial physical models.

For the intermediate, it seems hackneyed, e.g., the story of "Boucle d'or les trios ours"; however, for its scientific solution, it seems inevitably to contact with the philosophical concepts about it. In fact as said early by Aristotle, he termed "the golden mean between two extremes of character" in Book IV of his Ethics. Comparing with Dichotomy(dimidiate thinking) in Western philosophy, the Chinese philosophical mode can be illuminated by the middle-ground perspective, the mid-view thinking, with core concept of "holding the two extremes and using the middle impartial," "using the middle impartial for the understanding of the two extremes" [23]. In fact, it happens as a general mode for treating everything both socially and scientifically, "too tight a string will easily be broken while too loose will bring no music" as the saying

Figure 4. (a) A schematic representation of the complexities adapted from Weinberg [21], Dooge [22], and Sivapalan [4] and (b) there is a gap between the two extremes in watershed hydrological experiments with mostly natural EBs and

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goes. Parallely, there is also a central concept of "mid-view thinking" in Buddhism [24].

Down to watershed hydrological experiments, the intermediate gap (Figure 4b) between the deterministic and stochastic extremes is actually a strategic weakness of it; perhaps it may hamper the progress for getting a "unified theory of hydrology at the catchment scale" as Sivapalan has described [4]. It is, thus, very desirable to fill up such a gap, to have new intermediate experimental entities for the watershed music based on the middle-ground-perspective (MGP) concept. For watershed hydrological experiments, here we refer the entities of deterministic paradigm as the micros (Micro), that of stochastic the macros (Macro), in between the mesos (Meso), from MGP concept; three characters of this intermediate system can be specified as following: (1) character of Trichotomy: MGP viewed: these are the hierarchies of the whole system, i.e., the Meso contains both the information of Micro and Macro, Meso is composed by Micro but also is the subsystem of Macro; (2) character of intermediate: Meso system acts as the bridging

#### 2.2.1. System categories by complexity

In his frontier paper of 1948 on "Science and complexity" [20], Warren Weaver first proposed three terms on complexity: "Problem of simplicity," refers mostly to the physical sciences for study problems, which involved two variables or at most three or four; "Problems of disorganized complexity," referred as "a problem in which the number of variables is very large, and one in which each of the many variables has a behavior, which is individually erratic, or perhaps totally unknown"; and what he emphasized was the middle region, the "Problems of organized complexity," with moderate number of variables involved, the really important characteristic of the problems of this middle region "lies in the fact that these problems, as contrasted with the disorganized situations with which statistics can cope, show the essential feature of organization" [20]. Later on 1975, Weinberg described these terms as "organized simplicity (mechanisms)," "unorganized complexity (aggregates)," and "organized complexity (complex systems)" [21] as shown in the II, I, and III of Figure 4a, respectively. Dooge emphasized this middle region as intermediate systems, and he pointed out that "most problems arising in catchment hydrology fall in the category of complex systems with some degree of organization," and "a theory of complexity based on the concept of reality as intermediate between determinism and randomness" has emerged [22].

As for the basin studies in China within last decades, it has been conducted mostly by using of the representative basin (RB) and experimental basin (EB) proclaimed by the first IHD more than 50 years ago, and by using of some kinds of artificial physical models e.g., the soil column. It appears that the important intermediate system (III in Figure 4b) described by Weaver and Dooge is actually a vast gap in between the two extremes, "unorganized complexity (aggregates)" and "organized simplicity (mechanisms)" (I and II in Figure 4, respectively) for the watershed hydrological experiments [14, 8].

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Figure 4. (a) A schematic representation of the complexities adapted from Weinberg [21], Dooge [22], and Sivapalan [4] and (b) there is a gap between the two extremes in watershed hydrological experiments with mostly natural EBs and artificial physical models.

#### 2.2.2. The middle-ground perspective: one of another parallels

It follows that the change of any measure Qi, i.e., dQi

change of other elements (dQj

234 Hydrology of Artificial and Controlled Experiments

ness and complexity [12, 19].

2.2.1. System categories by complexity

determinism and randomness" has emerged [22].

watershed hydrological experiments [14, 8].

dt , therefore, is a function of all Q0

dt Þ and of the system as a whole. It also reveals that not only the

to Qn, conversely, change of any Qi in the right side of above equation will introduce the

Q1, acts on Qj, i.e., Q1 is the cause and Qj is the effect, but also Qj will act on Q1 that also existed, they are in causation. It means a feedback, a cycle causation, e.g., the soil and the plant in our system. Furthermore, such an interaction of causation and feedback existed not only for several elements of the system but also for all of the elements, it in fact reveals the systematic-

The foregoing considerations are a set of n simultaneously first-order differential equation called dynamic equations or equations of motion of the system [19]. In order to avoid expressing it in partial differential and integro-differential equations, the above equation abstracts from spatial and temporal conditions, the previous history of the system, etc., even

2.2. The middle-ground perspective for the watershed hydrological experimental system

In his frontier paper of 1948 on "Science and complexity" [20], Warren Weaver first proposed three terms on complexity: "Problem of simplicity," refers mostly to the physical sciences for study problems, which involved two variables or at most three or four; "Problems of disorganized complexity," referred as "a problem in which the number of variables is very large, and one in which each of the many variables has a behavior, which is individually erratic, or perhaps totally unknown"; and what he emphasized was the middle region, the "Problems of organized complexity," with moderate number of variables involved, the really important characteristic of the problems of this middle region "lies in the fact that these problems, as contrasted with the disorganized situations with which statistics can cope, show the essential feature of organization" [20]. Later on 1975, Weinberg described these terms as "organized simplicity (mechanisms)," "unorganized complexity (aggregates)," and "organized complexity (complex systems)" [21] as shown in the II, I, and III of Figure 4a, respectively. Dooge emphasized this middle region as intermediate systems, and he pointed out that "most problems arising in catchment hydrology fall in the category of complex systems with some degree of organization," and "a theory of complexity based on the concept of reality as intermediate between

As for the basin studies in China within last decades, it has been conducted mostly by using of the representative basin (RB) and experimental basin (EB) proclaimed by the first IHD more than 50 years ago, and by using of some kinds of artificial physical models e.g., the soil column. It appears that the important intermediate system (III in Figure 4b) described by Weaver and Dooge is actually a vast gap in between the two extremes, "unorganized complexity (aggregates)" and "organized simplicity (mechanisms)" (I and II in Figure 4, respectively) for the

so, it is quite useful for discussing several general system properties [19].

s, from Q1

For the intermediate, it seems hackneyed, e.g., the story of "Boucle d'or les trios ours"; however, for its scientific solution, it seems inevitably to contact with the philosophical concepts about it. In fact as said early by Aristotle, he termed "the golden mean between two extremes of character" in Book IV of his Ethics. Comparing with Dichotomy(dimidiate thinking) in Western philosophy, the Chinese philosophical mode can be illuminated by the middle-ground perspective, the mid-view thinking, with core concept of "holding the two extremes and using the middle impartial," "using the middle impartial for the understanding of the two extremes" [23]. In fact, it happens as a general mode for treating everything both socially and scientifically, "too tight a string will easily be broken while too loose will bring no music" as the saying goes. Parallely, there is also a central concept of "mid-view thinking" in Buddhism [24].

Down to watershed hydrological experiments, the intermediate gap (Figure 4b) between the deterministic and stochastic extremes is actually a strategic weakness of it; perhaps it may hamper the progress for getting a "unified theory of hydrology at the catchment scale" as Sivapalan has described [4]. It is, thus, very desirable to fill up such a gap, to have new intermediate experimental entities for the watershed music based on the middle-ground-perspective (MGP) concept. For watershed hydrological experiments, here we refer the entities of deterministic paradigm as the micros (Micro), that of stochastic the macros (Macro), in between the mesos (Meso), from MGP concept; three characters of this intermediate system can be specified as following: (1) character of Trichotomy: MGP viewed: these are the hierarchies of the whole system, i.e., the Meso contains both the information of Micro and Macro, Meso is composed by Micro but also is the subsystem of Macro; (2) character of intermediate: Meso system acts as the bridging between Micro and Macro, bridging not just means a passageway as current concept revealed, but intermediary and reconciliation independently; and (3) character of Hypercycle: as a manifestation of both self-organization and feedback, it composed of four interrelated cycles, i.e., Micro \$ Meso, Micro \$ Macro, Meso \$ Macro, and Micro \$ Meso \$ Macro (Figure 5) [25].

#### 2.2.3. Target of the watershed hydrological experimental system (WHES) and its setting

Learned from the field experiments on watershed hydrology since 1953 in China [7], great efforts have been exerted for "getting right answers [11]" on engineering hydrology, facing with the changing environment since then and lots of new raised water problems coupling with misconceptions, and "in an era of largely model-only research" [5], it needs to have further understanding on scientific hydrology for "the right reasons [11]." The WEHS will specifically target the tests of outrageous hydrological hypotheses, and the generation of theories as Burt and McDonnell [5] and Sivaplan [4] have called upon.

We can take a diagonal in the space of complexity versus randomness of Figure 4a, and replotting it in Figure 6a and b with arbitrary points L, A, C, and N (Figure 6b) for the sake of discussions later. Aforementioned natural experimental watersheds are falling in the region I (Figures 4 and 6), represented by N in Figure 6b; it possess main characteristics of an adaptive complex system, and it is defined in Figure 5 as the "macro." In addition, L1 and L2 in Figure 6b are in the region II with lowermost randomness and complexity, which is also defined in Figure 5 as the "micro." Evidently, the watershed as a whole cannot be understood directly from individual parts of its own, i.e., from the "micro" leap forward to the "macro." The requirement of the intermediate "meso" system is then emerged as have discussed. So the questioning of strategy of setting WHES is then shifted to the "meso" system.

fact has been used for decades worldwide. However, as McDonnell coauthored by 11 hydrologists pointed out that "Yet, most field experiments and observations in watershed science to date, remain largely descriptive" [3]. It gives rise to assuming that the impact of the complexities existed inherently within natural watersheds even in different scales? Very likely, yes. The source of complexity very likely is attributed to the materials composing the entity system (five materials provided by NRC, USA, and the Five Xing of ancient China) as have argued in a book related to postmodern science that "irregularity just is the basic attribute of materials [26]." By the way, one of our works suggested that the existence of vadose zone appears as the main complexity source to watershed hydrology [27]. It follows that the inherent complexities of natural catchment cannot be avoided except moving away its constituent materials. Nevertheless, making constrains for the complexity seems not impossible, if so, the N in Figure 6b could be moved apart from that position with a higher complexity to a lower complexity at e.g., C or even A as shown in Figure 6b. For this purpose, several possibilities are suggested under the prerequisites of keeping conformance with the main characteristics of complex system, i.e., taking system theory as the framework. The idea of "constrain complexity"

Figure 6. (a) Re-plotting diagonal in the space of complexity versus randomness of Figure 4a, (b) the organization of the

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Classic reductionist framework prefers that the phenomena can be explained completely in terms of relations between other more fundamental phenomena, and to reduce explanations to the smallest entities. It appears as the method of explaining macroscopic properties in terms of microscopic components. General system theory is opposite to such kind of approaches, simply

appeared first in the paper of Sivapalan ([4], p. 206; Figure 6).

<IP_ADDRESS>. Hierarchical subsystems

WHES, and (c) different treatments for the WHES.

#### 2.2.4. Strategy of "constrain complexity"

There is a particular difficulty raised to the hydrologists that no possibility for taking the research entity, natural catchment, as a whole to their laboratory for experimental research as many other natural science did, the only way out is to work on the EBs in the field, which in

Figure 5. Mechanism of hypercycle among micro, meso, and macro based on the middle-ground-perspective of system [25].

Practice on the Watershed Hydrological Experimental System Reconciling Deterministic and Stochastic Subjects… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78721 237

Figure 6. (a) Re-plotting diagonal in the space of complexity versus randomness of Figure 4a, (b) the organization of the WHES, and (c) different treatments for the WHES.

fact has been used for decades worldwide. However, as McDonnell coauthored by 11 hydrologists pointed out that "Yet, most field experiments and observations in watershed science to date, remain largely descriptive" [3]. It gives rise to assuming that the impact of the complexities existed inherently within natural watersheds even in different scales? Very likely, yes. The source of complexity very likely is attributed to the materials composing the entity system (five materials provided by NRC, USA, and the Five Xing of ancient China) as have argued in a book related to postmodern science that "irregularity just is the basic attribute of materials [26]." By the way, one of our works suggested that the existence of vadose zone appears as the main complexity source to watershed hydrology [27]. It follows that the inherent complexities of natural catchment cannot be avoided except moving away its constituent materials. Nevertheless, making constrains for the complexity seems not impossible, if so, the N in Figure 6b could be moved apart from that position with a higher complexity to a lower complexity at e.g., C or even A as shown in Figure 6b. For this purpose, several possibilities are suggested under the prerequisites of keeping conformance with the main characteristics of complex system, i.e., taking system theory as the framework. The idea of "constrain complexity" appeared first in the paper of Sivapalan ([4], p. 206; Figure 6).

#### <IP_ADDRESS>. Hierarchical subsystems

between Micro and Macro, bridging not just means a passageway as current concept revealed, but intermediary and reconciliation independently; and (3) character of Hypercycle: as a manifestation of both self-organization and feedback, it composed of four interrelated cycles, i.e., Micro \$

Learned from the field experiments on watershed hydrology since 1953 in China [7], great efforts have been exerted for "getting right answers [11]" on engineering hydrology, facing with the changing environment since then and lots of new raised water problems coupling with misconceptions, and "in an era of largely model-only research" [5], it needs to have further understanding on scientific hydrology for "the right reasons [11]." The WEHS will specifically target the tests of outrageous hydrological hypotheses, and the generation of

We can take a diagonal in the space of complexity versus randomness of Figure 4a, and replotting it in Figure 6a and b with arbitrary points L, A, C, and N (Figure 6b) for the sake of discussions later. Aforementioned natural experimental watersheds are falling in the region I (Figures 4 and 6), represented by N in Figure 6b; it possess main characteristics of an adaptive complex system, and it is defined in Figure 5 as the "macro." In addition, L1 and L2 in Figure 6b are in the region II with lowermost randomness and complexity, which is also defined in Figure 5 as the "micro." Evidently, the watershed as a whole cannot be understood directly from individual parts of its own, i.e., from the "micro" leap forward to the "macro." The requirement of the intermediate "meso" system is then emerged as have discussed. So the

There is a particular difficulty raised to the hydrologists that no possibility for taking the research entity, natural catchment, as a whole to their laboratory for experimental research as many other natural science did, the only way out is to work on the EBs in the field, which in

Figure 5. Mechanism of hypercycle among micro, meso, and macro based on the middle-ground-perspective of system [25].

Meso, Micro \$ Macro, Meso \$ Macro, and Micro \$ Meso \$ Macro (Figure 5) [25].

2.2.3. Target of the watershed hydrological experimental system (WHES) and its setting

theories as Burt and McDonnell [5] and Sivaplan [4] have called upon.

questioning of strategy of setting WHES is then shifted to the "meso" system.

2.2.4. Strategy of "constrain complexity"

236 Hydrology of Artificial and Controlled Experiments

Classic reductionist framework prefers that the phenomena can be explained completely in terms of relations between other more fundamental phenomena, and to reduce explanations to the smallest entities. It appears as the method of explaining macroscopic properties in terms of microscopic components. General system theory is opposite to such kind of approaches, simply

because of the basal principle: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts" [19]. It can be shown also from Bertalanffy's differential equations if we take its simplest case with two inputs Q1 and Q2, after developing dQ1 dt and dQ2 dt in Taylor series, the results will not obey linear additive but a series of higher order terms left, it gives the index to self-organization and feedback mechanisms, which is not explainable from the characteristics of isolated smallest parts. It was also remarked sharply early by Toffler that "One of the most highly developed skills in contemporary Western civilization is dissection: the split-up of problems into their smallest possible components. We are good at it. So good, we often forget to put the pieces back together again…In this way we can ignore the complex interactions between our problem and the rest of the universe" [28].

The framework suggested here is based on two essential features of the organized complex system: (1) the concept of hierarchical order. It is obviously "a mainstay of general system theory," "it is intimately connected with those of differentiation, evolution, and the measure of organization," and "the hierarchical order and dynamics may be the very same" [19]. In graph theory, hierarchical order can be expressed by "trees," (2) the existence of complex interactions as described by Toffler. It is also the key characteristic of complex system. "A system or 'organized complexity' may be circumscribed by the existence of 'strong interactions' or interactions, which are 'nontrivial' i.e., nonlinear" [19].

2.2.5. Strategy of "add complexity"

Figure 7. A schematic diagram of a system (adapted from Yan [12], revised).

generation mechanisms of surface runoff [27].

The artificial physical model e.g., the soil column, is another extreme measure that the current hydrological experimentation studies go for, as shown schematically by L2 in Figure 6b. In fact, it is the measure with which many fundamental laws in hydrology; e.g., the Darcy's law and Fick's law were derived from, i.e., in small-scale physics and in simplifications, which is very different from real natural behaviors. Blöschl clearly noted that "in the Darcy example, the geometry of soil pores is far more complex than a bundle of tubes," "but at larger scales where the equations apply the media are considered uniform." [31]. Beven and Germann challenged the Richards equation that "may be predicated on the wrong experimental method for natural conditions" [32]. Sivapalan pointed out that "However, it is often overlooked that the constituent process theories are essentially derived at the laboratory or small scales. They are underpinned by assumptions of homogeneity, uniformity, and time invariance of various flow paths, over the land surface and in channels, and through soils and vegetation" [4]. Despite all of these recognitions, however, modern approaches for modeling hydrologic systems still have to use these problematic equations and "go further and further down the rabbit hole of model uncertainty estimation" [5]. Aimed at tests of outrageous hydrological hypotheses, and the generation of theories [4, 5], it needs to take the upward approach defined by Klemes as "attempts to combine, by mathematical synthesis, the empirical facts and theoretical knowledge available at a lower level of scale into theories capable of predicting events to be expected at a higher, in our case at a hydrological level" [33]. As an example following his idea, for the "10 different formulas for estimating infiltration" [4], the experimentation was extended from the classic one-dimensional scale to two- and three-dimensional scales, i.e., from the lower level schematically as L2 in Figure 6b extended to e.g., L1, etc., and it reveals the "add complexity." In our work, the different phenomena got from threedimensional infiltration experiments were then used to the explanation of one of the

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Here, the suggested subsystem framework, the hierarchical order, is similar to a sort of the reductionism framework, i.e., the "hierarchical reductionism" introduced by Richard Dawkins to describe the opinion that complex system can be described with a hierarchy of organizations, each of which is only described in terms of objects one level down in the hierarchy [29]. However in our case, not only the level down but feedbacks as Robert Ulanowicz had suggested that "science must develop techniques to study ways in which larger scales of organization influence smaller ones, and also ways in which feedback loops create structure at a given level, independently of details at a lower level of organization" [30]. In order to illustrate the difference between "hierarchical reductionism" and classic reductionism, a schematic diagram of a system is used following Yan [12] as the S in Figure 7, it is composed with hierarchically different subsystems S1s, S2s, S3s, etc., while the classic reductionism composes the splitting elements of natural system, i.e., instead of these interrelated subsystems but the different elements in series (Es in Figure 7). Hierarchical subsystems will have lower complexities hierarchically compared with the holistic system S as in Figure 7. We take this as the way of constrain complexity, it is schematically shown as the A in Figure 6b, A is interacted with both C, N of higher levels and L of lower levels, and with feedbacks as well.

#### <IP_ADDRESS>. Reduce the number of system elements

Referring to Bertalanffy's differential equations aforementioned, another way for constrain complexity is trying to reduce the number of elements of the hierarchical subsystems, i.e., the n in his equations. There may be several choices: (1) reduce the number of inflow and/or the number of outflow (I and O in Figure 7), (2) reduce the variabilities of some of its elements, e.g., making some or all of the inflow process, e.g., that of water amount and water hydrochemistry of hierarchical subsystems in regular type or in organized patterns, (3) reduce the number of effective parameters from the around environment (Figure 2) of hierarchical subsystems, etc.

Practice on the Watershed Hydrological Experimental System Reconciling Deterministic and Stochastic Subjects… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78721 239

Figure 7. A schematic diagram of a system (adapted from Yan [12], revised).

#### 2.2.5. Strategy of "add complexity"

because of the basal principle: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts" [19]. It can be shown also from Bertalanffy's differential equations if we take its simplest case with two inputs Q1 and Q2,

of higher order terms left, it gives the index to self-organization and feedback mechanisms, which is not explainable from the characteristics of isolated smallest parts. It was also remarked sharply early by Toffler that "One of the most highly developed skills in contemporary Western civilization is dissection: the split-up of problems into their smallest possible components. We are good at it. So good, we often forget to put the pieces back together again…In this way we can

The framework suggested here is based on two essential features of the organized complex system: (1) the concept of hierarchical order. It is obviously "a mainstay of general system theory," "it is intimately connected with those of differentiation, evolution, and the measure of organization," and "the hierarchical order and dynamics may be the very same" [19]. In graph theory, hierarchical order can be expressed by "trees," (2) the existence of complex interactions as described by Toffler. It is also the key characteristic of complex system. "A system or 'organized complexity' may be circumscribed by the existence of 'strong interac-

Here, the suggested subsystem framework, the hierarchical order, is similar to a sort of the reductionism framework, i.e., the "hierarchical reductionism" introduced by Richard Dawkins to describe the opinion that complex system can be described with a hierarchy of organizations, each of which is only described in terms of objects one level down in the hierarchy [29]. However in our case, not only the level down but feedbacks as Robert Ulanowicz had suggested that "science must develop techniques to study ways in which larger scales of organization influence smaller ones, and also ways in which feedback loops create structure at a given level, independently of details at a lower level of organization" [30]. In order to illustrate the difference between "hierarchical reductionism" and classic reductionism, a schematic diagram of a system is used following Yan [12] as the S in Figure 7, it is composed with hierarchically different subsystems S1s, S2s, S3s, etc., while the classic reductionism composes the splitting elements of natural system, i.e., instead of these interrelated subsystems but the different elements in series (Es in Figure 7). Hierarchical subsystems will have lower complexities hierarchically compared with the holistic system S as in Figure 7. We take this as the way of constrain complexity, it is schematically shown as the A in Figure 6b, A is interacted with

ignore the complex interactions between our problem and the rest of the universe" [28].

tions' or interactions, which are 'nontrivial' i.e., nonlinear" [19].

both C, N of higher levels and L of lower levels, and with feedbacks as well.

Referring to Bertalanffy's differential equations aforementioned, another way for constrain complexity is trying to reduce the number of elements of the hierarchical subsystems, i.e., the n in his equations. There may be several choices: (1) reduce the number of inflow and/or the number of outflow (I and O in Figure 7), (2) reduce the variabilities of some of its elements, e.g., making some or all of the inflow process, e.g., that of water amount and water hydrochemistry of hierarchical subsystems in regular type or in organized patterns, (3) reduce the number of effective parameters from the around environment (Figure 2) of hierarchical subsystems, etc.

<IP_ADDRESS>. Reduce the number of system elements

dt in Taylor series, the results will not obey linear additive but a series

after developing dQ1

dt and dQ2

238 Hydrology of Artificial and Controlled Experiments

The artificial physical model e.g., the soil column, is another extreme measure that the current hydrological experimentation studies go for, as shown schematically by L2 in Figure 6b. In fact, it is the measure with which many fundamental laws in hydrology; e.g., the Darcy's law and Fick's law were derived from, i.e., in small-scale physics and in simplifications, which is very different from real natural behaviors. Blöschl clearly noted that "in the Darcy example, the geometry of soil pores is far more complex than a bundle of tubes," "but at larger scales where the equations apply the media are considered uniform." [31]. Beven and Germann challenged the Richards equation that "may be predicated on the wrong experimental method for natural conditions" [32]. Sivapalan pointed out that "However, it is often overlooked that the constituent process theories are essentially derived at the laboratory or small scales. They are underpinned by assumptions of homogeneity, uniformity, and time invariance of various flow paths, over the land surface and in channels, and through soils and vegetation" [4]. Despite all of these recognitions, however, modern approaches for modeling hydrologic systems still have to use these problematic equations and "go further and further down the rabbit hole of model uncertainty estimation" [5]. Aimed at tests of outrageous hydrological hypotheses, and the generation of theories [4, 5], it needs to take the upward approach defined by Klemes as "attempts to combine, by mathematical synthesis, the empirical facts and theoretical knowledge available at a lower level of scale into theories capable of predicting events to be expected at a higher, in our case at a hydrological level" [33]. As an example following his idea, for the "10 different formulas for estimating infiltration" [4], the experimentation was extended from the classic one-dimensional scale to two- and three-dimensional scales, i.e., from the lower level schematically as L2 in Figure 6b extended to e.g., L1, etc., and it reveals the "add complexity." In our work, the different phenomena got from threedimensional infiltration experiments were then used to the explanation of one of the generation mechanisms of surface runoff [27].

#### 2.2.6. Strategy of manipulation

Remember the warning from Werner Heisenberg that, "what we observe is not nature herself, but nature exposed to our method of questioning," as we have experienced that for achieving our goal of watershed hydrological experimentation, tests of outrageous hydrological hypotheses, and for the generation of theories, it appears very difficult to rely only upon the natural EBs even in small scale due to its inherent complexities. However, the natural EBs are indispensable for achieving the goals. A possible solution for this knot maybe taking some actions that are compelling instead to let it be. What follows that the way of constrain complexity and add complexity is never just for the natural entities but also for the manipulated natural entities. It may have two ways as experienced:

extension of WHES. As have experienced that for identification, evaluation, and quantification of the interactions between hierarchical subsystems, it needs working on the molecular level and nuclear level for both water and its material mediums, i.e., their isotopic and hydrochemical processes. So the role of it is not merely for getting reference data but for

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As schematically shown in Figure 6b, it includes three levels with both complexity and

1. High level: composed by pure natural EBs, the "macros" of WHES represented by N in

2. Intermediate level: composed by intermediate chain, the "mesos" of WHES represented by C and A in Figure 6b: the controlled-natural entities and the artificial-natural entities,

3. Low level: composed by pure artificial chain, the "micros" of WHES represented by L1, L2

4. Extension of WHES: the laboratory for geochemical processes by water tracing for all entities. There are different treatments for different organization levels of WHES as shown in Figure 6c. Only the "micro" level of WHES is linear, and a small part of the "meso" level, which is very close to the "micro" level is quasilinear or linearizable, these two parts can be treated by Newtonian dynamic methods. For the large-scale river basin, it belongs to the hydrometric monitoring network (HN) (Figure 6b), statistics will be the dominate method. In most of the intermediate chain, the "meso" level of WHES (Figure 6b) should be treated by nonlinear

The idea for the necessity of an experimental system for watershed hydrology [7, 34] was summarized from the decades working on field basin studies since the operation of the first hydrological experimental station in China, the Bluebrook, which was established in 1953 [35]. The dream of a WHES finally came to reality with the establishment of the Chuzhou hydrology laboratory (CHL) in 1978 by the Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institutes of the Chinese Ministry of Water Resources on the basis of the Chengxi Runoff Experimental Station established on 1962 with three experimental watersheds. This Chuzhou WHES was designed including both artificial and natural entities of different scales as shown in Figure 8a, within which, most of them have established, few of them are in modified and renewed after an interruption of many years. This WHES is settled in a natural Bloomhill (Hua-Shan) watershed (Figure 8b), with surficial drainage area of 82.1 km2 since 1962, 80.0 km2 since 1998 due to a hydraulic engineering. This basin is situated at the upstream area of a river named as the Western Stream of Chuzhou, which was described in an ancient poem of Tang Dynasty by Wei Ying-Wu (737–792) which most Chinese pupil can recite. In the meantime within such a

opening another door for the understanding of the hierarchical subsystems.

3.2. Organization and treatment of the WHES

Figure 6b

respectively.

in Figure 6b.

dynamic methods.

randomness from high to low, and an extension part:

3.3. The WHES of Chuzhou hydrology laboratory

It may come down to a point that for tapping their potential, both the strategy of constrain complexity and add complexity based on the middle-ground perspective still needs to have the wind at their back, the measures of manipulation.


**4. Hydrophilic or hydrophobic**

The term 'hydrophobe' (hydrophobic) is borrowed from ancient Greek (hẏdor = water and phob = repellent). Hydrophobic describes a water-repellent property of a substance. This means that the substance does not dissolve in water and cannot be wetted by water. The term 'hydrophil' (hydrophilic) is also borrowed from the ancient Greek

**Figure 5.** *Contact angle measurement: superhydrophobic, P. Körber.*

**Figure 6.** *Contact angle measurement: hydrophobic, P. Körber.*

**Figure 7.** *Contact angle measurement: hydrophilic, P. Körber.*

*Investigation on Building Materials with the SEM in the ESEM Mode to Demonstrate… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104292*

(hẏdor = water and phílos = loving). Hydrophilic means that a substance is water-friendly, water-loving. Hydrophilic describes a water-accepting property of a substance. This means that the substance can be dissolved in water and wetted with water (**Figures 5**–**7**).

### **5. Investigations in the ESEM on building materials**

The examination method described here for building materials in the ESEM can be used in particular for the question in the hydrophobicity of the substance to be examined. During the investigation in the ESEM, condensation processes are carried out, which provide information on how water-absorbent the examined substance is [23].

The procedure for examining building materials in the ESEM is explained below on the basis of a subsequent waterproofing of capillary building materials using injection agents. Such an injection method is used in particular in historic buildings made of solid building materials and in renovations [9].

Investigations in the ESEM are particularly useful when the question arises to what extent a building material is capillary-active or to what extent the capillarity of the building material has changed. Such changes are conceivable, for example, through the use of injection agents in building waterproofing. In the case of injection agent seals, for example, on brick masonry, the penetration of the injection agent changes the capillarity of the building material in such a way that the transfer of water in the building material is impeded or prevented. In this way, it is possible to subsequently create a cross-section seal in masonry walls. For such a procedure, it is necessary to prove the changed capillarity of the building material. This proof documents the sealing success. In this respect, the condensation in the ESEM is predestined to provide evidence for the use of injection agents for the subsequent sealing. The advantage of the examination method in the ESEM is that very small sample quantities can be evaluated in a very short time. The ESEM investigations on building materials are therefore qualitative, microscopic (imaging) detection methods. In addition to these microscopic methods, there are also macroscopic detection methods to investigate the changed capillarity in building materials [24–29].

The qualitative microscopic (imaging) detection method in the ESEM as described here can also be used by verifying the macroscopic, also qualitative, detection methods. It can provide comprehensive information about the changes in the capillary building material under the influence of the injection agent used.

Furthermore, the extent to which an injection material was used at all and to which the building material now exhibits hydrophobic properties after use can be verified. With the exact measurements, the hydrophobicity of the building material can be gradually verified. A comparative examination of the building material before and after injection is possible. With the qualitative microscopic (imaging) detection method, as with the macroscopic investigations, local samples are taken from the injection level using mini core drillings and are analysed in the laboratory in the ESEM.

Essentially, significantly less material has to be removed from the structure for the verification method described here.

To examine the building material in the ESEM, samples are to be taken from the injection level. In addition, reference samples of the masonry without adding the injection agent are required.

The reference samples and the samples from the injection level are subjected to condensation in the ESEM. In the ESEM mode, condensation on a microscopic scale can be brought about within the pores of the building material (bricks and mortar). The condensation process is recorded using pictures and, if necessary, using film. During the condensation process, there is a time window in which the contact angle of the forming water droplets can be measured. The measurement of the contact angle can be carried out directly in the ESEM.

In addition, the measurement can also be carried out retrospectively on the images generated in the ESEM. The measured contact angles can be used to determine whether the substance is hydrophobic or hydrophilic. The examination results consist of an imaging procedure that can be evaluated afterwards. In particular, comparisons with the reference samples are possible.

**Figure 8.** *Condensation process on a brick sample in the ESEM, P. Körber.*

*Investigation on Building Materials with the SEM in the ESEM Mode to Demonstrate… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104292*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Condensation process on a brick sample in the ESEM, P. Körber.*

**Figure 10.** *Condensation process on a mortar sample in the ESEM, P. Körber.*

#### **Figure 11.**

*Condensation process on a brick sample in the ESEM, P. Körber.*

#### **Figure 12.** *Measurement of the contact angle in the ESEM, P. Körber.*

*Investigation on Building Materials with the SEM in the ESEM Mode to Demonstrate… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104292*

The qualitative microscopic, imaging detection method described here can be flanked and verified by macroscopic examinations. The macroscopic investigations can serve as a calibration function for the ESEM measurements. In this way, serial tests can be carried out, in which differentiated proof of the sealing success of the subsequent building sealing with injection agents can be provided [29].

In **Figure 8a**–**f**, shown below, it becomes clear how the condensation water droplets form in the ESEM. After the time window for the formation of the drops has expired, these attract each other and then merge into one another, so that the time window for the measurement is over. The maximum achievable contact angle is relevant for the measurement.

The following figures show examples of the formation of condensation water droplets in the ESEM on brick and mortar samples (**Figures 9**–**11**). **Figure 12** shows the contact angle measurement, which takes place directly in the ESEM.


**7. 1 Weight variation, sequence**

Weight variation is generally studied in the case of solid unit dosage forms. The weight variation can be subjected to variation between units and also between the layers. Each layer should possess the predetermined weight without any major deviation in range. Individual layer weight [18]. It is preferable for the layers to have similar weight so that it aids produce required strength, weight distribution, appearance, and similar compression profiles.

#### **7. 2 Mechanical strength**

It is noted that excipients play important role in producing a high-quality layered tablet. Excipients that confer brittleness to the formulation are preferred to provide sufficient mechanical strength to layered tablets such that they can withstand mechanical pressure during production, packing, and transportation [19, 20].

#### **7. 3 Lubrication**

It is studied that increase in lubricant concentration, decreases the strength of interfacial bonding and can deteriorate the interfacial interaction between the layers [21, 22].

### **7. 4 Adhesion strength**

The major challenge is holding the layers together which is dependent on interlayer adhesion strength between two or more layers used. In the production of layered tablets, initially, a central core is prepared by pre-compression, then the upper and lower layers are compressed around the central core. Necessary interlayer adhesion strength is required to hold these layers together as a single unit. Low compression force for the core and high compression force for layers can help in attaining adequate adhesion [23–25].

#### **7. 5 Interlayer cross-contamination**

There is a high possibility of cross-contamination between the adjacent layers. To overcome this, scraper plates are placed around the die fill to remove residual powder [26]. In some cases, suction and dust removers are also being used.

#### **7. 6 Long term integrity and storage**

The layered tablets should display a long-term physical and chemical integrity throughout the shelf life of the dosage form [28]. Temperature and humidity changes during storage have a greater impact on interlayer adhesion [27, 28].


2.3.1. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) Throughout the 120 h Fermentation

In a first approach, antibacterial activities were tested throughout the length of the five-day fermentation, with *L. monocytogenes* and *Escherichia coli* O157.H7. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) determinations were determined using suspensions of *L. monocytogenes* and *Escherichia coli* O157:H7 from overnight cultures, which were prepared in Müller-Hinton Broth medium ((Biokar Diagnostics™ Beauvais, France) adjusted to a final optical density (OD) of 0.12 (2 × 108 cfu·mL−1) [42], read at 546 nm in a spectrophotometer (Boeco S-20, Hamburg, Germany). Further decimal dilutions were made in the same medium to obtain final suspensions of 2 × 105 cfu·mL−1. MIC values were assessed in sterile 96-well plates (Greiner Bio-one, Germany), using the micro dilution method of Bouhdid et al. [43]. Plates were incubated for 24 h ± 2 h, at 37 ◦C ± 1 ◦C, and the OD was read at 546 nm (Synergy HT, Biotek, Winooski, VT, USA) in the beginning of the inoculation and at the end of the assay.


**2. Limits to high-current beam extraction**

The maximum current that can be extracted in an ion beam is determined by the space-charge limit, which for a cylindrical beam is approximately:

$$
\Pi = I \sqrt{\frac{\mathbf{M}}{2q}} = \left(\frac{\mathbf{4}\varepsilon\_0}{\mathfrak{P}}\right) V^{\frac{\mathbf{3}}{2q} \left(\frac{\mathbf{2}}{q^2}\right)}\tag{1}
$$

*DC Parallel Ribbon Ion Beams for High-Dose Processes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111487*

where I is the ion current, M the ion mass, q the ion charge, ε0 is the permittivity of free space, V the ion beam extraction voltage, g the gap across which this voltage is applied, and r the beam radius. The equation is exact for a beam originating on one plane surface and being accelerated to a second plane surface at a potential V. Since the beam passes through a hole in the second electrode, the potential at the center of the hole is less than V, so in in practice the beam radius r cannot exceed g. In this case, the equation is not exact, since r/g must be <1 in practice, and so it provides an upper limit to the maximum current. The quantity Π is usually called the beam poissance when used for heavy ions. However, for a ribbon beam this equation becomes:

$$
\Pi = I \sqrt{\frac{\overline{\mathbf{M}}}{2q}} = \left(\frac{4\varepsilon\_0}{9}\right) V^{\frac{\mathfrak{A}}{2}\left(\frac{\omega}{\varepsilon^2}\right)}\tag{2}
$$

where a is the beam thickness and b the ribbon breadth at the source aperture. Now the maximum is set by the condition a/g < 1. It is now possible for b to greatly exceed a without the potential at the center of the electrode being significantly different from V, and as a result the perveance from a ribbon-shaped ion beam system can exceed that from a cylindrical system by a factor of the order of b/a. Thus a ribbon beam system in the case of the Nova NV-10 high-current system can carry �44/3 times more current than a cylindrical beam.


**9. Mind–body exercise**

**Herbal name (Latin name)**

234 Asthma - From Childhood Asthma to ACOS Phenotypes

**Yu Xing Cao** (*Houttuynia*

**Table 2.** Single herbs frequently used for asthmatic children

**7. Acupuncture use in children with asthma**

mation in patients with allergic asthma [63]. The numbers of CD3+

electroacupuncture is prominent in promotion of CD4+

induced experimental asthma [65].

**8. Acupuncture point application**

Acupuncture is a TCM therapeutic approach involving the stimulation of points on the body by using needles. For thousands of years, acupuncture has been used to treat several conditions, including asthma. Other methods of stimulation are traditionally used, such as electroacupuncture, laser acupuncture, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. There is evidence that acupuncture can reduce eosinophils in peripheral blood and decrease secretory IgA (sIgA) and total IgA levels in the saliva and nasal secretions of patients with allergic asthma [63]. The role of eosinophil activation in asthma has been well documented. sIgA is a potent stimulus for eosinophils and represents the main trigger for eosinophil degranulation. After acupuncture treatment, the reduction of sIgA levels and the decrease in the numbers of eosinophils may be associated with the amelioration of eosinophilic inflam‐

lymphocytes in the peripheral blood were significantly increased, without significant cortisol changes, in patients with allergic asthma treated by acupuncture [63]. It has been shown that

induced experimental model [64]. Furthermore, acupuncture has also been shown to inhibit AHR, eosinophils, neutrophils, specific IgE, Th1 cytokines, and the NF-κB pathway in OVA-

Acupuncture point application therapies, combining Chinese herbal medicine and acupunc‐ ture points, have been extensively applied for the treatment of allergic rhinitis (AR) and asthma [66]. Summer acupuncture point application treatment, also known as San-Fu-Tie or San-Fu-Jiu, is one type of direct moxibustion administered in the summer through the direct applica‐ tion of an irritating herbal paste to acupuncture points. The basic herbal prescription of San-Fu-Tie is usually composed of Bai Jie Zi (*Semen Sinapis Albae*), Xi Xin (*Herba Asari*), Gan Sui

*cordata Thunb.*)

**Pictures Possible mechanisms**

Decreases Th2 response; decreases IL-4,

, CD4+

FoxP3+ Tregs in an OVA-

CD25+

, and CD8+ T

IL-5, and TARC levels [62]

Mind–body exercise, such as *tai chi*, yoga, and meditation, may benefit people with chronic diseases. *Tai Chi Chuan* (*tai chi*), a Chinese traditional mind–body exercise with low-tomoderate exercise intensity, is thought to improve cardiopulmonary function in patients with chronic disease. *Tai Chi Chuan* has been shown to improve pulmonary function of asthmatic children [68]. Yoga training was reported to improve pulmonary function tests (FEV1 and PEFR), quality of life, and decrease in the weekly number of asthma attacks, scores for drug treatment, and peak flow rate [69–71]. Meditation has also been shown to be a useful adjunct for treating asthma [72].


**6.1 Limitations in plant tissue culture**

Despite of various advantages of plant tissue culture, this technique has some limitations.

#### *An Overview of Oil Palm Cultivation via Tissue Culture Technique DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99198*


**Acknowledgements**

The authors would like to thank Giuseppe Ianiri for his help in the database revision and data analysis.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production*


**2. Method**

The research is part of a descriptive study since it is intended to determine the main flaws of the Angolan higher education system [8], and the study is qualitative in nature, in which through observation (also reflected in the long years of service in higher education in Angola) and conversation with some students (a total of 30), teachers, managers, and administrative staff of some higher education institutions in the cities of Lubango and Moçâmedes, provinces of Huíla and Namibe, a series of answers were obtained to the questions asked. The interview with the students was done in groups, in an adaptation of the "focus group", to facilitate the collection of information and later the answer was worked with the help of the NVIvo program.


**Abstract**

Since the 1960s, the United States has subscribed to a business model of health care, largely for-profit with most private insurers on a mission to maximize their own revenues. Most insurers use cost sharing through deductibles and copayments based on the principle that enrollees will overuse health care services unless they have enough "skin in the game." As health care has been corporatized within a medicalindustrial complex, even public insurers such as Medicare and Medicaid have been privatized with the same mission. Employer-sponsored health insurance has been the core of insurance in the U.S. since World War II, but has become unaffordable for employers and employees alike. This article brings historical perspective to how health insurance has been transformed from its not-for-profit origins in the 1930s, how it has become unaffordable in recent decades as it costs more and covers less, and how our multi-payer financing system has failed the public interest. Reform alternatives are discussed, but a system of universal coverage through a public, single-payer national plan is still beyond reach politically.

**Keywords:** health insurance, cost sharing, health care costs, cost containment, moral hazard, access to care, single payer financing, multi-payer financing, privatization, overpayments, Medicare, Medicaid, Medicare for all


*3.5. Travel Time Models*

*H*—the desired headway (sec).

Travel time is one of the major performance indicators, which must be considered in the evaluation of transportation networks. The total vehicle travel time (*TTAIMSUN*, sec) is calculated within AIMSUN based on the network entrance and exit times of all vehicles as follows [35]:

$$TT\_{AIMSIN} = \sum\_{i=1}^{N\_{\rm sys}} (TEX\_i - TEN\_i) \tag{6}$$

where:

*TENi*—the entrance time of vehicle *i* in the network (sec);

*TEXi*—the exit time of vehicle *i* from the network (sec);

*Nsys*—the number of vehicles that cross the system during the considered time period (vehicles).

The total vehicle travel time (*TTSimTra f f ic*, sec) on a given network segment is calculated within SimTraffic based on the total time spent by each vehicle on that segment and the total waiting time by each vehicle to enter that segment as follows [36]:

$$TT\_{SimTraffic} = \sum\_{i=1}^{N\_{sys}} (t\_i + w\_i) \tag{7}$$

where:

*ti*—the time spent by vehicle *i* on a given network segment (sec); *wi*—the waiting time spent by vehicle *i* to enter a given network segment (sec).

#### *3.6. Average Speed Models*

In AIMSUN, the average speed per vehicle (*SAIMSUN*, m/sec) is computed based on the following relationship [35]:

$$S\_{AIMSIN} = \frac{\sum\_{i=1}^{N\_{sys}} S\_i}{N\_{sys}} \tag{8}$$

where:

*Si*—the average speed of vehicle *i* (m/sec).

The average speed of vehicle *i* is estimated as follows [35]:

$$S\_i = \frac{D\_i}{TEX\_i - TEN\_i} \tag{9}$$

where:

*Di*—the total distance traveled by vehicle *i* in the network (m).

In SimTraffic, the average speed per vehicle is computed by dividing the total distance by the total travel time [36]. The average speed is weighted by the vehicle flow and includes the stopped time and denied entry time.


*Article* **Start-Up of a Biofilter in a Full-Scale Groundwater Treatment Plant for Iron and Manganese Removal**

**Huiping Zeng 1,\*, Can Yin 1, Jie Zhang 1,2 and Dong Li 1,\***

Received: 28 December 2018; Accepted: 23 February 2019; Published: 27 February 2019

**Abstract:** In recent years, biological purification technology has been widely developed in the process of iron and manganese removal from groundwater. The cultivation and maturation of the biological filter layer are key for biological iron and manganese removal processes. The time needed for maturation varies significantly with the water quality, filter and filter media conditions and operation parameters; sometimes it takes only one or two months, sometime more than half a year. In this paper, the feasibility of adopting an intermittent operation for the cultivation of biofilter was investigated with productive filters in a groundwater treatment plant, and the comparative test of the filter column was conducted. The results showed that the intermittent operation had little effect on the cultivation of the biofilter because dissolved oxygen would be gradually exhausted during the filter-suspension process, making the filter layer anaerobic, thus possibly inhibiting the growth and reproduction of IMOB (Iron and Manganese Oxidizing Bacteria). At the same time, the test shows that when the mature biological filter needs the suspension operation, the emptying method should be considered to avoid the destruction of the biological layer.

**Keywords:** groundwater; iron and manganese removal; biofilter