**1. Introduction**

Preservation of germplasm (e.g. a term hereby applied to collectively gather spermatozoa, oocytes or early embryos whose use would –eventually- lead to offspring) for research, repository building and propagation of genetic material using Assisted Reproductive Techniques (ART) has been a long lasting priority (Mazur et al 2008). The first approaches, besides those historically anecdotic (see Flowers 1999) were directed to the application of artificial insemination (AI) of domestic species (Foote 1999) pertaining dissemination of genetics to a general population of, particularly, production animals. Positive effects for simple cryo-protectant agents (CPA) such as glycerol on animal sperm cryoprotection were demonstrated already by the end of the 1930`s (Bernschtein & Petropavloski 1937) and a decade later it became apparent that spermatozoa could be cooled, frozen and thawed in solutions containing egg yolk and glycerol (Polge et al 1949). For some species, such as bovine, the fact that bull semen could be easily frozen with an acceptable sperm survival post-thaw and accompanied by acceptable fertility after intra-uterine AI led to the rapid development of such primary reproductive biotechnology (Rodriguez-Martinez & Barth 2007). Attempts in other species of domesticated animals followed, and it was soon realised that the success seen with bovine could not be reached, primarily due to low sperm survival, difficulties in attaining an optimal deposition or proper timing towards spontaneous ovulation. Differences in survival and fertility varied not only among species but also between individuals of a given species or even ejaculates within sires (Holt 2000).

Porcine male germplasm freezing started already by the 1950´s (Polge 1956) but their postthaw fertility was not reassured using cervical AI until a decade later (Crabo and Einarsson 1971, Graham et al 1971, Pursel & Johnson 1971), which revealed major constrains when applying cryopreservation on boar spermatozoa. Today, despite documented efforts to reach acceptable fertility and prolificacy after AI (Eriksson et al 2002, Roca et al 2011), the cryosurvival of boar spermatozoa is still consistently low in comparison to other species, owing to damage during a processing that is time-consuming, costly and yields few doses per ejaculate (see Rath et al 2009, Rodriguez-Martinez & Wallgren 2011). Number of piglets born is lower than for cooled or neat semen implying that sperm lifespan, deposition site and closeness to ovulation are yet significant hurdles to be overcome (Roca et al 2006b, Wongtawan et al 2006). Preservation of male genetics can also be performed by freezing of

Cryopreservation of Porcine Gametes, Embryos and Genital Tissues: State of the Art 233

entire process basically concerns the way we handle the presence of water in and around the cells and whether its freezing is allowed (conventional cryopreservation, slow equilibrium

In the first method, which is the one traditionally used in biomedicine, particularly for sperm preservation, cells are subjected to slow cooling to temperatures below zero, with freezing rates of 0.5-100 ◦C/min). The method allows ice to form and solute to concentrate alongside the change in water phase. Both ice and high solute concentrations can cause direct (either initial or eutectic, Han & Bischof 2004a), respectively secondary damage, jeopardizing cell survival or handicapping vital cell functions post-thaw. At some moment during the process, water freezes to form ice, primarily extracellular, but even intracellular. Ice grows and becomes over time surrounded by an increasing amount of solutes which move to the areas where water did not yet changed phase. Cells balance ion concentrations at either side of the plasma membrane thus keeping proper osmotic pressure. Depending on the relative amounts of free and bound water, such a change of phase (either formation or dissolution of ice and de/rehydration phenomena) implies changes in ionic concentration caused by directional movement of water across the membrane, disturbing the homeostatic osmotic pressure of the cell/s (Pegg 2007). Cells respond by allowing water to leave the intra-cellular compartment, to compensate the increasing hyper-osmotic extra-cellular compartment caused by the progressive formation of ice. Those water movements lead both to cell dehydration and to a toxic hyper-concentration of solutes intracellular which, ultimately, affects cells viability (Watson & Fuller 2001). Freezing injury can then be related to high electrolyte concentration effects (solute effects), presence of intracellularly ice (formed direct or eutectic) and also the pressure of large extracellular crystals on the veins of concentrated (i.e. vitrified) extender and cells (Saragusty et al 2009). See **Figures 1and 2** for

Freezing injury during slow freezing can be minimized. Intracellular freezing is generally lethal but can be avoided by sufficiently slowing the rate of cooling. Solute-caused damage, which is the dominating feature under conventional slow freezing especially in cells in liquid suspension, can be minimized by the addition of CPA. Most CPA´s (as glycerol, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), ethylenglycol (EG), propyleneglycol (PG)) are highly soluble, permeating compounds of low-to-medium toxicity, whose primary role is to reduce the amount of ice formed at any given sub-zero temperature, by simply increasing the total concentration of all solutes in the system, thus defining the concept of slow equilibrium freezing (Pegg 2002 2007). Introduction of sufficient CPA would eventually avoid freezing and a glassy of vitreous state could be produced instead. Such concept is the theoretical rationale for the second method listed above: rapid nonequilibrium vitrification. Vitrification is the physical process by which a highly concentrated cryoprotective solution supercools to very low temperatures (often to -120 to -130 ◦C) to finally solidify into a metastable glass, without undergoing crystallization at a practical, high speed cooling rate (i.e. dipping onto LN2). Use of ultra-high speed voids the need of penetrating CPA, open for using non-penetrating CPA (such as sucrose, fructose, glucose), but demands the use of small (5-50µL) suspension droplets. The glassy state is defined by its viscosity reaching 10-13 poises, sufficient for the aqueous material to behave as a solid, without any water crystallization. Once again, this waives the above listed sources for cell injury: ice crystals and increased/ill distributed solute

freezing) or totally prevented (vitrification).

an illustration of these events.

epidydimal spermatozoa (retrieved by biopsy of the cauda) or by tissue sampling through testicular biopsies (Keros et al 2005, Curaba et al 2011). However, these approaches are not relevant for porcine breeding. Cauda epididymal spermatozoa are easier to slow freeze than ejaculated spermatozoa (Rath & Niemann 1997) and testicular biopsies are not advisable in boars owing to their highly vascularized testicular capsule (Ohanian et al 1979).

Preservation of female genetics can be done either by freezing of germplam (e.g. oocytes or embryos) or of ovarian tissue (slices or whole ovary), from which oocytes can thereafter be harvested for ART. Germplasm freezing in pigs has also followed a tortuous road, with deceiving results for decades, particularly related to the high sensitivity of pig oocytes and early embryos to chilling, similarly to other species containing large deposits of intracellular lipids (Zhou & Li 2009), in contrast to blastocysts where the lipid amounts were lower. Delipation (or side-dislocation of lipid depots by ultracentrifugation) was soon shown to increase the survival of oocytes/embryos subjected to freezing (Nagashima et al 1995), survival that could be enhanced if the cytoskeleton could be preserved from damage using exogenous chemicals (Shi et al 2006). Use of alternative methods such as vitrification instead of slow cooling led to better survival (see Massip 2001) including the birth of offspring (Berthelot et al 2000). However, large variation was seen among methods, sources and laboratories (Holm et al 1999, Cuello et al 2007, Somfai et al 2008, Ogawa et al 2010), including the method used for intrauterine deposition (Rodriguez-Martinez 2007b, Roca et al 2011).

Cryopreservation of ovarian tissue (or even of whole ovaries) has been tested in several species including human (Isachenko et al 2009) pertaining the recovery of follicular oocytes for ART or ultimate autographs (Kim et al 2010). Procedures for porcine ovarian samples have followed methods tested in other species (Imhof et al 2004, Borges et al 2009) with promising results, albeit yet at an academic level, pertaining the advancement of xenografting (Moniruzzaman et al 2009). As well, experimental models using the porcine species have been developed for cryopreservation of genital tissues, particularly the uterus (Dittrich et al 2004, 2006) paving the way for human transplantation procedures (Diaz-Garcia et al 2011).

Thus, interest has been large to attempt routine cryopreservation of porcine gametes, embryos and genital tissues, yet with various degrees of success. Therefore, the present review aims to summarize the state-of-the-art regarding established and emerging methods for the cryopreservation of porcine gametes and embryos as germplasm, intending a critical revision of the underlying problems that still constrain their application for establishing repositories, their use in reproductive biotechnologies and, ultimately, for breeding. As well, it intends to describe our level of knowledge when attempting cryogenics of gonads and other genital tissues for comparative research, particularly on human regenerative medicine. The review is not exhaustive and focus on methodological aspects of procedures.


*4.3. Knowledge Transfer*

It is clear that the aforementioned three conditions, e.g., solar irradiation, temperature, and PSC, can be considered as the main similarities between various optimization tasks. On the other hand, the similarity between two adjacent optimization tasks is usually very high, since these weather conditions cannot vary dramatically in a very short time. Hence, the optimal knowledge matrices of the adjacent past task is chosen for knowledge transfer to the new task (See Figure 3), while the similarity described in (11) can be designed as

$$r = 1 - \frac{\left| T\_{\rm c}^{\rm n} - T\_{\rm c}^{\rm P} \right|}{T\_{\rm ref}} - \prod\_{w=1}^{N\_{\rm s} \cdot N\_{\rm P}} \frac{\left| S\_{\rm w}^{\rm n} - S\_{\rm w}^{\rm P} \right|}{S\_{\rm ref}} \tag{13}$$

where *T*ncand *T*pcare the temperatures of the new task and the past task, respectively;


Ahmad Alsheikhly

134 Aneurysm

[41] Brewster DC, Cronenwett JL, Haller, Jr JW, Johnston KW, Krupski WC, Matsumura JS. (2003) Guidelines for the treatment of abdominal aortic aneurysm: report of a subcommittee of the Joint Council of the American Association for Vascular Surgery

[42] Alcorn HG, Wolfson SK Jr, Sutton-Tyrrell K. (1996) Risk factors for abdominal aortic aneurysms in older adults enrolled in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Arterioscler

[43] Brewster DC , Cronenwett JL. (2003) Guidelines for the treatment of abdominal aortic aneurysms. Report of a subcommittee of the Joint Council of the American Association for Vascular Surgery and Society for Vascular Surgery . J Vasc Surg. 37 (5) :1106-17. [44] Greenhalgh RM , Brown LC , Kwong GP , Powell JT , Thompson SG. (2004) EVAR trial participants. Comparison of endovascular aneurysm repair with open repair in patients with abdominal aortic aneurysm (EVAR trial 1), 30-day operative mortality results:

[45] Lazarus HM. (1992) Endovascular grafting for the treatment of abdominal aortic

and Society for Vascular Surgery. J Vasc Surg 37:1106-1117

randomised controlled trial . Lancet . 364: 843-8.

aneurysms. Surg Clin North Am 72:959–968.

Thromb Vase Biol. 16:963-70.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/46031


First World War, 147, 202 Foreign aid, 223–225, 269 Fragmentation, 112, 117, 151, 153, 349 Funding crowdfunding, 6, 102, 161, 173, 174, 296, 305, 312, 336 EU funding, 41, 50, 138n5, 304 foreign funding, 6, 11, 40, 43, 57, 58, 60, 61, 73, 76, 101, 172, 176, 186, 188, 190, 230, 283, 286, 321, 325–329, 335 funding dilemma, 17, 37–61 international funding, 171, 172, 175 membership fees, 52, 97 national funding, 269 procurements, 27n4, 283, 303 public funding, 5, 7, 12, 40, 87, 99, 101, 171, 179, 200, 244, 303, 306 reimbursement, 200 state funding, 4, 11, 15, 17, 27n4, 57, 61, 68, 69, 94, 98, 100, 116, 129, 182, 279, 280, 282–284, 326, 351 subsidies, 171 transnational funding, 284, 325 (*see also* Presidential Grants (Competition)) Fundraising, 57, 61, 101–103, 116, 207, 231, 271, 281,

327, 336

#### **G**

Główny Urząd Statystyczny, 108 *Grazhdanskoe dostoinstvo*, 74 Great Patriotic War, 77, 84

**H** Halhead, Vanessa, 124, 125, 127, 135 Health care health care professionals, personnel, 22, 247–248, 251, 252, 258, 259, 262–264 health care provision, 243, 247–249, 251–253, 257, 258, 264 health care system, 243–244, 247, 254, 257, 264 health care volunteers, 253, 260, 264, 265 Hesed Avraham, 271, 276–287 Hierarchization, of civil society, 273 Humanitarian aid, 197, 203, 226 Human rights children's rights, 201, 205, 206, 211, 226 civic rights, 7 minority rights, 175, 179, 182 Hungary, 43, 231 Hwang, Hokyu, 297 Hybridization, hybrid model, 3, 207, 227, 323

**I**

Identity collective, 157, 158 organizational, 3, 15, 19, 218 Ideology, 17, 45, 76, 78, 98, 122, 343, 347 Idud Hasadim, 279, 283 Inclusion, 72, 95, 105, 162, 185, 188 Individualization, 223–225, 343 Information and communication technologies (ICT) Facebook, 160–163, 243, 244, 247, 248, 251–254, 296, 300–302, 305, 309, 313n3 Instagram, 163, 309 Internet, 102, 146, 155, 156, 159–164, 166, 228, 229, 288n1, 295, 297, 304, 309, 310, 313, 346, 350, 351 social media, social media platforms, 20, 102, 152, 159–163, 244, 247, 264, 295–297, 300, 301, 304–306, 309–313, 336, 350, 351 Twitter, 163, 300, 301, 309 Institute for Advanced Study, 52 Institute for Legal Culture Ordo Iuris, 44 Institute for Market Economy Research *(Instytut Badań nad Gospodarką Rynkową)*, 43 Institute of Public Afairs, 44, 57, 58, 222 Institutions institutional norms, 21, 107, 116, 349 institutional pressures, 18, 93–117, 198, 211 institutional resources, 190

Intelligentsia, 222–224 International Classifcation of Non-Proft Organizations (ICNPO), 78 Internationalization, 124, 217

#### **J**

Jacobsson, Kerstin, 13, 100, 112, 219, 227, 297 Joint Distribution Committee (JDC), 276–279, 282, 284

#### **K**

Klon/Jawor Association, 18, 95, 117n4 Korolczuk, Elzbieta, 13, 94, 108, 296 Kubik, Jan, 13, 117, 147

#### **L**

Labor Union of Student Youth, 82 Law and Justice, party (*Prawo i Sprawiedliwość*), 11, 44, 60, 93, 108 Lefebvre, Henri, 145 Legitimacy/legitimation, 5, 7, 9, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 56, 68–70, 73, 83, 86, 103, 104, 112, 117, 155, 165, 199, 206, 208, 211, 218, 229, 273, 285, 295, 297, 300, 307, 309, 346 Levada Center, 186 Liberalization, 11, 151, 177, 274, 287, 320

Ljubownikow, Sergei, 72, 270, 273, 285, 286 Lundström, Tommy, 9, 12, 195–197, 199, 202, 209, 247, 272

#### **M**

MacArthur Foundation, 177 Market marketization, 3, 8, 60, 207 for-proft, 10, 205, 206 proft-driven, 5 Matra Program of the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, 177 McCarthy, John D., 344 Medical professionals, 245, 250, 259, 261 Melucci, Alberto, 158 Mergler, Lech, 146, 153, 155, 156, 158 Militarism, 18, 70, 77, 81, 84 Ministry of Economic Development, Russian Federation, 27n4, 183, 280 Ministry of Justice, Russian Federation, 4, 11, 73, 177, 178, 183–185, 190n4 Mission, 18, 19, 23, 41, 45, 96, 104, 105, 107, 110, 112, 116, 117, 198, 209, 219, 225, 229, 275–281, 305, 333, 349 Mobilization bottom-up mobilization, 20, 146 contentious mobilization, 2, 20, 124 (*see also* Protest(s))

mass mobilization, 10, 274

social mobilization, 10, 23, 111, 133, 147, 207, 273, 276, 283, 284, 335

#### **N**

National Board of Health and Welfare, 253 National Freedom Institute – Centre for the Development of Civil Society, 93, 94, 98, 231 Nationalism, 18, 70, 77, 78 Te Netherlands, 177, 298 Nevsky Angel, 271, 275–287 New Public Management/neoliberal model of management, 1, 229, 244 NGO Development Center, 4–7, 11, 15 NGO-ization, 3 *See also* Professionalization Nordic countries, 124, 247, 297 Not racist but *(Inte rasist men)*, 296, 300, 301, 305–307, 311

#### **O**

Obshchesto "Znanie", 74 Oliver, Christine, 94, 96, 115, 116, 198 On Equal Terms (*På lika villkor*), 197, 198, 203–208, 210, 211 Open Society Foundation, 179 Orange Alternative (Pomarańczowa Alternatywa), 222

Organizational autonomy/ organizational independence, 99 Organizational capacity, 40, 55 Organizational constrain(s) cooptation, 18 dependence, 248 Organizational forms advocacy organizations, 17, 39, 40, 42, 112, 208, 231, 349 capacity-building organizations, 4, 23, 40, 42, 276, 279, 281, 282, 284 charity organizations, 15, 22, 26n1, 179, 195, 271, 276, 278, 279, 305 global, transnational organizations, 201, 269–287, 321–323, 325 government-organized nongovernmental organizations (GONGOs), 74 informal organizations, grassroots initiatives, 20, 112, 127, 146, 149, 174, 177, 179–181, 323 memberless organizations, 344, 347 membership-based organizations, 12, 100, 132, 196, 197, 297, 346, 347 neo-cooperatives, 122, 133, 134 partial organizations, 68, 349, 350 socially-oriented civil society organization, 175 stakeholders, 17, 19, 23, 112, 285

think tanks, 15, 17, 18, 37–61, 73, 179, 226, 350 volunteer, volunteer-based organizations, 22, 108–112, 116, 174, 183, 221, 258, 259, 263, 264, 269–271, 276, 278, 280, 283–285, 287, 287n1, 288n4, 298, 346 Organizational mission, 110 mission drift, 104, 209 Organizational norms, 262 Organizational roles activists, 105, 149, 151, 162, 224, 225, 227, 273, 321, 323, 326, 328 adherents, 104, 219, 344 benefciaries, 5, 6, 107, 273, 278, 281, 284, 348 constituency(ies), 114, 219, 231 donors, corporate, 20, 45, 52, 54, 56, 101, 102 donors, individual, 20, 52, 54, 56 experts, pro-bono specialists, 43, 44, 108, 111, 113, 180, 202, 283 paid employees, professionals, 4, 180, 181, 221, 277, 321, 347 sponsor(s), 39, 40, 179, 190, 327, 335 target groups, 14, 107, 110, 129, 208, 281–282, 348 volunteers, volunteer training, 220, 269, 276, 280, 283, 284, 287, 287n1 Organizational setting autonomous, 249, 250, 252–262 heteronomous, 249, 250, 252–263

Organizational strategy/response accommodation, 2, 7, 16, 348 adaptation, 104, 172–175, 323, 348 adjustment, adjusting, 87, 179, 189, 198, 347 conformity, 6, 198 contestation, 2, 7, 16, 255, 323 cooperation, coalition building, 7, 18, 73, 107, 111, 114, 232n1, 252 navigation, 18 negotiation, 2, 7, 16, 197, 198, 246, 323 resistance, resisting, 6, 19, 93–117 Organizational symbols, 116 Ostrom, Elinor, 159

#### **P**

Papakostas, Apostolis, 6, 24, 200, 201, 212, 221, 272, 287, 297, 344, 347, 351 Participation, engagement, 152, 221 civic participation, 112, 152 Patriotism, 18, 70, 77, 81, 84 Pediatric Early Warning System (PEWS), 254 Pfefer, Jefrey, 42, 57, 173, 245, 246, 263, 345 Philanthropy, charity, 197, 202, 209 *Plataforma de Afectados por la Hipoteca* (PAH), 153 Polarization, 18, 111, 117, 352 Policy advice, 37, 44, 51, 52, 54 Policymaking, 37, 43, 44, 200, 280, 285, 296, 307

Polish Aid, 225–227 Polish Humanitarian Action, 226 Polish Institute of International Afairs, 52 Political Critique, 48, 52 Political regime authoritarian, 8, 68, 69, 86, 336 autocracy(ies)/autocratic, 189 illiberal, 12, 17, 18 non-democratic (state), 2, 67–69, 86 Powell, Walter W., 198, 245, 297 Presidential Grants (Competition), 17, 67–87, 183, 280, 326, 349 Professionalization, 3, 21, 60, 103, 108, 146, 148, 180, 181, 183, 186, 201, 207, 209, 211, 230, 297, 305 *See also* NGO-ization Professional staf avant-garde professionals, 21, 207–211, 284, 347, 349 professional autonomy, 243–265 training of professionals, 277, 278 Projectifcation grantosis, 60 projectariat, 228, 232n3 *See also* Project(s)/project-based Project(s)/project-based, 1, 6, 7, 11, 12, 17, 19, 21, 27n4, 41, 45, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57–60, 76, 78, 82–86, 99, 101, 109, 123, 129, 130, 132, 134, 138n4, 159, 161, 181–183, 198, 200, 204, 224, 274, 281–283, 322, 331

Protest(s)/local protest(s), 20, 73, 104, 133, 148–152, 155, 157, 158, 161, 162, 164, 261, 295, 296, 301, 329 Public administration bureaucrat(s), 186 bureaucratic, 9 civil servant, 127, 129 public service, 10, 126, 150, 153, 273, 303 Public Chamber of the Russian Federation, 72, 74 Putin, Vladimir, 72, 177, 333

#### **R**

Red Cross, 202, 301 Refugees, 22, 103, 112, 209, 210, 243, 247–248, 251, 254, 255, 258, 259 Resource(s) access to resources, 16, 20, 21, 135, 175, 179, 188–190 accumulation, 2, 7, 14, 87, 270, 274, 284 available resources, 154, 173, 179, 197, 201, 207, 211 contract(s), 303 convertibility, 116, 287, 348–350 digital resources Facebook, 160–163, 243, 244, 247, 248, 251–254, 296, 300–302, 305, 309, 313n3 Instagram, 163, 309 online, 20, 23, 95, 112, 157, 159, 163, 248, 251, 252, 295–313, 323, 327, 329, 330, 332, 334

social media, 20, 102, 152, 159–163, 196, 244, 247, 264, 295–297, 300, 301, 304–306, 309–313, 336, 350, 351 Twitter, 163, 300, 301, 309 diversifcation, 17, 59 economic resources/fnancial resources, 3, 11, 15–18, 23, 24, 38–42, 45, 49, 54, 56, 59, 61, 96–103, 176, 200, 203, 205, 211, 221, 232, 303, 305–307, 310, 313, 321–323, 325–327, 335, 346, 348 generalizability, 348 human resources/digital human resources, 14, 15, 21, 27n4, 95, 96, 107–112, 148, 217–230, 232, 256, 257, 259, 260, 262, 263, 280, 297–299, 301, 302, 307, 310, 312 immaterial resources, 7, 14, 87, 323, 334 (*see also* Mission) material resources, 14, 15, 22, 68, 69, 87, 154, 253, 254, 256, 257, 260, 263 mobilization, 14, 23, 125, 162, 218, 295, 296, 301, 306, 311, 344, 345 (*see also*  Resource mobilization theory) political resources, 156, 211, 297, 307–312 social resources, 112–116

Resource(s) (*cont*.) symbolic resources, 5, 14, 18, 23, 24, 55, 85, 103–107, 166, 279, 305, 309, 319–322, 349 transformation, 2, 13, 18, 22–24, 154, 271–274 Resourceful civil society (organizations)/ resourcefulness, 3, 7, 15, 19, 21, 24, 50, 60, 101, 146, 196, 198, 232, 334 Resource mobilization theory, 218, 345 Right to the City Alliance, 153 Russian Orthodox Church, 184 Russian Union of Youth, 74

#### **S**

Sakwa, Richard, 73 Salamon, Lester, M., 2, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 26n1, 27n4, 69, 72, 78, 86, 171, 220, 270, 272, 273 Salancik, Gerald R., 42, 57, 173, 245, 246, 263 Save the Children International, 201 Save the Children Sweden (Rädda Barnen), 197, 204, 205, 207, 209, 210 Save the Children Welfare Inc. (Rädda Barnen välfärd AB), 197 Scrolling culture, 163 Second World War, 77, 126, 147 Shock therapy, 43 Shrinking space, 2, 22, 325 Skocpol, Teda, 9, 298, 343

Sobieski Institute, 57 Social capital, 113, 131, 165, 223, 224 Socialism/post-socialism, 7–10, 222 Social movement(s) LGBTQI+ movement, 320, 322, 323, 330, 332, 336, 337, 337n2 movement in itself/movement for itself, 157 people´s movement, 18, 26n3 popular movement(s)/popular social movement(s), 128, 195, 197, 199, 201, 202, 207–210, 297, 349 rural movement/village movement, 18, 19, 121–130, 132–137, 137n2, 348 Solidarity movement, 217 urban movement, 19, 145–166, 350 women's movement, 4, 10, 135 workers' movement, 4, 10 Social service (provision) welfare provision, 17 welfare service, 18, 87, 200, 205, 206, 244, 245, 247, 250, 264, 277, 285, 298 Solidarity, 4–6, 21, 22, 107, 112, 115, 154, 157, 223, 269–287, 323, 329, 336, 343 norms of solidarity, 112 *See also* Community solidarity *Solidarność* movement/trade union Solidarity, 4, 5, 222 Soros, George, 44, 56, 179, 326

Stanisław Brzozowski Association, 52, 57 State funding, 4, 11, 15, 17, 27n4, 57, 61, 68, 69, 94, 98, 100, 116, 129, 182, 279, 280, 282–284, 326, 351 laws, 184, 349 legislation, permissive, 175 legislation, repressive/coercive, 103, 171, 286 pressures, 4, 13, 282, 283, 349 regulations, 2 State corporatism/state corporatist, 7, 9 Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth, 130, 134 Swedish Agency for Growth Policy Analysis Swedish Rural Parliament, 127 Swedish Board of Agriculture, 130, 131 Swedish Government Ofcial Report(s) (Statens ofentliga utredningar, SOU), 136 Swedish National Rural Development Agency, 130, 138n4

#### resource dependence theory, 39, 42, 57, 59, 61, 115, 189, 245, 246 resource mobilization theory, 218, 345 Toepler, Stefan, 1, 2, 74, 94, 272, 273, 286 Traditional values, 77, 78, 84, 85

#### **U**

Ukraine, 226 UNICEF, 202 Union of Women, 74 United Kingdom (UK), 43, 49, 54, 124 United Nations (UN), 44 United Russia, party, 176 United States (U.S.), 40, 41, 43, 49, 50, 59, 60, 101, 153, 224 United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 98, 104, 112, 176 Urban Movements Congress, 20, 151, 153, 156–158, 160–162 Urbanization, 19, 124–126, 137, 145, 156

#### **T**

Tarrow, Sidney G., 154, 219 Teory ecological organizational theory, 173 institutionalism, 173

**V** Vinogradova, Elena, 72

#### **W**

Western Balkans, 231

Wijkström, Filip, 9, 12, 146, 153, 195, 196, 199–201, 247, 272, 303 Women's Congress, 229 World Bank, 27n4, 54 World Giving Index, 54

**Y** *Yiddishkeit*, 277

**Z** Zald, Mayer N., 219, 344


**7.4 Public acceptance**

Technological acceptance is a well-researched topic in the overall internet and overall Information Technology and Information Services (IT/IS) areas. There are recent studies [19] that have adopted this area research in the advanced technological areas such as augmented reality which may be very relevant in the metaverse and overall Web3 context. Perceived positive impact, novelty, ease of use, informativeness, usefulness, and enjoyment are some of the highlighted determinants of acceptance in the context of this study. The determinants might be a good start point for eCommerce businesses to analyze their service and check user acceptance.


**6. Gateways and ornamentation**

Details used to reflect the social and economic strata of the residents. Beside richness of *rawshan*, this was also presented in gateways and ornamentation. Better houses usually have gateways with the finest elaborated woodwork. The principal external doors have two leaves. They are decorated with engraved panels; the right fold contains a smaller one "*khokhah*". The gateway is topped by pointed or semicircular arches decorated with different motifs (**Figure 24**). The gateway has two purposes; first, it identifies the social status of the owner, and second, it reaches to the *dehleez* leading to the reception hall while controlling field view to protect privacy.

External plaster, added to protect *Al-Mangabi* stone, was developed by adding decorative carving especially on the lower level of the building facades framing the main gateways and windows. Plaster was employed to the stone and instantly

**Figure 24.** *Main gateways with different levels of details.*

**Figure 25.** *Level of details that reflect the economic strata.*

carved while it is still wet. The plaster was profoundly engraved with ornamental geometric or floral designs which were cut so that the upper surfaces sloped downwards to ease water to run off the plaster. The technique was more laborious and more permanent. Again, richness of decoration (**Figure 25**) satisfies a basic human need of self-expression, being noticed, demonstrating the social and economic excellency which is a key ingredient of sustainability.


*3.3. Training Process*

RBFA-Net is a single-stage network, so we refer to the training method of single-stage network in MMDetection [57] during training.

The specific training process is as follows:


*3.1. Demographic and Displacement Characteristics of Participants*

Two hundred and ninety-seven (297) young women participated in the survey. The median age of participants was 25 years (IQR: 21–29), with 72.7% of them being Syrian Arab and 27.3% being Syrian Kurdish. The young women arrived from 11 out of 14 Syrian governates (administrative districts in Syria), with the majority (*n* = 162; 54.5%) coming from Aleppo and only one participant coming from Latakia. The distribution of participants between the different governates is presented in Figure 1. The vast majority of participants were married (*n* = 268; 90.2%). A total of 51.2% (*n* = 128) of young women had acquired an education below secondary level and 48.8% (*n* = 145) of them completed an education above secondary level. A total of 89.9% (*n* = 267) of the participants had a monthly income, while the rest of the young women (*n* = 30) were not receiving any income for the last three to five months, since the beginning of the economic crisis in Lebanon. Most of the young women (*n* = 131; 44.1%) received a monthly income of USD 100-399. More than half of the participants (*n* = 159; 53.5%) lived in urban areas before arriving to Lebanon, while the rest lived in rural areas (*n* = 138; 46.5%). The largest proportion of participants indicated to be living as refugees between 5 and 10 years, be it in Lebanon (*n* = 174; 58.6%), or more precisely in Bourj Hammoud (*n* = 137; 46.1%). Fear and security concern was the most frequent given reason for fleeing (*n* = 217; 73.1%), followed by economic difficulties (*n* = 35; 11.8%), reunification with a husband (*n* = 31; 10.4%), and lack of daily necessities (*n* = 14; 4.7%). The median number of individuals sharing the same place of residence with the participants was 5 (IQR: 4–8), with 2 being the median number of adults (≥18 years of age) and 3 the median number of children (<18 years of age) in residence. The detailed demographic and displacement characteristics of the participating Syrian refugee young women are presented in Table 1.

Syrian refugee young women are presented in Table 1.

**Figure 1.** Distribution of participants (*n* = 297) by governates of origin in Syria. **Figure 1.** Distribution of participants (*n* = 297) by governates of origin in Syria.

### *3.2. Individual Agency in Displacement*

For most of the participants (*n* = 241; 81.1%), the husband was the head of the household. That was followed by a relative (*n* = 27; 9.1%) or a parent (*n* = 16; 5.4%). Only 13 out of the 297 young women were themselves the head of their household. Most of the participants were financially dependent on their husbands (*n* = 250; 84.2%), while some others depend on family members (*n* = 33; 11.1%). Only 14 out of the 297 young women were financially independent through a job they had in Bourj Hammoud. None of the participants depended on a direct support by UNHCR or a non-governmental organization (NGO). We asked the young women about the decision maker in their household when it comes to their healthcare, mobility, work and participation in workshops, and physical appearance. Most of participants had their own last say when it comes to decisions regarding their mobility (*n* = 115; 38.7%), ability to work or participate in workshops (*n* = 115; 38.7%), and physical appearance (*n* = 167; 56.2%). However, the biggest percentage of young women (*n* = 102; 34.3%) had to make a joint decision with their husband/partner for issues related to their own healthcare. In case the decisions were not made independently or jointly, the husband/partner or another relative (e.g., mother or mother-in-law) was the final decision maker. An overview of the results is presented in Table 2. We also asked the young women about the final decision maker regarding the household's daily purchases. Most participants (*n* = 99; 33.3%) were the decision makers on that regard, followed by the husband/partner (*n* = 86; 29%), a joint decision with the husband/partner (*n* = 66; 22.2%), and another relative (*n* = 46; 15.5%). When having a closer look only among married participants (*n* = 268), we also found that the majority of the young women made independent decisions regarding their mobility (*n* = 106/268; 39.5%), work and participation in workshops (*n* = 106/268; 56%), physical appearance (*n* = 150/268; 56.6%), and household's daily purchases (*n* = 91/268; 40%), but had to make a joint decision with their husband or partner regarding their own health (*n* = 102/268; 38%).

**Table 2.** Final decision maker in household on matters that concern the young women.