The project proposes to widen the existing underground passages and to connect all of them with the basement of the railway station [78]. With this solution, all of these elements can be unified, creating a huge underground lobby with courtyards and vegetation. As such, all the underground connections (e.g., the nautical club, beach, platforms and station) are supported by one unique space that is bigger and better controlled in terms of maintenance and security. This space is not an underground passage anymore but a building with natural light, ventilation and views of the outside [79].

Regarding the existing building of the railway station, it can be refurbished and recovered as a public facility for the city. The ground floor opens to the civic way, and the roof is also accessible to the public, with attractive views over the sea. The intermediary levels can be transformed for public or private use for the third sector (i.e., services, associations, coworkers and start-ups).

This project is thought to be a representative case of obsolete urban buildings. Their integral architectonic regeneration, with the addition of new public uses, transforms these spots into new centralities and nodes of urban activity. In addition, this typology also solves the longitudinal continuity and transversal permeability issues in a unique and clear type of intervention (Figure 11).

**Figure 11.** Urban and architectural project for the case study of the railway station of Mataró (Source: authors' own). (**A**) Section of the historic building and lobby. (**B**) Transversal section of the underground passage. (**C**) Model picture of the station. (**D**,**E**) Basement and ground floor plans with green courtyards and an underground structure following the railway platforms.

#### 4.1.4. Stream Mouth in Llavaneres

The case study of the stream mouth in Llavaneres is an example of crossing between a longitudinal greenway and the ending of an important hydrographic element used as a public space while it is not flooded. The objective was to generate a set of pathways to enhance the transversal mobility inland but in a healthier and more sustainable way [80]. At the same time, as this stream is a public space, eventual floods and the effects on existing constructions were considered (e.g., bridges, restaurants, stations, parking lodgments and facilities).

Urban and landscape analysis detected that this type of stream usually had little water, so it could be regularly used as a public space [81]. However, there are sometimes floods that fill the stream and convert it into a river. The mouth of the Llavaneres stream is a paradigmatic case with its width (about 40 m) and the two bridges that provide continuity of the railway and the N-II road, which solve several topographic unevenness issues. Inside this hydrographic element, there are some spontaneous parking lodgments, and on the beach, there are several disorganized facilities and establishments.

This project aimed to treat all these crossing spaces with an urban character, solving the connection between the longitudinal greenway and the transversal streams all along the coast [82]. Public urban spaces created around the stream mouth and close to the beach can be designed as public squares with strong materials that can support eventual floods [83]. The stream, due to its dimensions and importance, is projected as a green corridor extending to the coastline that is designed using nature-based systems [84].

All the parking lodgments and facilities related to the beach were organized by means of lightweight constructions, using the same prefabricated wooden system in the previous case studies. Due to topographic unevenness, this project included a footbridge over the

railway to ease accessibility to platforms and to the beach. Additionally, the public square was equipped with facilities related to sports and healthy activities (e.g., bike rentals, showers and urban furniture) and to renewable energy production (e.g., solar panels and wind turbines) (Figure 12).

**Figure 12.** Urban and architectural project for the case study of the stream mouth in Llavaneres (Source: authors' own). (**A**) Transversal section of the underground passages. (**B**) Model picture of prefabricated constructions. (**C**) General elevation of the maritime façade. (**D**) General floorplan with green treatment of the stream, floodable squares and light-weight constructions for local services and the railway station.

#### *4.2. Intervention Strategies*

Specific resolution of the four urban and architectural projects, understood as typological case studies, would make it possible to visualize diverse situations in a common graphic register (e.g., drawings, 3D models and physical models). Comparison of these projects establishes a compound of action guidelines. These are intervention strategies which can be applied to similar locations along the Maresme littoral or along other coastal regions following the same research methods. These strategies are classified following the three research lines which structure the whole methodology.

#### 4.2.1. Longitudinal Continuity Strategies

These solutions are focused on transforming the N-II road in a civic way and ensuring continuity of the seaside greenway:

#### 4.2.2. Transversal Permeability Strategies

These solutions are focused on fostering accessibility to the sea from the urban settlements located further inland:

#### 4.2.3. Urban Landscape Strategies

These solutions are focused on providing a unified image to the littoral landscape that is easy to understand from both sides (inland and sea):

#### **5. Discussion**

Once the architectural strategies are defined and classified in each of the three research lines, the last step of the methodology consists of defining a matrix of standardized design solutions. This document is a diagnosis tool to be used during the brainstorming stage of urban and architectural projects developed to solve the problematics detected along Maresme's littoral. Each one of these proposed solutions was related to a category

regarding its effects on mobility and landscape: 1\_Longitudinal, 2\_Transversal, 3\_Crossing and 4\_Building.

This first stage of research concluded with a definition of eight standard architectural solutions organized by pairs in each category. As a catalogue, these strategies could be applied along the territory with the aim to solve the multiple combinations between typological problematics and action variables, both of which were identified at the beginning of this research.

The matrix of standardized design solutions is graphically defined in Figure 13 as a scheme which shows the two infrastructure sides (urban above and maritime below) and different types of transversal passages. The conceptual schemes of the eight standardized solutions are drawn in red. In addition, each one of the architectonic strategies is represented with a generic virtual model (3D views, floorplans and sections), which provides the recommended dimensions and materials to be applied in forthcoming architectural projects promoted by local administrations (Figure 13).

**Figure 13.** Matrix of standardized design solutions (Source: authors' own).

1A\_ Longitudinal/Urban represents the typological solution for the urban civic way. The urban sidewalk is widened with pavement and trees. The N-II road is reduced, with two lanes for circulation and a third auxiliary one for bus stops, parking and stop and go. Protections with the railway are kept. This is the basic typological section which is extensible to the whole littoral (Figure 14A).

1B\_Longitudinal/Maritime represents the typological solution for the greenway along the seaside. It consists of a two-way pathway for both pedestrians and bicycles. When the topography is reduced or too steep, the solution provides concrete prefabricated panels which can be fixed, cantilevered or solved as a bench with a handrail. In those sections with more terrain, the solution includes vegetation, urban furniture and facilities. This is also an extensible solution for the whole littoral (Figure 14B).

2A\_Transversal/Underground/Non-floodable is the definition of a typology of passage understood as the transformation of an existing one. It contains three access courtyards: two in the extremes and one in the center. Passages are accessible by means of elevators, ramps and staircases located following a longitudinal circulation. Canopies for water protection and wind turbines are located close to access points to be recognized as landmarks. Flood prevention is taken into account by their location far from the main streams and also by including solid handrails and podiums. Interior wall treatment of the tunnels is proposed with light-colored ceramics that are easy to maintain (Figure 15A).

**Figure 14.** Standardized solutions for longitudinal typologies (Source: authors' own). (**A**) Urban side and civic way. (**B**) Maritime side and greenway.

**Figure 15.** Standardized solutions for transversal typologies (Source: authors' own). (**A**) Underground public space, non-floodable. (**B**) Underground public space, floodable.

2B\_Transversal/Underground/Floodable is a solution that focuses on the design of streams with eventual water flow but of a high intensity. These are planned to be green connections for pedestrians and bicycles toward the interior of the region. The riverbank edges are designed with concrete walls and vegetal treatment or also with steps for leisure activities. The access points are based on ramps and staircases linked to sidewalks at the street level, where prefabricated constructions can be distributed with restaurants and other facilities protected from water. The riverbank is treated with autochthonous Mediterranean vegetation, as are the upper sidewalks (Figure 15B).

3A\_Crossing/Non-floodable/Urban and Maritime is a typology that solves the crossing of longitudinal and transversal axes, which can be combined along the littoral. The solution provides two types of squares in relation to their location: urban or maritime. These public spaces are wide and have clear geometries. Materiality is defined with soft

and hard pavements, vegetation, urban furniture and facilities for bikes, ferries and beach services. Access to underground passages is solved with large courtyards which can be covered with canopies. Urban squares, usually located downtown, are connected to the docks (Figure 16A).

**Figure 16.** Standardized solutions for crossing typologies (Source: authors' own). (**A**) Non-floodable crossing, both urban and maritime. (**B**) Floodable crossing, both urban and maritime.

3B\_Crossing/Floodable/Urban and Maritime is a typology that solves the crossing of longitudinal greenways and transversal streams. These are nodes for pedestrians and bicycles but also access points for service vehicles (e.g., for maintenance and restaurant supplies at the beach level). The solution considers the real possibility of having this urban space flooded. For this reason, the topography is adapted with paved platforms with concrete prefabricated panels and vegetation along the edges. Wooden modular constructions can be distributed to add order to existing commercial activities and parking lodgments (Figure 16B).

4A\_Building/Urban is a typology focused on the transformation of existing buildings, with the addition of new uses and the creation of a connection between longitudinal and transversal mobilities. Buildings are developed in the basement, sharing spaces with existing underground passages for access to railway platforms or to the beach. These spaces are understood as lobbies with courtyards, skylights and vegetation. The rest of the building is refurbished to support public uses. The ground floor can be opened toward the civic way and the city. This solution is mainly for obsolete railway stations, but it can be applied to other buildings, such as factories or facilities (Figure 17A).

4B\_Building/Maritime is a typology focused on defining a modular system to build dismountable constructions in order to unify the urban landscape along the longitudinal greenway. This system can organize all different kinds of uses and activities on the coastline, including restaurants, commercial businesses, nautical clubs, beach services, railway stops and parking lodgments. In areas of high unevenness, isolated elements can be hidden with canopies that add new covered areas to host outdoor activities. These constructions are prefabricated, being made of timber structures and lattices, fabrics and vegetation (Figure 17B).

**Figure 17.** Standardized solutions for building typologies (Source: authors' own). (**A**) Urban side, civic way. (**B**) Maritime side, greenway.

#### **6. Conclusions**

This research provides a method to obtain standard solutions in order to solve coastline mobility conflicts produced by linear infrastructures. This process occurs in three dimensions: (1) ensuring longitudinal continuity by means of a greenway all along the seaside, (2) reinforcing transversal permeability between the inland areas and the seaside by means of a sequence of connections beneath the linear infrastructures and (3) unifying the qualities of the littoral urban landscape by organizing its maritime façade, its public spaces and its buildings and supporting social activities.

Application of these guidelines will result in a pleasant commuting route for inhabitants and tourists to be used not only for daily local trips or toward Barcelona, but also during weekends and holidays. In fact, many administrations in the county are focused on these ideas to regenerate the coastline in a more civic way. For example, the Mataró municipality is currently developing a proposal for a new underground station [85]. Furthermore, the Catalan government has promoted free circulation through inland highways, which has great potential for unloading the traffic on the N-II road in order to convert it into a civic way [86].

A relevant aspect of this research was to introduce the architectonic project practice into research methods. The four representative proposals ease the identification and further application of generic urban design elements, such as civic roads, greenways, urban and maritime squares, underground passages or modular structures. Due to their standard nature, these solutions can be combined to solve conflicts in all different locations along the studied territory. The matrix of standardized design solutions is a tool to identify the starting point for each specific urban project under a homogeneous criterion for the whole region. Consequently, the most suitable solutions for each site need to be adapted in relation to the contextual conditions by means of a professional architectural project.

In conclusion, this research provides a method to define the basic system of solutions and also the process to combine them so as to be easily replicable. Considering the Maresme region as a case study, the urban or architectural design that will follow the research will regenerate the coastal public spaces, converting them into urban references all located at the crossings between transversal and longitudinal ways. In a wider scope, the intention of this research was to assist administrations with solving local problematics but with common criteria. Therefore, there is no need for a large-scale urban project, which is usually expensive and complex. On the contrary, the intervention strategies proposed are economically sustainable and affordable for a wide range of administrations and stakeholders, and they are also flexible enough to be developed through varied deadlines set by different municipalities.

This research provides a common base of discussion defined by comprehensible tools to explain and develop urban projects. With the idea of solving the issues of a territory as a whole by means of small interventions, all the solutions provided are coherent and organized in a common design tool. This overview establishes general design bases to organize the whole maritime façade of the Maresme region in relation to its particular conflicts while taking into account its landscape values. However, while the standard solutions identified might be coherent for Maresme, they may not be suitable for other Mediterranean territories. The value of this research is in its capacity to be repeated in other regions by following the process and methods to set a customized matrix for each location which is closely related to its specific conflicts and its landscape conditions.

In order to answer the three aforementioned research questions (see Section 2), this study established a specific methodology. First, the littoral fringe was analyzed in a homogeneous way by registering and classifying the problematics both virtually and with repeated fieldwork visits. In addition, intangible aspects were taken into account to understand the current problematics, such as the historic, social or cultural characteristics of the region. Second, in-depth analysis of the specific site was required prior to selection and proposal of the case study projects to achieve universal solutions. In this phase, basic design tool decisions were important to finally come to adequate but generic solutions, such as work scale, materiality or modeling parameters. Finally, the last phase involved synthesis of the solutions by reducing the design proposals to a set of essential elements, dimensions and materials.

Throughout this process, the use of graphic tools is fundamental, and decisions are taken in terms of the research methods from the analysis (e.g., digital cartographies, schematic mapping and handmade sketches) to the design (e.g., models, site plans and 3D images) and, finally, the matrix of solutions (e.g., standard sections, cuts and 3D sketches). By means of graphic aspects, this research establishes tools to register, compare, decide, propose and show a proposal through an intelligible code for both citizens and administrations.

The next step in this research aimed to register all the problematics and variables identified in a general map of the region by means of Geographical Information Systems (GISs) [87]. This forthcoming document will include georeferenced locations related to the characteristics of each place. Once the locations were properly identified in the map, the matrix of standardized design solutions would add new data regarding which intervention strategies could be applied in each place. This process would set the basis for further architectonic projects promoted by different municipalities (Table 5). To provide the maximum potential to this second phase of the research, this GIS mapping tool should be designed with a clear layout and be linked with official cartographies in order to foster its use by administrations at different scales and also by public and private stakeholders.

**Table 5.** Standardized solutions applied to case studies.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, A.M., X.M. and J.G.; methodology, A.M., X.M. and J.G.; formal analysis, A.M., X.M. and J.G.; visualization, A.M., X.M. and J.G.; writing—original draft preparation, A.M., X.M. and J.G.; writing—review and editing, A.M., X.M. and J.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research project was funded by Direcció General d'Infraestructures de Mobilitat Terrestre del Departament de Territori i Sostenibilitat (Generalitat de Catalunya), grant numbers PTOP-2015-562 and 2015-URL-Proj-047. The APC was funded by Secretaria d'Universitats i Recerca del Departament d'Empresa i Coneixement (Generalitat de Catalunya), grant number 2017 SGR 1327.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors would like to express their gratitude to the stakeholders that participated in this study and contributed with their valuable insights, and especially to the collaborators of the IAR research group: Robert Terradas, Amador Ferrer, Joan Briz, Núria Martí, Anna Peguero, Xavier Ramis and Jordi Mas.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

#### **References**

## *Article* **Socio-Economic Context and Community Resilience among the People Involved in Fish Drying Practices in the South-East Coast of Bangladesh**

**Sabrina Jannat Mitu 1,† , Petra Schneider <sup>2</sup> , Md. Shahidul Islam <sup>1</sup> , Masud Alam <sup>3</sup> , Mohammad Mojibul Hoque Mozumder <sup>4</sup> , Mohammad Mosarof Hossain <sup>1</sup> and Md. Mostafa Shamsuzzaman 1,\* ,†**

**Abstract:** The south-east coast, specifically the Cox's Bazar region, of Bangladesh has achieved a tremendous impetus for producing a large volume of dried fish by involving thousands of marginalized coastal people. This study aimed to assess the socio-economic profile, livelihood strategies, and resilience of the communities engaged in fish drying on the south-east coast using a mixed-methods approach and an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The study's findings revealed that communities involved in drying were socio-economically undeveloped due to their lower literacy, unstable incomes, and labor-intensive occupations. Apart from notable child labor employed in fish drying in Nazirertek, female workers had relatively higher participation than males. Nevertheless, the female workers had less control over their daily wages and reported working at USD 3.54–5.89 per day, which was relatively lower than male workers who received USD 4.15–8.31 per day. Through fish drying activities, very few workers, producers, and traders were found to be self-reliant. In contrast, the livelihoods of the workers were not as secure as the processors and traders. In addition to suffering from various shocks and constraints, dried fish processors and workers, dried fish traders, off-season income, an abundance of fish species, fish drying facilities, trader's association, and social interrelationship played a significant role in maintaining community resilience. The study recommends appropriate interventions to alternative income diversification options, strong collaboration between communities, local authorities, and government for sustainable livelihoods and better community resilience.

**Keywords:** coastal fisheries; dry fish; livelihood; vulnerability; AHP

#### **1. Introduction**

Dried fish accounts for the 4th most significant share of fish consumed in Bangladesh [1] and is much relished by the country's people for its flavor, texture, and taste [2]. It is an accessible and low-cost food source and can contribute a large percentage of protein and significant micronutrients to the diet of poor people [3]. Fish drying is the most extensive fish processing activity in Bangladesh's coastal region that contributes significantly to livelihoods and nutrition, especially for poor and marginalized communities in coastal and inland areas [4]. These activities are of great importance to Bangladesh, as more than 17 million people, including 1.4 million women, depend on fish farming, processing, and

**Citation:** Mitu, S.J.; Schneider, P.; Islam, M..S.; Alam, M.; Mozumder, M.M.H.; Hossain, M.M.; Shamsuzzaman, M..M. Socio-Economic Context and Community Resilience among the People Involved in Fish Drying Practices in the South-East Coast of Bangladesh. *Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2021**, *18*, 6242. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126242

Academic Editors: M. Dolores Esteban, José-Santos López-Gutiérrez, Vicente Negro and José Marcos Ortega

Received: 6 April 2021 Accepted: 7 June 2021 Published: 9 June 2021

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

handling [5]. After harvesting, more than one-third of the landings are used for drying all year round [6,7]; therefore, these drying practices have provided solvency to thousands of coastal populations.

The processing and trade of dried fish are becoming a promising and profitable industry, offering the processors, traders, and other stakeholders opportunities to make much money in the fisheries sector. As a result, dried fish has demand both on the national and international markets. In contrast, the export of dried fishes has increased from 517 metric tons (value 94 million USD) in the fiscal year 2001–2002 to 3144 metric tons (value 5.01 million USD) in 2018–2019 [8]. However, in the context of global food security and livelihoods of small-scale fishers in developing countries, it is dispiriting that the importance of dried fish and the people, directly and indirectly, involved in drying are poorly understood and rarely recognized [1]. Therefore, the study of the socio-economic condition and community's resilience is essential. Moreover, it explains the actual situation of the population in a particular region and allows seeing how individuals or families fit into society through economic and social measures. Finally, such studies help to take appropriate initiatives for the proper management of communities.

Fish drying activities on the south-east coast vary considerably according to the weather conditions. Nevertheless, the negative impact of climate change is a severe concern at regional, national, and global levels, affecting most reclaims' sustainability perspectives, including the aquatic environments, ecosystems, and the dependent societies [9–12]. The economies and livelihoods of communities dealing with dried fish's processing and trade are affected by climate variability. In contrast, the communities are vulnerable to extreme weather conditions (tidal storms, heavy rains, cloudy weather) [13]. These situations raise the need to address sustainable livelihoods and community resilience among those engaged in fish drying. Hence, the purpose of this study is to assess the socio-economic conditions and the key indicators of strength for the communities involved in fish drying practices on the south-east coast of Bangladesh. Many studies are available on the socio-economic conditions of fishers in Bangladesh [14–18]. However, scanty research work has been done on the fish drying communities except for their socio-economic conditions, such as labor well-being's in dried fish value chains [1], the efficiency of dry fish marketing [6], and quality analysis of dry fish [19]. The study's findings will help the selected communities, different organizations, and government bodies to formulate policies for improving the socio-economic conditions of fish drying communities.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

#### *2.1. Profile of the Study Sites*

The study was carried out at two fish drying areas along the south-east coast: Nazirertek (under Ward no. 1 of Cox's Bazar Sadar) and Chitapara (under Ward no. 2 of Cox's Bazar Sadar) located in the Cox's Bazar district of Bangladesh (Figure 1). The main criterion for selecting these two areas was the community's reliance on fish drying.

Nazirertek (one of the most extensive fish drying yards in Bangladesh) has been built on approximately 200 acres of land at the Bhakkhali River's mouth, Cox's Bazar. Processing of dried fish begins in mid-August, and if the weather remains good, the process continues until mid-April/May of the following year (also called peak season). During the peak season, 20,000 workers (most of them women) work in different *Shutki mahals* (fish drying yards), and about 45.34−54.43 <sup>×</sup> <sup>10</sup><sup>5</sup> metric tons of dried fish are produced in the *Shutki Palli* (fish drying village) at a market price of around USD 24 million [20]. Traditional solar energy methods are used for large-scale fish species drying, including Chhuri (*Trichiurus haumela)*, Laitta (*Harpadon nehereus*), Faishya (*Setipinna phasa*), Poa (*Argyrosomus regius*), and Surma (*Scomberomorus guttatus*). Fish drying is mainly done in *Khola* (Bengali name of fish processing facility), where raw fish is spread on bamboo mats on the floor or placed on bamboo scaffolding or shelves for drying.

**Figure 1.** Location of the study area in Cox's Bazar district of Bangladesh (Google Maps). **Figure 1.** Location of the study area in Cox's Bazar district of Bangladesh (Google Maps).

Nazirertek (one of the most extensive fish drying yards in Bangladesh) has been built on approximately 200 acres of land at the Bhakkhali River's mouth, Cox's Bazar. Processing of dried fish begins in mid-August, and if the weather remains good, the process continues until mid-April/May of the following year (also called peak season). During the peak season, 20,000 workers (most of them women) work in different *Shutki mahals* (fish On the other hand, Chitapara is in Cox's Bazar town near the Bangladesh Fisheries Development Corporation (BFDC) fishery ghat. In this area, rooftop fish drying practices are carried out on a small scale using bamboo shelves through solar energy. As a result, dried and salted-dried fish and high-value byproducts (fin, swim bladder) are also produced, which are in significant demand from neighboring countries and the tribal communities.

#### drying yards), and about 45.34 − 54.43 × 105 metric tons of dried fish are produced in the *2.2. Empirical Data Collection Methods*

*Shutki Palli* (fish drying village) at a market price of around USD 24 million [20]. Traditional solar energy methods are used for large-scale fish species drying, including Chhuri (*Trichiurus haumela)*, Laitta (*Harpadon nehereus*), Faishya (*Setipinna phasa*), Poa (*Argyrosomus regius*), and Surma (*Scomberomorus guttatus*). Fish drying is mainly done in *Khola* (Bengali name of fish processing facility), where raw fish is spread on bamboo mats on the floor or placed on bamboo scaffolding or shelves for drying. A total of 250 dried fish processors, workers, traders, and fishers involved in fish drying activities directly or indirectly from Nazirertek (*N* = 215) and Chitapara (*N* = 35) were randomly selected to perform the study from September to December 2019. A mixed approach was applied, including individual interviews (*N* = 250), interviews with key informants (15), and ten focus group discussions (FGD) with checklists (Table 1).

**Table 1.** An overview of empirical data collection methods.

After developing a semi-structured questionnaire, a face-to-face survey was conducted with *N* = 250 respondents to gather qualitative and quantitative information. This study examined several socio-economic indicators hypothesized to reflect the livelihood activities, economic conditions, and food security of people involved in fish drying activities. Through the interviews, a range of qualitative information was obtained by asking communities about livelihood diversity, underlying constraints and vulnerabilities, and mechanisms for coping with the financial crisis and seasonal fluctuations. In addition, direct observations and interviews with key informants, processors, traders, and fish drying workers helped to gather information about the processing and trade of dried fish, the use of preservatives, hygienic and sanitation conditions that constitute a significant concern for public health. Therefore, to analyze these qualitative data, a content analysis method that interprets and encodes different transmitted materials (e.g., documents, articles, books, audios, interviews, and images) through classification, tabulation, and evaluation was employed [21]. Later, all qualitative and quantitative data were entered into Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet 2013 and then analyzed in IBM SPSS version 22, such as descriptive statistics and chi-square test.

#### *2.3. Secondary Data Collection*

The secondary data were collected from relevant published books, scholarly articles, relevant literature, and newspapers [20] through an online search, e.g., Google scholar.

#### *2.4. Sustainable Livelihood Framework*

To understand fish drying communities' resilience based on dependency upon the available assets, this study applied the "Sustainable livelihood approach" (SLA). SLAs are a way of understanding the needs of the poor and identifying the significant constraints and positive strength for their resilience. Based on the sustainable livelihood framework, a fishery-based livelihood embraces several components: (a) livelihood assets (owned or accessed by people, i.e., human, financial, physical, natural, and social capital), (b) vulnerability context (risk factors surrounding livelihoods); (c) transforming structures and processes (the structures associated with a formal organization, e.g., government, NGOs, laws and rights, social relations and participation) (d) livelihood strategies (the range

and combination of activities people undertake or do to achieve livelihood goals such as productive activities, investment strategies); and (e) livelihood outcomes (achievement or output of the people's livelihood strategies) [22]. Through open-ended interviews and FGD, much information was gathered about access to different types of capital, livelihood strategies and decision-making processes, local institutions, and their ability and willingness to respond to changing vulnerability contexts. Themes were identified and classified into manageable categories of different variables: physical capital, financial capital, social capital, strength, threats, and outcomes. repetition. Consistency ratios (CR) of 0.0030 to 0.0145 for the table were well within the balance of less than or equal to the 0.10 recommended by Saaty [23], signifying a small probability that the weights were developed by chance [24]. **Table 2.** The relative importance of two criteria [23]. **1/9 1/8 1/7 1/6 1/5 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9**  Extremely Very strongly Strongly Moderately Equally Moderately Strongly Very strongly Extremely

for specified objectives (Table 2). To use this procedure, the weights needed to sum up to

cant) to 9/9 (most important) [23]. In this research, scores were assigned in rank order according to the number of factors involved in evaluating resilience assessment without

#### *2.5. Community Resilience Assessment* Less important More important

*Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2021**, *18*, x 6 of 24

In terms of community resilience, the term 'socio-economic stability' denotes how the community can maintain their livelihoods and desired living standards without outside support, following undesirable shocks [21]. As the fish drying communities in Cox's Bazar region are vulnerable to seasonality and extreme weather conditions, it is essential to know how the communities manage resilience in the face of change. The present study identified 25 essential criteria of livelihood assets to assess communities' resilience, such as human assets (dried fish processors, fishermen, dried fish traders, fish drying workers, and fish drying worker), financial assets (trading of dried fish, daily income, credit, savings, and livestock rearing), natural assets (abundance of

The procedure for assessing the resilience of fish drying communities is presented in Figure 2. A multi-criteria decision model-the adaptive analytical hierarchy process (AHP) was used for resilience assessment of the communities involved in fish drying (Figure 2). The model structure for assessing communities' resilience was based on a three-level hierarchical structure that breaks down all criteria into sub-models. To cluster a hierarchy, it was first decided which criteria to group, based on the similarity of these criteria in terms of the functions they perform or the features they share [23]. dried fish species, enough land for drying, water, forest, and grassland), social assets (cooperatives, dried fish traders' association, social interrelationship, social class, and marketing system), and physical assets (house, *khola/macha*, landing center, market, and road structure) (Figure 2). Weights were given following the effectiveness of the criteria. The weight for each factor was determined by pair-wise comparisons in the context of a decision-making process known as the analytical hierarchy process [23,25], which was also suggested by other authors [21,26–28]. The assessment of resilience at each level of the factor was determined from survey findings and professional judgment.

**Figure 2.** The adapted analytical hierarchy process (AHP) for resilience assessment of communities involved in fish drying practices in the Cox's Bazar region of Bangladesh.

The top or first hierarchy level represents the goal of the multi-criteria decisionmaking analysis process. In contrast, the intermediate or second hierarchy level lists the respective evaluation criteria compared pair-wise to assess their relative weight. Each of these clusters was considered a sub-model. Finally, the bottom level of the hierarchy contains criteria for evaluation. All of these criteria (sub-attributes) were identified to create a pair-wise comparison matrix that assesses the relative importance of the different measures to evaluate the resilience of communities involved in fish-drying practices.

#### Weight and Score

The development of weight was based on a pair-wise comparison matrix. A comparison of the relative importance of the two criteria was involved in determining resilience for specified objectives (Table 2). To use this procedure, the weights needed to sum up to 1. Ratings are systematically scored on a 17-point continuous scale from 1/9 (least significant) to 9/9 (most important) [23]. In this research, scores were assigned in rank order according to the number of factors involved in evaluating resilience assessment without repetition. Consistency ratios (CR) of 0.0030 to 0.0145 for the table were well within the balance of less than or equal to the 0.10 recommended by Saaty [23], signifying a small probability that the weights were developed by chance [24].

**Table 2.** The relative importance of two criteria [23].

The present study identified 25 essential criteria of livelihood assets to assess communities' resilience, such as human assets (dried fish processors, fishermen, dried fish traders, fish drying workers, and fish drying worker), financial assets (trading of dried fish, daily income, credit, savings, and livestock rearing), natural assets (abundance of dried fish species, enough land for drying, water, forest, and grassland), social assets (co-operatives, dried fish traders' association, social interrelationship, social class, and marketing system), and physical assets (house, *khola/macha*, landing center, market, and road structure) (Figure 2). Weights were given following the effectiveness of the criteria. The weight for each factor was determined by pair-wise comparisons in the context of a decision-making process known as the analytical hierarchy process [23,25], which was also suggested by other authors [21,26–28]. The assessment of resilience at each level of the factor was determined from survey findings and professional judgment.

#### *2.6. Statistical Analysis*

Multinomial logistic regression analysis, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and community resilience analysis were performed through SPSS Version 22 (IBM) and MS Excel Spreadsheet 2013.

#### 2.6.1. Likelihood Ratio Test

Likelihood ratio tests between various categorical variables (has two or more categories, also known as qualitative variables) indicate a significant association between the variable and the socio-economic state of the community. In this study, descriptive statistics (cross-tabulation analysis) were applied to perform likelihood ratio tests between various categorical variables through SPSS software. The categorical demographic variables such as age, gender, religion, marital status and educational status, occupational profile, family type, training facility, access to resources, food security, food type, and savings scheme were chosen to find significant associations.

#### 2.6.2. Binary Logistic Regression Analysis

A binary logistic regression model was used to examine how socio-economic and demographic variables affect fish drying activities' food safety. In the study, respondents were considered to have food securities if they were able to intake enough food three times a day. Otherwise, respondents were considered food insecure, if they could not manage enough food for their families in one day or eat twice a day. As the dependent variable (having food security or not) is dichotomous, the model was used to identify the factors affecting the odds ratio of the food status of the communities. The odds ratio refers to people's probability of having food insecurity (Pi) to predict people's food insecurity (1 − Pi). The dependent variable used in the study is the dummy variable that takes the value of one for having (food security); 0 otherwise (food insecure).

The logistic model of the relationship between the respondent's food security status variable and its explanatory variables is specified as Equation (1):

$$\text{In}[\text{Pi}/(1-\text{Pi})] = \beta\_0 + \beta\_1 \mathcal{X}\_{1i} + \beta\_2 \mathcal{X}\_{2i} + \dots \dots \dots \dots \tag{1}$$

where subscript i denotes the i-th observation in the sample, P is the probability of the outcome, β<sup>0</sup> is the intercept, and β1, β<sup>2</sup> . . . are the coefficients associated with each explanatory variable, X<sup>1</sup> (age), X<sup>2</sup> (Gender), X<sup>3</sup> (occupation)......

#### 2.6.3. Multinomial Logistic Regression Analysis

A multinomial logistic regression model is generally used when there is a categorical dependent variable where the dependent variable is nominal and has more than two categories. It uses one category as a referenced category (any one of them) and compares other categories with a reference category by taking log odds. This study's dependent variable was the respondents' socio-economic status (SES), and the independent variables were the socio-demographic variables. The respondents were ranked into poor, middle, and rich classes to identify the key determinant of the livelihood strategy according to their income, land ownership, and utility services. Empirically, the MLR in this study can be expressed as Equation (2):

$$\begin{aligned} \text{Log} &= \frac{\text{Prob}(\text{Y}\_{i}=\text{j})}{\text{Prob}(\text{Y}\_{i}=\text{j}')} = \alpha + \beta\_{1}(\text{age}) + \beta\_{2}(\text{marital}) + \beta\_{3}(\text{occupation}) + \beta\_{4}(\text{house}) \\ &+ \beta\_{5}(\text{owner}) + \beta\_{6}(\text{drinking}) + \beta\_{7}(\text{income}) + \beta\_{8}(\text{credit}) \dots \dots \dots \end{aligned} \tag{2}$$

J is the identified cluster, poor class, and middle class, and j0 is the reference cluster, Rich class.

#### **3. Results**

#### *3.1. Socio-Demographic Profile of the Communities*

The main occupations of all respondents in the selected community were fish drying, fishing, and fish trading, and they spent the busiest time in about nine months engaging in drying. During the survey, various age groups of dry fish producers, workers, and traders varying from 5 to 60 years were found to be involved in fish drying where most of them (38% at Nazirertek and 49% at Chitapara) belonged to the age group of 30–40 years. The communities' religious status revealed that the fish drying business was mainly dominated by Muslims (94%, Nazirertek, and 86%, Chitapara). Simultaneously, the minorities were the Hindu communities who had been seen to be involved in fishing and other businesses (Table 3).

**Table 3.** Summary of the communities' socio-demographic profile involved in fish drying activities in the study areas (*N* = 250).

#### **Table 3.** *Cont.*

Data obtained from the survey showed that most of Nazirertek (36%) communities had no formal education, whereas in Chitapara, 37% of respondents could only write their names. However, 29% of Nazirertek respondents could only sign, while the other 24% and 11% had primary and secondary education, respectively. In Chitapara, these percentages were 37%, 31% and 3%, respectively. Housing conditions of a community indicate the level of well-being or economic status of the people. In Nazirertek, 42% of respondents lived in houses made of wood with a tin shed, and the other 32% lived in straw roof houses, whereas in Chitapara, 34% lived in buildings, and 51% lived in houses made of tin and wood (Table 3).

Migration is defined as the movement of people from one place to another within the state's boundary to take up employment or establish residence. The survey showed that 79% of respondents from Nazirertek were migrants, while in Chitapara, the number of migrants was lower (35%) than Nazirertek (Table 3). At Nazirertek, it was found that 44% of respondents did not need any financial help or did not take any loan, whereas 36% of respondents borrowed money from co-operatives, 11% from NGOs or banks, and 9% borrowed from their neighbors. In Chitapara, these percentages were 51%, 15%, 20% and 14%.

#### *3.2. Gender Perspectives on the Livelihoods of Fish Drying Communities*

In Nazirertek, most of the fish drying workers (16% of male and 41% of female) were employed by the dry fish producers (30%) and traders (8%), while women (especially widows, divorcee) made up the majority of the dried fish workers. As a result, most male workers (29%) received USD 4.12–5.89 day−<sup>1</sup> , and only a few (6%) received USD 5.89–8.25 day−<sup>1</sup> by working from 10–12 hrs. On the other hand, more than half of the women (51%) received USD 3.54–4.12 day−<sup>1</sup> , and only 5% received USD 4.12–5.89 day−<sup>1</sup> (Figure 3).

*Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2021**, *18*, x 10 of 24

**Figure 3.** Gender participation profile of the fish drying community living in Nazirertek. **Figure 3.** Gender participation profile of the fish drying community living in Nazirertek. **Figure 3.** Gender participation profile of the fish drying community living in Nazirertek.

Most of the child workers in Nazirertek belonged to the age group 5–15 years (5% male, 6% female), while male children earned USD 2.02–2.52 day−1 (3%) to USD 3.54–4.12 day−1 (4%) and female earned (2%) USD 2.36–2.95 day−1 (Figure 3). Figure 4 shows that no children were engaged in drying fish in Chitapara. In contrast, male workers received maximum wages (62%) ranging from USD 2.35–3.53 day−1, and the minimum wages were received by female workers (38%) ranging from USD 1.76–2.35 day−1. Most of the child workers in Nazirertek belonged to the age group 5–15 years (5% male, 6% female), while male children earned USD 2.02–2.52 day−<sup>1</sup> (3%) to USD 3.54–4.12 day−<sup>1</sup> (4%) and female earned (2%) USD 2.36–2.95 day−<sup>1</sup> (Figure 3). Figure 4 shows that no children were engaged in drying fish in Chitapara. In contrast, male workers received maximum wages (62%) ranging from USD 2.35–3.53 day−<sup>1</sup> , and the minimum wages were received by female workers (38%) ranging from USD 1.76–2.35 day−<sup>1</sup> . Most of the child workers in Nazirertek belonged to the age group 5–15 years (5% male, 6% female), while male children earned USD 2.02–2.52 day−1 (3%) to USD 3.54–4.12 day−1 (4%) and female earned (2%) USD 2.36–2.95 day−1 (Figure 3). Figure 4 shows that no children were engaged in drying fish in Chitapara. In contrast, male workers received maximum wages (62%) ranging from USD 2.35–3.53 day−1, and the minimum wages were received by female workers (38%) ranging from USD 1.76–2.35 day−1.

Respondents were asked why children were employed, in which 57% of the dried fish processors and owners of Nazirertek reported engaging children at the request of their parents; 39% thought the area was suitable for child labor, and 4% said some parents

Respondents were asked why children were employed, in which 57% of the dried fish processors and owners of Nazirertek reported engaging children at the request of their parents; 39% thought the area was suitable for child labor, and 4% said some parents

**Figure 4.** Gender participation profile of the fish drying community living in Chitapara. **Figure 4.** Gender participation profile of the fish drying community living in Chitapara. **Figure 4.** Gender participation profile of the fish drying community living in Chitapara.

*3.3. Reasons behind Employing Children in Drying*

*3.3. Reasons behind Employing Children in Drying*

Treatment

#### *3.3. Reasons behind Employing Children in Drying*

Respondents were asked why children were employed, in which 57% of the dried fish processors and owners of Nazirertek reported engaging children at the request of their parents; 39% thought the area was suitable for child labor, and 4% said some parents force their child to work (Figure 5). No children in Chitapara have been found to participate in fish-drying activities, which may be due to their parent's self-reliance in sustaining their livelihoods. *Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2021**, *18*, x 11 of 24 force their child to work (Figure 5).No children in Chitapara have been found to participate in fish-drying activities, which may be due to their parent's self-reliance in sustaining their livelihoods. *Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2021**, *18*, x 11 of 24 force their child to work (Figure 5).No children in Chitapara have been found to participate in fish-drying activities, which may be due to their parent's self-reliance in sustaining

**Figure 5.** Reasons behind employing children for fish drying activities in the study areas. **Figure 5.** Reasons behind employing children for fish drying activities in the study areas. **Figure 5.** Reasons behind employing children for fish drying activities in the study areas.

#### *3.4. Health Issues and Treatment Facilities 3.4. Health Issues and Treatment Facilities 3.4. Health Issues and Treatment Facilities*

About 29% of respondents at Nazirertek reported suffering from back pain/rheumatism, whereas at Chitapara, 26% of respondents reported suffering from swelling of the eyes. In addition, swelling of the eyes, skin disease, asthma, diarrhea or fever, anemia, and night blindness were also reported to be suffered by respondents (Figure 6). Moreover, the health facilities for the communities were deplorable; and 48% of respondents from Nazirertek relied on dispensaries for treatment and 49% of the respondents of Chitapara received treatment from Govt. hospital (Figure 6). About 29% of respondents at Nazirertek reported suffering from back pain/rheumatism, whereas at Chitapara, 26% of respondents reported suffering from swelling of the eyes. In addition, swelling of the eyes, skin disease, asthma, diarrhea or fever, anemia, and night blindness were also reported to be suffered by respondents (Figure 6). Moreover, the health facilities for the communities were deplorable; and 48% of respondents from Nazirertek relied on dispensaries for treatment and 49% of the respondents of Chitapara received treatment from Govt. hospital (Figure 6). About 29% of respondents at Nazirertek reported suffering from back pain/rheumatism, whereas at Chitapara, 26% of respondents reported suffering from swelling of the eyes. In addition, swelling of the eyes, skin disease, asthma, diarrhea or fever, anemia, and night blindness were also reported to be suffered by respondents (Figure 6). Moreover, the health facilities for the communities were deplorable; and 48% of respondents from Nazirertek relied on dispensaries for treatment and 49% of the respondents of Chitapara received treatment from Govt. hospital (Figure 6).

**Figure 6.** Occupational hazards and treatment facilities of the communities involved in fish drying practices. **Figure 6.** Occupational hazards and treatment facilities of the communities involved in fish drying practices. **Figure 6.** Occupational hazards and treatment facilities of the communities involved in fish drying practices.

#### *3.5. Income during the Drying Season (Peak Season) 3.5. Income during the Drying Season (Peak Season)*

*Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2021**, *18*, x 12 of 24

In the fish drying season, 30% of dried fish producers in Nazirertek earned USD 2359–5898 year−<sup>1</sup> , whereas the highest income was earned by dried fish traders (4%), varying from USD 5898–11,794 year−<sup>1</sup> . Among the fish drying workers, 21% earned USD 825–943 year−<sup>1</sup> , whereas fishermen's annual income ranged from USD 1061–1187 year−<sup>1</sup> (Figure 7). In Chitapara, fish drying communities run the business on a small scale, so their income was not very high compared to Naziertek, dried fish traders, or producers. In the fish drying season, 30% of dried fish producers in Nazirertek earned USD 2359–5898 year−1, whereas the highest income was earned by dried fish traders (4%), varying from USD 5898–11,794 year−1. Among the fish drying workers, 21% earned USD 825- 943 year−1, whereas fishermen's annual income ranged from USD 1061–1187 year−1 (Figure 7). In Chitapara, fish drying communities run the business on a small scale, so their income was not very high compared to Naziertek, dried fish traders, or producers.

**Figure 7.** The annual income of the communities according to their occupations. **Figure 7.** The annual income of the communities according to their occupations.

#### *3.6. Food Consumption and Security Status 3.6. Food Consumption and Security Status*

food intake daily

The intake of a poor-quality diet was relatively higher in Nazirertek than in Chitapara (Table 4). The study revealed that about 95% and 86% of the respondents, both from Nazirertek and Chitapara, were able to take three meals daily, whereas the poor workers had to skip a meal a day during the off-season. The situation of food security between the two villages was relatively higher in Chitapara than in Nazirertek. The intake of a poor-quality diet was relatively higher in Nazirertek than in Chitapara (Table 4). The study revealed that about 95% and 86% of the respondents, both from Nazirertek and Chitapara, were able to take three meals daily, whereas the poor workers had to skip a meal a day during the off-season. The situation of food security between the two villages was relatively higher in Chitapara than in Nazirertek.

**Table 4.** Nutrition and food consumption ratio of the respondents of the studied areas. **Types Variables Nazirertek (***n* **= 215) Chitapara (***n* **= 35) Remarks Frequency (%) Frequency (%)**  Meal (times/day) Three times/day 205 (95) 30 (86) During the off-season, most of the workers had to skip one meal in a day and took two meals/day During the off-season, most of the workers had to take low Four times/day 10 (5) 5 (14) Having Food security No 114 (53) 9 (26) Yes 101 (47) 26 (74) Variation of Nutritious diet (Rice, fish/meat, vegetables/pulses/egg/milk) 85 (40) 19 (54) Binary logistic regression analysis gave the most suitable model with seven variables (age, gender, alternative occupation, household size, income, sole earning member of the family, and house structure) that significantly impact communities' food security. As shown in Table 5, the age of the respondents has a positive coefficient (0.744) and a significant effect (*p* < 0.05 level) in ensuring the food security status of the communities. This indicates that very old respondents are more likely to have food security, which may be due to their work experience accumulated with age. In addition, the results showed that having an alternative occupation was positive and significant at the (*p* < 0.05) level. This specifies that the higher the alternative income-earning activities, the higher is the probability that the community would be food secure. Hence, a unit increase in alternative income levels will increase communities' likelihood of being food secure by 9.528.

130 (60) 16 (29)

quality fish and vegetables six days/week and rarely ate meat/milk/egg

Poor quality diet (Rice, lowquality fish, pulses, vegetables, meat once/twice a month)

**Table 4.** Nutrition and food consumption ratio of the respondents of the studied areas.

**Table 5.** Determinants of the factors affecting the food security of people participating in fish drying activities.

The likelihood that a household will have food security depends on the source of household income. The result showed that the annual income of communities has a significant (found significant at the *p* < 0.05 level) effect on safeguarding food security in the communities with a positive coefficient (0.879). A unit increase in income level increases respondents' probability of becoming food secure up to 2.408. Having a single earning family member has a negative significant association (significant at the *p* < 0.05 level) to ensuring food security for the dried fish communities. The results showed that a decrease in the family's earning members would increase food insecurity. The housing structure had a negative coefficient (−0.614), which had little effect on food security, but it was found to be significant at the (*p* < 0.05) level. Table 5 showed that people living in tin, wood, thatched-roof, and bamboo houses are less likely to have food security than those living in buildings and semi-pacca houses. This may be that most people, especially workers living

in bamboo and straw-roofed homes, must pay rent during the drying season due to most of their income being spent buying food items and on rental houses. *3.7. Public Health Concern*

#### *3.7. Public Health Concern* During the study period, the rate of using pesticides to dry fish was relatively low (2% at Nazirertek and 1% at Chitapara); on the other hand, pre-processing of raw fish

During the study period, the rate of using pesticides to dry fish was relatively low (2% at Nazirertek and 1% at Chitapara); on the other hand, pre-processing of raw fish during drying was unhygienic (Figure 8). For drying, low-value fish are first brought from the fish landing center to the drying facility (*Khola*). The fish are then washed with water as needed and dumped on bamboo mats. Fish are then mixed with salt before being sorted, which is when the fish's quality significantly deteriorates. After sorting, the fish are washed with water in a bamboo basket or plastic bucket or drums, and spread on a bamboo mat or shelf to dry. Unfortunately, the bamboo mats and baskets used are often dirty and are not washed after one drying cycle and before drying the next batch. Apart from public health concerns, such conditions promote the attack of blowflies that infest fish during drying, especially in the rainy season when rain makes drying difficult. during drying was unhygienic (Figure 8). For drying, low-value fish are first brought from the fish landing center to the drying facility (*Khola*). The fish are then washed with water as needed and dumped on bamboo mats. Fish are then mixed with salt before being sorted, which is when the fish's quality significantly deteriorates. After sorting, the fish are washed with water in a bamboo basket or plastic bucket or drums, and spread on a bamboo mat or shelf to dry. Unfortunately, the bamboo mats and baskets used are often dirty and are not washed after one drying cycle and before drying the next batch. Apart from public health concerns, such conditions promote the attack of blowflies that infest fish during drying, especially in the rainy season when rain makes drying difficult.

**Figure 8.** Frequency of using preservatives during fish drying and processing. **Figure 8.** Frequency of using preservatives during fish drying and processing.

poor institutional support for borrowing money (Figure 9).

#### *3.8. Livelihood Constraints and Vulnerability Context 3.8. Livelihood Constraints and Vulnerability Context*

As the fish drying communities on the south-east coast are highly vulnerable to seasonality and extreme weather conditions, these people face many socio-economic constraints to sustaining their livelihoods, such as capital crisis, lack of social securities, and As the fish drying communities on the south-east coast are highly vulnerable to seasonality and extreme weather conditions, these people face many socio-economic constraints to sustaining their livelihoods, such as capital crisis, lack of social securities, and poor institutional support for borrowing money (Figure 9).

2

1

2

3

4

Female Male

13

9

11

7

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Frequency (%)

6

6

6

15

15

Police harassment

Seasonal vulnerability

Poor transportation

Lack of social securities

Law enforcement agencies

Lack of alternative income

Poor institutional support

Types of constraints

Caiptal crisis

Attack of pest

*3.7. Public Health Concern*

As the fish drying communities on the south-east coast are highly vulnerable to sea-

88

95

During the study period, the rate of using pesticides to dry fish was relatively low (2% at Nazirertek and 1% at Chitapara); on the other hand, pre-processing of raw fish during drying was unhygienic (Figure 8). For drying, low-value fish are first brought from the fish landing center to the drying facility (*Khola*). The fish are then washed with water as needed and dumped on bamboo mats. Fish are then mixed with salt before being sorted, which is when the fish's quality significantly deteriorates. After sorting, the fish are washed with water in a bamboo basket or plastic bucket or drums, and spread on a bamboo mat or shelf to dry. Unfortunately, the bamboo mats and baskets used are often dirty and are not washed after one drying cycle and before drying the next batch. Apart from public health concerns, such conditions promote the attack of blowflies that infest

fish during drying, especially in the rainy season when rain makes drying difficult.

0 20 40 60 80 100

Frequency (%)

**Figure 9.** Significant constraints to diversified livelihoods faced by male and female respondents of the community. **Figure 9.** Significant constraints to diversified livelihoods faced by male and female respondents of the community.

#### *3.9. Coping Mechanisms in the Off-Season 3.9. Coping Mechanisms in the Off-Season*

**Figure 8.** Frequency of using preservatives during fish drying and processing.

Chitapara Nazirer tek

poor institutional support for borrowing money (Figure 9).

*3.8. Livelihood Constraints and Vulnerability Context*

10

2

1

4

Salt

Pesticides

Chili and turmeric powder

Preservatives

Fish drying practices were mainly carried out from August to April (called peak season), and during these nine months, the traders, processors, and workers were found to pass time by drying fish. However, during the monsoon season (also known as the off-season), there was no fish drying activity. In the off-season, the situation became unbearable where both men and women pursued different initiatives to support their livelihoods. Figure 10 illustrates that about 4% of men and 18% of women stay at home and do agronomical work. In comparison, 24% of the male respondents prepared *Macha* (Bengali name of fish drying facility) for drying fish, and 15% of the female respondents spent time dedicating themselves to raising poultry, sewing clothes, and doing handicrafts. Fish drying practices were mainly carried out from August to April (called peak season), and during these nine months, the traders, processors, and workers were found to pass time by drying fish. However, during the monsoon season (also known as the offseason), there was no fish drying activity. In the off-season, the situation became unbearable where both men and women pursued different initiatives to support their livelihoods. Figure 10 illustrates that about 4% of men and 18% of women stay at home and do agronomical work. In comparison, 24% of the male respondents prepared *Macha* (Bengali name of fish drying facility) for drying fish, and 15% of the female respondents spent time dedicating themselves to raising poultry, sewing clothes, and doing handicrafts.

**Figure 10.** Coping mechanisms evolved by the communities during the off-season. **Figure 10.** Coping mechanisms evolved by the communities during the off-season.

*3.10. Assessment of Resilience to Communities' Livelihoods Vulnerabilities*

This study applied the 'Sustainable Livelihood Framework' to understand the resilience of communities based on the level of dependence on existing assets (Figure 11). In

dried fish traders, fish drying workers, and daily labor, managing the fish drying communities with their experiences and professional knowledge. The indicators of physical assets were houses, *Macha* for fish drying, fish landing center, markets, and road structures, and the loss of these physical assets leads to complete suspension of fish drying activities.

Strategies

Macha preparing

Rickshaw pulling/auto driver

Stay at home/agronomical work

Livestock/sewing/ handicrafts making

Carpenting/daily labor

Move to another place

Business/shopkeeping

#### *3.10. Assessment of Resilience to Communities' Livelihoods Vulnerabilities 3.10. Assessment of Resilience to Communities' Livelihoods Vulnerabilities*

8

Frequency (%)

8

**Figure 10.** Coping mechanisms evolved by the communities during the off-season.

5

6

Female Male

4

*Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2021**, *18*, x 15 of 24

*3.9. Coping Mechanisms in the Off-Season*

the community.

**Figure 9.** Significant constraints to diversified livelihoods faced by male and female respondents of

Fish drying practices were mainly carried out from August to April (called peak season), and during these nine months, the traders, processors, and workers were found to pass time by drying fish. However, during the monsoon season (also known as the offseason), there was no fish drying activity. In the off-season, the situation became unbearable where both men and women pursued different initiatives to support their livelihoods. Figure 10 illustrates that about 4% of men and 18% of women stay at home and do agronomical work. In comparison, 24% of the male respondents prepared *Macha* (Bengali name of fish drying facility) for drying fish, and 15% of the female respondents spent time

dedicating themselves to raising poultry, sewing clothes, and doing handicrafts.

12

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

15

18

This study applied the 'Sustainable Livelihood Framework' to understand the resilience of communities based on the level of dependence on existing assets (Figure 11). In assessing resilience, the identified human assets were the dried fish processors, fishermen, dried fish traders, fish drying workers, and daily labor, managing the fish drying communities with their experiences and professional knowledge. The indicators of physical assets were houses, *Macha* for fish drying, fish landing center, markets, and road structures, and the loss of these physical assets leads to complete suspension of fish drying activities. This study applied the 'Sustainable Livelihood Framework' to understand the resilience of communities based on the level of dependence on existing assets (Figure 11). In assessing resilience, the identified human assets were the dried fish processors, fishermen, dried fish traders, fish drying workers, and daily labor, managing the fish drying communities with their experiences and professional knowledge. The indicators of physical assets were houses, *Macha* for fish drying, fish landing center, markets, and road structures, and the loss of these physical assets leads to complete suspension of fish drying activities.

24

**Figure 11.** Sustainable livelihood framework of the communities.

The availability of dried fish species and enough land for drying were the communities' main livelihood options. The other natural resources that played a vital role in the communities' resilience were water, forest, and grassland, whereas grassland protects against land erosion. Production and trading of dried fish, daily income, and food expenditure were identified as critical financial assets that play an indispensable role in community resilience. However, the role of credit, illegal tax, and livestock cannot be ignored. The communities' social assets, including co-operatives, dried fish traders' association, social interrelationship, and social class, play an essential role in maintaining economic growth and human well-being (Table 6).

The effectiveness of sub-attributes in each asset is summarized in Figure 12. The results showed that the criteria of dried fish processors, dried fish workers, house, *khola/macha* for drying, selling of dried fish, income during the off-season, and the abundance of fish species, enough land for fish drying, trader's association, and social interrelationship were relatively high. Additionally, those criteria are effective by 20–40% compared to other livelihood assets that indicate the most increased role in resilience assessment, whereas fishers, dried fish traders, market, road structure, savings, livestock, water, marketing network, and co-operatives were found with 10–19% relative effectiveness, indicating a moderate role in building resiliency. The sub-attributes of daily labor, landing center, credit access, forest, grassland, and social class had less than 10% relative effectiveness, indicating the least significant resilience assessment.

**Table 6.** A pair-wise comparison matrix for assessing the relative importance of different criteria for resilience assessment of communities involved in fish drying practices to livelihood vulnerabilities in the study areas (numbers show the row factor rating close to the column factor).

ness, indicating the least significant resilience assessment.

**Figure 12.** The relative importance (%) of livelihood assets in determining the community's resilience. **Figure 12.** The relative importance (%) of livelihood assets in determining the community's resilience.

#### *3.11. Likelihood Ratio Test between Different Pairs of the Categorical Variable 3.11. Likelihood Ratio Test between Different Pairs of the Categorical Variable*

Likelihood-ratio tests between categorical variables showed that all other variables, except religion and alternative occupation, had a significant association (1%, 5%) with the community's socio-economic status (Table 7). Likelihood-ratio tests between categorical variables showed that all other variables, except religion and alternative occupation, had a significant association (1%, 5%) with the community's socio-economic status (Table 7).

Social class 4 2 1 3 2 0.358 Marketing system 3 2 1/4 1 1 0.202 Co-operatives 5 2 2/3 1/3 1 0.226 Consistency ratio (C.R) 0.0089 Overall Human Physical Financial Natural Social

Human 1 1/2 1 2 1/3 0.136 Physical 2 1 3 5 1/2 0.301 Financial 1 1/3 1 2 1/2 0.140 Natural 1/2 1/4 1/3 1 1/4 0.070 Social 3 1 1/2 2 4 1 0.353

Consistency ratio (C.R) 0.0030

ter, credit access, forest, grassland, and social class had less than 10% relative effective-

The effectiveness of sub-attributes in each asset is summarized in Figure 12. The results showed that the criteria of dried fish processors, dried fish workers, house, *khola/macha* for drying, selling of dried fish, income during the off-season, and the abundance of fish species, enough land for fish drying, trader's association, and social interrelationship were relatively high. Additionally, those criteria are effective by 20–40% compared to other livelihood assets that indicate the most increased role in resilience assessment, whereas fishers, dried fish traders, market, road structure, savings, livestock, water, mar-

**Table 7.** Likelihood ratio test between different categorical variables.

*3.12. Multinomial Logistic Regression Analysis According to Socio-Economic Status*

This analysis was accustomed to determining whether demographic variables influence poor, middle, and rich class communities' livelihood strategies. Table 8 represents

the parameter estimate for the final mode while the "Rich class" category had been taken in the reference group. The odds ratio coefficients of the model's demographic variables were calculated, and then the estimated coefficients of the two classes were compared with the reference category. The results from the logistic analysis indicated that out of 15 hypothesized variables, three socio-demographic variables (drinking water facilities, income in the peak season, and credit access) were found to have a significant influence on the livelihood strategies of the "Poor class" respondents and seven variables (education, sole earning member of the family, having children, drinking water and treatment facilities, income in the peak season and credit access) had a significant influence on the livelihood strategies of the "Middle class" communities at 1%, 5%, significance level. When compared with the other demographic variables, the income of the poor class respondents had an Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.007 (95% CI 0.000 to 0.300), *p* = 0.010 and credit access to services had OR = 20.389 (95% CI 2.613 to 159.060), *p* = 0.004; drinking water facilities had an Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.003 (95% CI 0.002 to 0.267), *p* = 0.011. From the "middle class" categories, the results showed that the educational status of the respondents had an Odds Ratio (OR) = 2.424 (95% CI 0.982 to 5.985), *p* = 0.055; sole earning member of the family had Odds Ratio (OR) = 1.240 (95% CI 0.943 to 1.631), *p* = 0.124; number of children had an Odds Ratio (OR) = 8.155 (95% CI 1.426 to 46.651); income of the respondents had Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.399 (95% CI 0.171 to 0.930), *p* = 0.033; drinking water facilities had an Odds Ratio (OR) = 110 (95% CI 0.020 to 0.592), *p* = 0.010; treatment facilities of the respondents had an Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.155 (95% CI 0.063 to 0378), *p* = 0.142; and credit access to services had an OR = 4.277 (95% CI 1.658 to 11.034), *p* = 0.003.

**Table 8.** Multinomial logistic regression analysis according to the economic status of the studied areas.

#### **4. Discussion**

The availability of marine fish, and the drying, processing, and trade of these fish have brought solvency to many poor coastal populations and increased socio-economic well-being. However, they also exposed them to many constraints that drive the need to improve community resilience. The communities engaged in fish drying activities on the south-east coast are socio-economically backward due to their labor-intensive occupation, lower literacy level, unstable income, dependency on seasonal drying, lack of access to resources, and alternative income. Due to the relatively low education rate in the dry fish community, people have always been lagging in improving sustainable livelihoods, income diversification, modern technology adaptation, and socio-economic welfare. Among the two villages, the illiteracy rate was relatively higher (36%) in Nazirertek than in Chitapara (29%). At the same time, more than one-third of the respondents in Chitapara could only write their names (Table 3). This result coincides with the study conducted by [29], which expressed that 25% of dried fish producers in Barisal and 40% of dried fish producers in the Kuakata region were uneducated. While people once had the myth that more families could earn more money [30] due to poverty and daily expenses, most community members in the present study prefer to have a nuclear family rather than a joint family. Household profiles of fish-drying communities on the southeastern coast revealed that most people had to manage a large family of 5–7 people dominated by adult members, exceeding the national average household size (4.5 people per household). This result is consistent with the study of [31], reporting that half of the fishermen in the Noakhali area belong to 5–6 families.

The participation of women among workers was higher than men (Figures 4 and 5). Many widows and divorcee women had become self-reliant by working in the fish drying yards. Fish drying workers were employed seasonally by producers and traders, while some worked as permanent workers and casual workers. Men managed virtually all the dried fish processing activities, but most of the work was done by female workers, such as tying pairs of dried fish and grading, sorting, and rotating dried fish. More or less similar results were reported by Almaden [16], where the author noted that women were mainly engaged in fish processing and men were involved in catching fish. During the study, females were asked if they were more discriminated against than men. In that case, a mixed reaction was observed among them, and some replied they were subjected to discrimination, while others said that men were doing heavier work than women and get paid more than women. A study conducted by Roy et al. [18] reported that gender discrimination was widespread among Indian Sundarban.

The housing pattern, ownership of land, and houses is an important indicator to assess the socio-economic well-being of a community. It was observed that half of the respondents (50%) of Nazirertek dwell in rented houses, where 72% of traders and processors in Chitapara had their own houses to live in (Table 3). The causal workers of Nazirertek stated that during the peak season, they lived in poorly constructed rental houses near the drying sites built or leased out by the owners/traders. They also revealed that they found it challenging to share a single room with their 5–6 family members and pay USD 7.07– 8.26/month, whereas this scenario was less in Chitapara. On the contrary, it specified that 78% of fry and fingerling traders had their own houses, and 22% lived in rental houses [32].

Access to sanitary, clean, and safe drinking water is regarded as an essential fundamental in society. Despite the local authorities trying to secure basic facilities, the community's basic facilities were less than satisfactory. Most of the study areas' communities have electricity facilities, but the other facilities (drinking, sanitary) enjoyed by the Nazirertek communities were not as good as Chitapara. Asif et al. [32] pointed out that the sanitation facility of traders in the Jessore region was good. However, not all fishermen on Nijhum Dip Island have access to electricity facilities and instead use solar power [33]. Therefore, these results do not correlate with the current findings.

Migration is an essential determinant of livelihood strategies. The study revealed that most producers or traders were displaced by natural disasters from Kutubdia, Chakaria,

Moheshkhali, Myanmar (Rohingyas) (Table 3) and lived in Nazirertek permanently for 15 to 32 years. During peak season, seasonal fish-drying workers also move to Nazirertek, searching for work with their families and living in houses built by processors and traders near the drying area. Therefore, seasonal fluctuations are not the only factor driving communities to migrate. Further, different migration factors such as lack of employment opportunities and social insecurity in the local community force them to move elsewhere. Similar observation stated that fishers and their families on the south-central coast pushed highly to nearby places due to socio-economic vulnerabilities, insecurities, and unemployment [30].

Most of the communities had been observed to work long hours in the hot sun. As a result, they suffered from various health issues, including headache/swelling of the eyes, back pain, rheumatism, and dark skin due to the seasonal changes and exposure to sunlight (Figure 6). There was one Upazila Health Complex in the study area, but the medical facilities the community enjoyed were unsatisfactory as they had little capacity to pay for medical care. According to the study, more than one-third of respondents, as dry fish producers, traders, and fishers, had access to a fishery office (Table 3), institutional organization, sea, market, and firewood. In contrast, most of the fish drying workers had no access to an institutional organization or microcredit access due to their social status in the communities. Singh et al. [34] reported that about 82.50% of Coastal Odisha women had access to the market, and less than one-third of males and females had access to institutional credit. Thus, these findings are not relevant to the present study.

Among the people involved in drying, dried fish producers and traders had better livelihoods than workers due to their high annual incomes, occupation, ownership of their assets, and seasonal investments in fish drying. However, most of the workers were landless and poor and were exploited by producers and traders while working under the supervision of producers and traders. Belton et al. [1] also made a similar observation, who noted that workers from very different social origins were employed in fish drying under various production relations mixtures. The authors also concluded that this had a significant impact on workers' lives but often led to the exploitation of subgroup workers, which adversely affected social welfare.

Communities engaged in fish drying activities were found to work hard throughout the day to manage their food and livelihoods. However, most of them had difficulty meeting the necessities of life. As the income of dry fish producers or traders was high (Figure 7), it was easier for them to meet their livelihoods and basic requirements. On the contrary, much of the income of poor fishermen and workers was spent managing food, treatment, and education. They were found to suffer from food shortages, and to withstand this situation they were compelled to reduce their meal frequency to two meals per day and try to consume less-expensive food items (Table 4). Reducing meal frequency and fish consumption reflects their low-income level and lack of alternative livelihood opportunities during the off-season. Similar findings were also reported by Rana et al., Mondal et al. [17,35].

The age of the respondents, having an alternative occupation, income, sole earning member of the family, and house structure affects the community's food security in many ways (Table 5). Income is an essential component of economic access to food at both the communities and individual levels. From Table 5, it can be concluded that the higher the annual income of the participants, the more likely the participant has food security. In the off-season, most people were out of work because drying and processing were their main occupations; nevertheless, they had to rely on other alternative professions to maintain their livelihoods and manage their food. Hence, earning family members also affect the food security status of the communities. Simultaneously, the more earners they have in the family, the more money they can achieve and the more they can manage their families. Thus, the community will have more food security. A similar observation was made by Omotayo and Aremu [36], showing that age, gender, and household size significantly impact food security status among rural households in the North West State of South

Africa. Moreover, this study's findings also correspond to Maharjan and Joshi [37], who concluded that providing income-generating opportunities to economically active age people can significantly reduce food insecurity.

Fish drying activities in the study areas were highly seasonal, and most of the respondents, especially the fish drying workers, were employed on a seasonal basis. This pattern and level of employment harmed community livelihoods, including capital crisis and social insecurities in the workplace (Figure 10). According to Marimuthu [38], the inland fishermen were found to face many problems such as employment patterns, lack of transportation facility, no safety, or high risk, which was more or less similar to the present study. Furthermore, most of the communities largely depended on fish drying activities. However, during the off-season, the communities' situation became so unbearable that both men and women had to pursue different initiatives to support their livelihoods (Figure 10). To cope with the financial crisis, they had to borrow money from various institutions and relatives for livelihood maintenance or other purposes, including marriages, festivals, medical, and different basic needs [39,40].

Community resilience embraces the idea of how biophysical and socio-economic systems can respond to any changes, unpleasant shocks, and seasonality [28]. As solar energy is the fundamental element to drying fish, harsh weather environments such as windstorms, heavy rain, cloudy days, and destructive current can be a significant barrier to the communities' resilience. The resilience study revealed that the fish drying communities were less resilient to livelihood vulnerabilities than other communities because they relied on natural resources, solar energy, and migration (Figure 12). The dry fish processors play a crucial role in maintaining resilience, where the workers work as 'food for work, cash for work.' In the case of community resilience, the experienced and skilled dry fish producers and workers, production and trading of dried fish, enough land for fish drying, availability of dried fish species, traders' association, and social interrelationship among the communities has been found to play a crucial role in enhancing community resilience (Table 6). Hossain et al. [24] also made a similar observation on the resilience assessment of fishing communities at Nijhum Dwip Island.

As far as quality control and public health are concerned, it has been observed that most of the processors, traders, and workers throughout the study period use salt, chili, and turmeric powder as preservatives rather than pesticides to dry and process fish. Although the extent of pesticide application has been reduced, only a tiny part of the community has reported spraying pesticides (*Sobicron, Nogos*) to the dried fish to reduce pest attacks on heavy rains and cloudy days. The residual effects of these pesticides can be very detrimental to human health. So far, dried fish cannot reach a broader range of wealthy consumers, especially health-conscious consumers.

When conducting the study, the main limitations were dialect issues and bad weather conditions, which made communication with the respondents very difficult. Therefore, the most fundamental challenge for the dried fish sector will be ensuring more sustainable fisheries management. Other challenges in this sector include the insecurity of ownership faced by many drying processors or traders due to their vulnerability to climate change. Fish drying activities in Nazirertek are carried out on *khas* (government-owned land), which can be evacuated due to economic activities and may affect communities' working and living conditions largely dependent on drying. On the other hand, dried fish for preparing fish meals in aquaculture feed can play a significant role in the fish feed industry.

A more direct approach should focus on diversification of livelihoods and access to basic amenities, including health care, education, clean drinking water, hygiene improvement, and dietary supplements to sustain the livelihoods of communities. Moreover, the local community leader should organize alternative employment opportunities or training facilities for workers, especially in the off-season, to diversify their livelihoods. A safe place should be provided for the dried fish producers and traders to expand their fish drying activities, such as a private zone. Governments with local authorities need to take the necessary steps to increase dried fish exports in domestic and international markets. In

addition, processors and workers who follow traditional fish drying techniques should be trained for improved sun drying, hygiene, and public health.

#### **5. Conclusions**

Across the country, the poor and marginalized coastal people are involved in drying fish and work hard to meet the growing demands of dried fish with their skill and flawless efforts. Nevertheless, their livelihood patterns are less diversified and rarely recognized. Most widows, divorcees, and unmarried female workers were found to be self-reliant on the southeastern coast by working in fish drying yards. Moreover, most workers involved in dry fishing experienced livelihood insecurity as they are landless, poor, and unskilled with a limited work environment and exploited by processors and traders. To boost the community resilience of the dry fish workers, it is vital to expand alternative occupation and social protection, providing community empowerment for making resource-use decisions and institutional, organizational, and government support. Therefore, this study's findings will contribute as a base knowledge for government and local management authorities for new, practical, and equitable management for communities.

**Author Contributions:** S.J.M.: Writing, original draft preparation, P.S.: Data curation, Funding acquisition, and editing, M.S.I.: Visualization, M.A.: Data analyzing, M.M.H.M.: Reviewing, editing, M.M.H.: Visualization and M.M.S.: Conceptualization, methodology, writing and reviewing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Written informed consent has been obtained from the participants to publish this paper.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of Bangladesh for National Science and Technology (NST) Fellowship which enabled the authors to carry out the research. The authors are also thankful to the traders, processors, workers for their cordial help during field works.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

International Journal of *Environmental Research and Public Health*

## *Article* **Subsystem Hazard Analysis on an O**ff**shore Waste Disposal Facility**

**Sang-Ho Oh 1,\* and Seung-Woo Kim <sup>2</sup>**

Received: 14 September 2020; Accepted: 14 October 2020; Published: 23 October 2020

**Abstract:** Offshore waste disposal facilities are unique marine infrastructures that exist only in a few countries. Although the existing facilities in Japan and Singapore have been successfully operated in general, there have been no investigations on the probable hazards they pose on the environment. Considering this, conceivable hazards were identified for an offshore waste disposal facility that has recently been proposed in Korea. The causes and consequences of each of the identified hazards were analyzed to seek countermeasures for reducing the environmental impact in advance. Hazards of waste disposal facilities can be classified according to their design, construction, maintenance, operation, and site utilization. For these areas, except for site utilization, subsystem hazard analysis was performed. In the initial assessment, seven elements were found to be in the extreme risk zone, 30 were in the high-risk zone, and six were in the moderate-risk zone. After applying the alternative mitigation methods, the final risk assessment resulted in 27 moderate-risk and 16 low-risk elements. Therefore, it was confirmed that the potential risks of the proposed offshore waste disposal facility were within acceptable ranges.

**Keywords:** offshore waste disposal facility; hazard analysis; risk matrix; subsystem; environmental impact

#### **1. Introduction**

Offshore waste disposal refers to the final landfilling of stabilized inorganic solid waste, such as land and marine waste incineration materials. Although the demand for new waste landfill sites continues, waste disposal space is insufficient because of the imminent end of life in current landfill sites, and the difficulty in securing new landfill sites. Thus, an offshore waste disposal facility as a final waste disposal space was proposed as an alternative landfill site [1]. In Japan and Singapore, offshore waste disposal facilities are being operated to solve the lack of space for land waste disposal, while also creating eco-friendly marine spaces [2–5].

Since the 1990s, Japan has been conducting a thorough reclamation plan with local environmental surveys in advance, based on experience in the construction of multiple offshore waste disposal facilities [6,7]. Furthermore, based on the survey results, efforts have been made to minimize the impact on the marine environment by predicting environmental impacts and establishing measures to mitigate environmental pollution. In general, offshore waste disposal facilities in Japan have been successfully operated in the long term, through continuous monitoring, without major environmental problems or damage [8].

In Singapore, meanwhile, the volume of urban waste started to increase when the economy grew rapidly from the 1970s [9]. Hence, Singapore promoted the construction of its Semakau Landfill offshore facility by enclosing the sea between two islands. Since then, efforts have been made to

restore the environment through monitoring and management plans to minimize potential impacts. Examples include restoring the mangrove forests and coral reefs that were destroyed during the construction of the Semakau offshore waste disposal facility [10,11].

In Korea, the necessity of constructing an offshore waste disposal facility as an alternative to land-based landfills has steadily increased, and accordingly, studies on the development of the core technologies and necessary institutional standards have been conducted [12–14]. However, due to various environmental and social conflict factors, such as pollution and the opposition of local residents to the construction of waste treatment facilities nearby, to date there is no decision or plan for an offshore waste disposal facility construction [8]. Because the facility is environmentally and socio-economically sensitive and there have been no previous construction cases in Korea, risk analysis is required to understand the expected risks associated with the construction of this facility. By examining the factors that will cause risks in advance, it is helpful to increase the social acceptance of this facility and to eventually build safer structures.

Risk analysis is often carried out regarding structures that have not been built in the past or are considered to be highly hazardous [15]. Although such an analysis has not been generalized for coastal or offshore structures, hazard analysis from an accredited international organization is mandatory when constructing an offshore plant [16–20]. Usually, such a risk analysis is carried out in accordance with the international standard code ISO 31000:2009 procedure [21]. Moreover, various hazard assessment studies are being conducted in relation to natural disasters and various human activities occurring on the coast and in the sea [22–25]. Nevertheless, to the best of our knowledge, studies on hazard evaluation have not been conducted thus far for offshore waste disposal facilities.

However, a study was recently completed to identify hazards that could occur during the construction and operation of an offshore waste disposal facility, analyzing the causes and effects of identified hazards specific to Korea [26]. A preliminary hazard list analysis (PHL) and preliminary hazard analysis (PHA) on offshore waste disposal facilities were performed, and hazard risks were evaluated. However, the previous study [26] was an analysis at the conceptual design level of an offshore waste disposal facility, which did not reflect the regional characteristics of the facility. Accordingly, the study was limited in that it did not address the specific design of an offshore waste disposal facility.

To overcome this limitation, in the present study, the subsystem hazard analysis (SSHA) was performed using specific design data for an offshore waste disposal facility. SSHA is a procedure performed when detailed design is available as it provides a more in-depth analysis on the hazards previously identified by PHA [15]. Since SSHA is carried out on more detailed design information, hazard elements of PHA are inherited or eliminated, and new hazard elements are also discovered. Therefore, SSHA refines identifying hazards, their associated causal factors, level of risk, and mitigating design measures.

The location of the offshore waste disposal facility on which the SSHA in this study was performed is inside the extension section of the dredged soil disposal area close to Incheon Songdo International City. In comparison with the previous PHA, hazard items are more specifically identified, and the causes and effects of the identified hazard items become clearer. In particular, since a populated city under development is located near the offshore waste disposal facility, considerations for minimizing the environmental impact were taken seriously. However, detailed hazard elements to the residence around the facility were not directly dealt with because this study conducted a hazard analysis mainly focusing on the structural risks of the offshore waste disposal facility.

#### **2. Outline of Subsystem Hazard Analysis**

System safety identifies the potential hazards of the system and derives a measure to reduce each one. Hazard analysis (HA) focuses mostly on identifying hazards at the beginning of the entire process of system safety [15]. The identification of these hazards is carried out through the HA, and the SSHA is performed when basic and detailed design information is available. The purpose of hazard analysis

at this stage is to accurately analyze the causes of the hazards identified in the PHA and to present specific risk mitigation measures. In addition, as the design progresses in detail, new hazards that were not recognized in the previous stage may be identified, and those previously identified may be removed. In other words, SSHA is a step that specifically expands PHA. Thus, the methodology is similar to PHA, however, more thorough results are obtained. Figures 1 and 2 are an overview and the conceptual diagram of SSHA, respectively. The causes and effects of hazards are accurately assessed by comparing them to the hazard checklist based on PHA results and the detailed subsystem design. The core content here confirms how hazards of the previously performed PHA changed during the detailed design process, specifying the causal factors of hazards and their mitigation measures. In this process, the system's top-level mishaps (TLMs), safety critical functions (SCFs), and system safety requirements (SSRs) are produced. subsystem design. The core content here confirms how hazards of the previously performed PHA changed during the detailed design process, specifying the causal factors of hazards and their mitigation measures. In this process, the system's top-level mishaps (TLMs), safety critical functions (SCFs), and system safety requirements (SSRs) are produced. The detailed process of SSHA includes 10 steps. The first step is system definition, the second step is analysis planning, the third step involves the establishment of safety standards, the fourth step involves detailed designing and data collection (such as a hazard checklist), the fifth step requires the execution of SSHA, the sixth step is hazard evaluation, the seventh step is the proposal of a hazard reduction plan, the eighth step involves monitoring whether the presented hazard mitigation measures are effective as safety recommendations or system safety requirements, the ninth step is hazard tracking, and the tenth and final step is documentation. subsystem design. The core content here confirms how hazards of the previously performed PHA changed during the detailed design process, specifying the causal factors of hazards and their mitigation measures. In this process, the system's top-level mishaps (TLMs), safety critical functions (SCFs), and system safety requirements (SSRs) are produced. The detailed process of SSHA includes 10 steps. The first step is system definition, the second step is analysis planning, the third step involves the establishment of safety standards, the fourth step involves detailed designing and data collection (such as a hazard checklist), the fifth step requires the execution of SSHA, the sixth step is hazard evaluation, the seventh step is the proposal of a hazard reduction plan, the eighth step involves monitoring whether the presented hazard mitigation measures are effective as safety recommendations or system safety requirements, the ninth step is hazard tracking, and the tenth and final step is documentation.

*Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2020**, *17*, x 3 of 15

*Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2020**, *17*, x 3 of 15

and to present specific risk mitigation measures. In addition, as the design progresses in detail, new hazards that were not recognized in the previous stage may be identified, and those previously identified may be removed. In other words, SSHA is a step that specifically expands PHA. Thus, the

and to present specific risk mitigation measures. In addition, as the design progresses in detail, new hazards that were not recognized in the previous stage may be identified, and those previously identified may be removed. In other words, SSHA is a step that specifically expands PHA. Thus, the methodology is similar to PHA, however, more thorough results are obtained. Figures 1 and 2 are an

accurately assessed by comparing them to the hazard checklist based on PHA results and the detailed

accurately assessed by comparing them to the hazard checklist based on PHA results and the detailed

**Figure 2.** Conceptual diagram of the subsystem hazard analysis for the offshore waste disposal facility. PHA denotes preliminary hazard analysis, SSHA—subsystem hazard analysis, TLM—toplevel mishaps, and SCFs—safety critical functions, respectively. **Figure 2.** Conceptual diagram of the subsystem hazard analysis for the offshore waste disposal facility. PHA denotes preliminary hazard analysis, SSHA—subsystem hazard analysis, TLM—toplevel mishaps, and SCFs—safety critical functions, respectively. **Figure 2.** Conceptual diagram of the subsystem hazard analysis for the offshore waste disposal facility. PHA denotes preliminary hazard analysis, SSHA—subsystem hazard analysis, TLM—top-level mishaps, and SCFs—safety critical functions, respectively.

The detailed process of SSHA includes 10 steps. The first step is system definition, the second step is analysis planning, the third step involves the establishment of safety standards, the fourth step involves detailed designing and data collection (such as a hazard checklist), the fifth step requires the execution of SSHA, the sixth step is hazard evaluation, the seventh step is the proposal of a hazard reduction plan, the eighth step involves monitoring whether the presented hazard mitigation measures

**3. The Offshore Waste Disposal Facility**

understood.

are effective as safety recommendations or system safety requirements, the ninth step is hazard tracking, and the tenth and final step is documentation. An offshore waste disposal facility is a gravity-based structure that forms an outer revetment and stores waste inside it. The revetment protects the facility from maritime external forces such as

*Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2020**, *17*, x 4 of 15

subsystem elements are listed, elements of each list are evaluated, and the causal factors of any hazards are identified from the subsystem elements. At this time, the hazard risks identified in PHA are also analyzed in parallel. Furthermore, new hazards not identified in the PHA are identified through TLMs, SCFs, hazard checklists, and similar incident cases. When identifying all the hazards, the functional relationship, timing, and parallel functions of the subsystem elements should be

The most important step in the above process is the fifth step of the SSHA. First, sub-divided

The most important step in the above process is the fifth step of the SSHA. First, sub-divided subsystem elements are listed, elements of each list are evaluated, and the causal factors of any hazards are identified from the subsystem elements. At this time, the hazard risks identified in PHA are also analyzed in parallel. Furthermore, new hazards not identified in the PHA are identified through TLMs, SCFs, hazard checklists, and similar incident cases. When identifying all the hazards, the functional relationship, timing, and parallel functions of the subsystem elements should be understood. waves and tsunamis. It should be a watertight structure to prevent any leaking of leachate. For this purpose, it is typically constructed on a seabed of clay deposit that effectively restricts any vertical flows through the seabed. Meanwhile, vertical cut-off barriers are formed by using the sheet piles that are installed along the inner side of the revetment to prevent any horizontal flows across the barrier. The space between the outer revetment structure and the sheet piles is typically filled with a

#### **3. The O**ff**shore Waste Disposal Facility** backfill of rubble stones.

#### *3.1. The Facility of Investigation* In this study, SSHA was carried out for the proposed project of constructing an offshore waste

*3.2. Subsystem of the Offshore Waste Disposal Facility*

An offshore waste disposal facility is a gravity-based structure that forms an outer revetment and stores waste inside it. The revetment protects the facility from maritime external forces such as waves and tsunamis. It should be a watertight structure to prevent any leaking of leachate. For this purpose, it is typically constructed on a seabed of clay deposit that effectively restricts any vertical flows through the seabed. Meanwhile, vertical cut-off barriers are formed by using the sheet piles that are installed along the inner side of the revetment to prevent any horizontal flows across the barrier. The space between the outer revetment structure and the sheet piles is typically filled with a backfill of rubble stones. disposal facility within the dredged soil disposal pond that is being built in the course of constructing the new Incheon port [12]. Figure 3 shows the location of the pilot project, which is very close to the new Incheon port in the south and Songdo International City in the southeast. The planned waste disposal facility is 1.6 km long and 0.6 km wide, and it is divided into two zones of almost equal areas. Once the facility is built, Zone 1 will initially be used for waste disposal, following which Zone 2 would be used for the same purpose when Zone 1 is almost filled with disposed waste.

In this study, SSHA was carried out for the proposed project of constructing an offshore waste disposal facility within the dredged soil disposal pond that is being built in the course of constructing the new Incheon port [12]. Figure 3 shows the location of the pilot project, which is very close to the new Incheon port in the south and Songdo International City in the southeast. The planned waste disposal facility is 1.6 km long and 0.6 km wide, and it is divided into two zones of almost equal areas. Once the facility is built, Zone 1 will initially be used for waste disposal, following which Zone 2 would be used for the same purpose when Zone 1 is almost filled with disposed waste. By constructing a waste disposal facility here, construction costs can be reduced because a portion of the revetment of the disposal pond can be used as the outer revetment of the planned waste disposal facility. In addition, the sea transportation of waste may be unnecessary once this site is connected to the land in the future. On the other hand, there would be opposition from the residents because it is adjacent to Songdo International City, which is only 2.5 km from the residential town.

**Figure 3.** Location of the proposed offshore waste disposal facility. **Figure 3.** Location of the proposed offshore waste disposal facility.

construction, maintenance, and operation. More specifically, hazards such as failures of the revetments, leakage of surface or vertical cut-off barriers, and the risks accompanied by waste

By constructing a waste disposal facility here, construction costs can be reduced because a portion of the revetment of the disposal pond can be used as the outer revetment of the planned waste disposal facility. In addition, the sea transportation of waste may be unnecessary once this site is connected to the land in the future. On the other hand, there would be opposition from the residents because it is adjacent to Songdo International City, which is only 2.5 km from the residential town. transport should be carefully considered. Considering this, a hazard analysis was conducted by classifying the subsystem of the offshore waste disposal facility into the following seven major categories: revetment, vertical cut-off barrier, surface-cut-off barrier, leakage monitoring and detection, retained water treatment facility, landfill management, and waste transportation.

*Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2020**, *17*, x 5 of 15

#### *3.2. Subsystem of the O*ff*shore Waste Disposal Facility* 3.2.1. Revetment

The SSHA of offshore waste disposal facilities must consider all the aspects of facility design, construction, maintenance, and operation. More specifically, hazards such as failures of the revetments, leakage of surface or vertical cut-off barriers, and the risks accompanied by waste transport should be carefully considered. Considering this, a hazard analysis was conducted by classifying the subsystem of the offshore waste disposal facility into the following seven major categories: revetment, vertical cut-off barrier, surface-cut-off barrier, leakage monitoring and detection, retained water treatment facility, landfill management, and waste transportation. Figure 4 shows the plan view of the outer and inner revetments (marked using red lines) that constitute the proposed offshore waste disposal facility. Meanwhile, the black lines in Figure 4 indicate the revetment of the dredged soil disposal pond that is being built during the construction of the new Incheon port. Sections A to E are termed as barrier revetments because they act as a barrier that prevents the outflow of waste and retained water, rather than directly resisting the external forces from the ocean. The cross-section of these sections is composed of double vertical layers of

#### 3.2.1. Revetment sheet piles, as shown in Figure 5a.

Figure 4 shows the plan view of the outer and inner revetments (marked using red lines) that constitute the proposed offshore waste disposal facility. Meanwhile, the black lines in Figure 4 indicate the revetment of the dredged soil disposal pond that is being built during the construction of the new Incheon port. Sections A to E are termed as barrier revetments because they act as a barrier that prevents the outflow of waste and retained water, rather than directly resisting the external forces from the ocean. The cross-section of these sections is composed of double vertical layers of sheet piles, as shown in Figure 5a. Meanwhile, Section I is termed as a separating revetment because its function is to divide the inner space of the waste disposal facility into parts depending on the usage of the facility. Section I-1 divides Zones 1 and 2, as illustrated in Figure 3, whereas Section I-2 separates the space for the water treatment facility from Zone 1. As shown in Figure 5b, the cross-section of the separating revetment is a newly constructed rubble mound structure that includes vertical sheet piles in the middle and water-proof sheets on the slope.

**Figure 4.** Details of the revetments constituting the proposed offshore waste disposal facility. **Figure 4.** Details of the revetments constituting the proposed offshore waste disposal facility.

**Figure 5.** Cross-sections of the revetments constituting the offshore waste disposal facility: (**a**) the barrier revetment corresponding to Sections A–E; (**b**) the separating revetment corresponding to

Section I; and (**c**) the connection revetment corresponding to Section L.

3.2.1. Revetment

sheet piles, as shown in Figure 5a.

water-proof sheets on the slope.

transport should be carefully considered. Considering this, a hazard analysis was conducted by classifying the subsystem of the offshore waste disposal facility into the following seven major categories: revetment, vertical cut-off barrier, surface-cut-off barrier, leakage monitoring and

Figure 4 shows the plan view of the outer and inner revetments (marked using red lines) that constitute the proposed offshore waste disposal facility. Meanwhile, the black lines in Figure 4 indicate the revetment of the dredged soil disposal pond that is being built during the construction of the new Incheon port. Sections A to E are termed as barrier revetments because they act as a barrier that prevents the outflow of waste and retained water, rather than directly resisting the external forces from the ocean. The cross-section of these sections is composed of double vertical layers of

Meanwhile, Section I is termed as a separating revetment because its function is to divide the inner space of the waste disposal facility into parts depending on the usage of the facility. Section I-1 divides Zones 1 and 2, as illustrated in Figure 3, whereas Section I-2 separates the space for the water treatment facility from Zone 1. As shown in Figure 5b, the cross-section of the separating revetment is a newly constructed rubble mound structure that includes vertical sheet piles in the middle and

detection, retained water treatment facility, landfill management, and waste transportation.

**Figure 5.** Cross-sections of the revetments constituting the offshore waste disposal facility: (**a**) the barrier revetment corresponding to Sections A–E; (**b**) the separating revetment corresponding to Section I; and (**c**) the connection revetment corresponding to Section L. **Figure 5.** Cross-sections of the revetments constituting the offshore waste disposal facility: (**a**) the barrier revetment corresponding to Sections A–E; (**b**) the separating revetment corresponding to Section I; and (**c**) the connection revetment corresponding to Section L.

Meanwhile, Section I is termed as a separating revetment because its function is to divide the inner space of the waste disposal facility into parts depending on the usage of the facility. Section I-1 divides Zones 1 and 2, as illustrated in Figure 3, whereas Section I-2 separates the space for the water treatment facility from Zone 1. As shown in Figure 5b, the cross-section of the separating revetment is a newly constructed rubble mound structure that includes vertical sheet piles in the middle and water-proof sheets on the slope.

Finally, Section L, termed as a connection revetment, utilizes the revetment of the dredged soil disposal pond and supplements it with only an additional function as a barrier. Accordingly, the soil strength is improved by means of deep cement mixing (DCM) and waterproof sheets are installed on the slope of the existing revetment.

#### 3.2.2. Vertical Cut-Off Barrier

For the barrier revetment (Sections A–E), the vertical cut-off barrier, which is composed of double-layer sheet piles, is applied as a means of preventing leachate movement. For the junction between the neighboring sheet piles, an expansive-type water stop material was used.

#### 3.2.3. Surface and Floor Cut-Off Barrier

A surface cut-off barrier was applied to the separating revetment (Section I) and the connection revetment (Section L), marked in the red thick lines on the slope of the revetment in Figure 5b,c. The surface cut-off barrier is composed of a filter mat and a double-layer waterproof sheet. In general, the permeability coefficient of the waterproof sheet ranges from 1.0 <sup>×</sup> <sup>10</sup>−<sup>2</sup> to 1.0 <sup>×</sup> <sup>10</sup>−<sup>4</sup> . For the connection revetment, the DCM method was applied to the clay deposit at the toe of the revetment as illustrated in Figure 5c. Then, the waterproofing performance is very important at the interface of the seabed where the revetment toe and the DCM meet.

On the other hand, the floor cut-off barrier is typically not considered if the sea bottom has a low permeable layer, which satisfies the conditions of the permeability coefficient and thickness standards required for the landfill facility. If there exists an insufficient low-permeable layer underneath the seabed, a separate floor cut-off barrier treatment is requested. For this purpose, an expandable particle-type barrier material can be applied to form the floor barrier.

#### 3.2.4. Leakage Monitoring and Detection

Monitoring of water leakage in hydraulic structures or landfills is essential. In a waste landfill on land, the electric methods are commonly used for detecting damage to the barrier by installing electrodes on the waterproof sheet and measuring the electricity flow between two different electrodes [28]. If there is any leakage along the waterproof sheet, there should be significant electricity flow due to the insulation of the sheet being broken.

In the case of the offshore waste disposal facility in Tokyo Bay, Japan, the inspection of hazardous substances is carried out on a monthly basis at the wells around the revetment that are prepared for water quality testing. The leakage of retained water is also indirectly monitored by placing sand tubes between concrete blocks in the external revetment and monitoring whether there is any loss of sand from the sand tubes.

In this study, leakage monitoring and detection has been considered an independent subsystem of the offshore waste disposal facility. This deals with the methodology itself detecting a leakage when either the vertical barrier or surface and floor barrier are damaged. If damage occurs to a barrier and it is not detected, the hazard posed by the waste disposal facility may increase. Therefore, it is reasonable to be considered as an independent subsystem apart from the barrier structures.

#### 3.2.5. Retained Water Treatment Facility

The retained water treatment facility, represented using a blue box in Figure 4, was designed to be located in Zone 2. This facility treats the retained water in Zone 2 as well as Zone 1. The maximum capacity of the treatment facility is determined as 4000 m<sup>3</sup> /day, taking into account the daily amount of carry-in waste. When only Zone 1 is used, it will treat up to 2000 m<sup>3</sup> /day of the retained water. When Zone 2 is used in addition to Zone 1, the capacity will be extended to up to 4000 m<sup>3</sup> /day.

#### 3.2.6. Landfill Management

Landfill management refers to how the waste disposal facility is managed while it is being landfilled with carry-in waste. As shown in Table 1, there exist various monitoring items that are required for efficient landfill management. In order to effectively monitor the items listed in Table 1, fixed or mobile sensing methods can be applied depending on the measurement purpose and preferences. A fixed sensing method is used when measuring the deformation of the revetment or change of water level inside and outside the disposal site. Meanwhile, a mobile sensing method is adequate for measuring parameters such as the landfill height or water quality, which are required to be measured in different locations over a wide area of the facility.

**Table 1.** Monitoring items and remarks for landfill management.

#### 3.2.7. Waste Transportation

The proposed site of the offshore waste disposal facility is located where access by land is possible. Accordingly, direct waste disposal to the waste disposal facility through land transportation can be carried out, which does not require a carry-in base for sea transportation. In this case, the hazards

associated with water transportation can be eliminated. In addition, civil complaints due to scattering dust and odor, which typically take place in the vicinity of the carry-in base, can be significantly reduced.

#### **4. Procedures of Subsystem Hazard Analysis**

#### *4.1. Selection of Relevant Hazard Checklists*

A hazard checklist commonly includes elements such as energy sources, hazardous functions, hazardous operations, hazardous materials, undesired mishaps, and lessons learned from similar type systems [15]. A hazard checklist by itself is not complete and does not include all hazardous items. It helps in identifying potential hazards through past examples. Therefore, different hazard checklists can be established depending on the analysis. The bulleted list below shows the hazard checklists considered in this study, which are relevant to the hazard analysis of offshore waste disposal facilities:

#### *4.2. Identification of TLMs*

TLMs refer to an important hazardous accident caused by one or more causes. It is a concept used to collect various potential hazards that lead to the same TLM outcome. TLM defined in the previous PHA study [25] mostly focused on safety concerns on external structures and cut-off barriers. Among them, some TLMs such as the sliding and overturning of caisson are removed in the present SSHA study because caisson is no longer adopted as an external structure of the subsystem of the proposed offshore waste disposal facility. On the other hand, additional hazards such as suspended particles or traffic congestion need to be included considering that the proposed site for the pilot project is close to a populated city under development. Meanwhile, the hazards related to energy sources include mechanical and electrical equipment of the retained water treatment facility. However, the hazards from this equipment were not included in TLMs because they are of relatively low importance in the design. The bulleted list below illustrates the TLMs considered in this study:

#### *4.3. Assessment of IMRI and FMRI*

Table 2 shows a worksheet that is commonly used in SSHA [15]. In the table, O<sup>1</sup> is the number of subsystem hazards that are identified. Entry O<sup>2</sup> represents a specific hazardous element that is expected to occur, and O<sup>3</sup> represents the initiating mechanism by which hazardous elements lead to mishaps. Entry O<sup>4</sup> indicates the consequence when a hazard has occurred. Entry O<sup>5</sup> is an initial mishap risk index (IMRI), which serves as a qualitative indicator of the importance of the identified hazards. Entry O<sup>6</sup> indicates a possible preventive measure to eliminate or mitigate the identified hazard. Lastly, O<sup>7</sup> is a final mishap risk index (FMRI), a qualitative indicator of the action taken to reduce the identified hazard.

**Table 2.** Worksheet used for the subsystem hazard analysis. IMRI—initial mishap risk index, FMRI—final mishap risk index.

IMRI and FMRI use the US Department of Defense's system safety practice standard, MIL-STD-882D, which has widely been used internationally [27]. In MIL-STD-882D, the hazards are classified into four categories according to the degree of severity and five categories according to the probability of occurrence, as shown in Table 3. IMRI and FMRI are represented as a combination of a single index from each column in the table. For instance, a critical hazard that occasionally occurs is denoted as 2C.

**Table 3.** Mishap risk indices according to MIL-STD-882D [27].

When IMRI and FMRI are assessed in this study, the hazard severity was considered based on the importance and extent of the damage. Catastrophic damage corresponds to damage that leads to the long-term shutdown of the offshore waste disposal facility, such as the leakage of leachate to the marine environment due to the extensive damage of the external revetment. Critical damage refers to a case in which the operation of the offshore waste disposal facility is suspended for considerable time due to the severe degradation of the cut-off barrier performance caused by the deformation of the outer revetment, the breakage of vertical and surface barriers, or the failure of the retained water treatment facility. Marginal damage means a temporary suspension of the facility operation influenced by local damage to the cut-off barrier, problems with landfill management, or a shortage of capacity to process the retained water.

Meanwhile, hazard mitigation or reduction measures, corresponding to entry O<sup>6</sup> in Table 2, are generally presented as forms of system improvement requirements. Hazard mitigation measures can be classified into four stages in terms of priority. First, it is ideal to remove hazards from the stage of system design. If it is difficult to change the system design, however, supplementary safety devices should be applied alternatively. Third, if the application of safety devices is unnecessary or their effects on improving system safety are limited, the introduction of an alarm system can be the next alternative. Finally, non-facility measures, such as education and training on safety, can be implemented in addition to the measures focusing on mitigating the hazards of facilities.

#### **5. Results of Subsystem Hazard Analysis**

#### *5.1. Mishap Risk Indices and Methods of Mitigation*

As a result of the hazard analysis on the seven subsystems of the offshore waste disposal facility, 43 potential hazardous elements were identified, as listed in Table 4. The severity and probability of each hazardous element were evaluated through a workshop in which the experts from design firms, research institutes, and relevant authorities have participated. Then, it was possible to determine the risk level of each hazardous element by following the risk assessment method described in MIL-STD-882E [29]. More specifically, the appropriate severity category for a given hazard element was determined by assessing the potential for death, injury, environmental impact, or monetary loss. In addition, the appropriate probability level was determined by evaluating the likelihood of occurrence of a mishap. It is desirable to use relevant quantitative data as a basis for objectively assessing the severity and probability. When quantitative data are not available, a single opinion is obtained through the Delphi analysis or a second-round workshop after the initial evaluation by each expert.