**2.2 Questionnaire design**

264 Current Issues of Water Management

 Pr=Pr[Y\*(Q0,Q1,U0,S)-T>u] (3) Where Y\* is observable component, u is observable random component, as shown in

 Y(Q0,Q1,U0,S)=Y\*(Q0,Q1,U0,S)+u (4) The Bidding Function can be estimated based on the probit model by Cameron &

> Pr(Ii=1) Pr(Yi>Ti) Pr(ui>TI-Xi'B) Pr(ui / (TI-Xi'B) / )

where Xi′B is exclaiming variable, φ is accumulated probability of intensity function, then

Pr(Ii=1) Pr(Yi>0i) Pr(ui>-wi' )

Yi = wi′δ + ui

⎦ ⎤ ⎢ ⎣ ⎡−

= -wi′δ

σ

/ /1 *B*

δ\* = (α,γ) =(-1/σ,B/σ)

B -/ - Yi Xi'B

= γ α = 1/α =

∗

σ

σ

= = δ

 Pr(zi>-wi' / v) 1- (-wi' / v)

= δ =φ δ

= σ> σ

(5)

Yi = Xi′B+ui (6)

(7)

= =

=φ σ

1- ((Ti-Xi'B/ )

the interviewee's bidding valuation can be shown as formula (6) :

Yet standard binary probit model shall be

using the following transformation

the probability for the interviewee to check this bid can be expressed by formula (3):

Formula (4):

Ii=1 if Yi >Ti = 0 otherwise

Ii=1 if Yi>0 =0 otherwise

at this time,

we obtain

James(1987) as shown below:

To the demand end, quality and price of the reclaimed water are the major concern. We detail as follows: Water reclaimed from effluent of large scale wastewater treatment plant by reverse osmosis: capable of reaching quality standard of Taiwan Water Works. For the selection of questionnaire valuation method, the study employs the most easy-to-operate and time saving "Single-bounded dichotomous choice elicitation method" (Boyle & Bishop, 1988) to carry out interviews based on NOAA suggestions.

The scenario of this study is as follow: We assumption that "the government guarantees that quality of reclaimed water conforms with city water specifications, no interruption of supply 365 days a year with assured quality and loss indemnification on supply interruption," and that "dedicated pipeline to be installed for reclaimed water delivery, plus with free-of-charge pipe connection," and that "50% deduction on wastewater treatment charge if total consumption of reclaimed water exceeds 40% of total industrial water consumption of the company". Than we ask the manager or boss of the factory " Are you willing to pay for the reclaimed water for the "T" price we suggested on the questionnaire1 under the assumption scenario?"

The value of reclaimed water depends on its water quality. The quality of "city water" is just the basic requirement of the customer when comparing with more expensive and better quality of "soft water, 1μS/cm". Besides, the assumptions of the following are not yet done but they are the requests of the factories. So we set up the approximate realistic assumption of the scenario.

The selection of the price we suggested on the questionnaire, i.e. "T" in formula(2) in each questionnaire of the scenario is determined based on the current city water price in Taiwan and the costs for reclaiming the wastewater. Furthermore, one or several extreme and median values are set to meet theoretical requirements of the Contingent Valuation Method, the scenario having 12 kinds of "T" prices as shown in Table 1. In another word, the study employs 12 different questionnaires, QA through QL, with different assignment of the "T" prices for each type of questionnaires scenario.

 1 we give different "T" price in different type of questionnaires which shows on Table1.

The Willingness to Pay of Industrial Water Users for Reclaimed Water in Taiwan 267

Questionnaire via fax or mail is adopted for the survey. Every returned questionnaire is checked for completion; in case of miss or obvious mistake of key items, a telephone recheck will be made against the particular factory. For factories that fail to return the questionnaire, urging telephone calls will be made. The study sends out a total of 205 questionnaires and receives 47 returns of which 2 are null; the return ratio is 22.93%. Table 3 shows questionnaire distribution of the sampling zone. For further understanding of the scenario, Table 3 is compiled to statistically manifest the WTP selected for the scenario, and the percentage of factories that are willing to use the reclaimed water at different WTPs

Scenario A B C D E F G H I J K L

Scenario Return Count 3 7 3 3 4 4 1 6 4 6 2 2

Total number of questionnaire 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 28 Note: Data of null questionnaires are not included in this table. Unit of T: NT\$/ton. Ratio of Willingness

For empirical analysis of factories' Willingness to Pay (WTP), the study employs the valuation method developed by Cameron & James (1987) and Cameron (1988) using the software called LIMDEP. In order to avoid influences from extreme sample values, Logit Model is used to establish the valuation formula of WTP (Willingness to Pay); Approximation of Newton's method and maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) are used to evaluate the WTP; accuracy of the prediction exceeds 75% although the number of sample is

> WTP of factories (NT\$/ton) 13.97 Accuracy of the prediction model 82.22%

Under the assumption that "the government guarantees that quality of reclaimed water conforms with city water specifications, no interruption of supply 365 days a year with assured quality and loss indemnification on supply interruption," and that "dedicated pipeline to be installed for reclaimed water delivery, plus with free-of-charge pipe connection," and that "50% deduction on wastewater treatment charge if total consumption of reclaimed water exceeds 40% of total industrial water consumption of the company", factories are willing to purchase the reclaimed water at an average price of 0.48\$/ton (13.97NT/ ton), reclaimed water demand is 131,000 Cubic Meter per Day (CMD2), 22.8% of factories in the sampling zone are willing to use reclaimed water, and a ratio of 47% of the

Scenario

T price 3 5 7 9 11 12 13 15 16 18 20 24

Ratio of Willingness 67 71 33 67 75 50 0 33 50 33 0 0

corresponding to respective questionnaires of the study.

Table 3. Return ratio of difference type of questionnaires

Note: The estimation models are under the 0.5% significant level

2 Cubic Meter per Day (CMD) is the flow rate of water

small. Table 4 shows results of WTP:

Table 4. Results of WTP of factories

Questionnaire No

is in %.

**3. Results**

Table 1. The price "T" we suggested on the questionnaire (in NT\$/ton)


*Edited by Hany A. El-Shemy*

Essential oils have recently received much attention globally due to the increased use of essential oils as well as the positive impacts from economic backgrounds.

New compounds of essential oils have been discovered from medicinal plants and used in anti-disease treatment as well as in most houses as a source of natural flavor.

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Published in London, UK © 2018 IntechOpen © silviarita / pixabay

Potential of Essential Oils

Potential of Essential Oils

*Edited by Hany A. El-Shemy*


# **Remote Sensing in Agriculture State-of-the-Art**

Edited by

Enrico Borgogno-Mondino, Eufemia Tarantino and Alessandra Capolupo

Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in *Remote Sensing*

www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing


**11.2 Addition of cryoprotectants**

To prevent the damage resulting from abrupt freezing or thawing, the chemicals such as glycerol, alcohol, dimethyl sulfate, glycerol, praline, etc. are being added for the purpose of conservation. This protectant referred to as cryoprotectants are added to protect freeze cells or low freezing temperatures etc. But the limitation of the procedure is that only a few biological materials can be frozen below the minus temperature in presence of gas without affecting the viability of cell structures. Liquid nitrogen is used because of the following reasons;


**1. Introduction**

202 Complementary Pediatrics

Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. *Trends Cogn Sci*,

The Royal College of Pediatricians Thailand (RCOP). (2009). The Task force on Thailand's

The World Bank (2011). *Country classifications*. Accessed September 2011, Available from:

Thianthai, C. (2006). Influential sources affecting Bangkok adolescent body image

United Nations (n.d.). *United Nations report on global situation of youth shows changing trends*,

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2011). *The State of the World's Children 2011:*

United Nations Childern's Fund (UNICEF). (n.d.). *Parenting in Jamaica*, Accessed September 2011, Available from: http://www.unicef.org/jamaica/parenting\_corner.html Wilks, R., Younger, N., McFarlane, S., & Van Den Broeck, J. (2007). *Jamaican youth risk and*

Winn, P. (2010). Warning: This fad may kill you, Korean trends tagged with deadly

*Adolescence an age of opportunity*, UNICEF, ISBN:978-92-806-4555-2, New York, USA

*resiliency behaviour survey 2006: community-based survey on risk and resiliency behaviors*

warnings in Thailand, In: *Global Post*, Accessed August 2011, Available from: <http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/thailand/100823/korean-wave-fashion-

http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications

*of 15–19 year olds,* Accessed September 2011, Available from:

http://www.cpc.unc.edu/measure/publications/tr-07-64

perceptions. *Int J Adolesc Med Health*, 18:633-41

http://www.un.org/events/youth98/backinfo/yreport.htm

Accessed August 2011, Available from:

Child and Adolescent Health Situation, In: *Analysis of Child and Adolescent Health*

9(2):69-74

thai-culture>

*Situation*, pp. 161-188

A dramatic increase in Internet use among young people in the past decade (Lenhart, 2009) has contributed to a heightened appreciation for the Internet's potential positive (Lenhart, 2009; Rideout, 2001; Ybarra & Suman, 2008) and negative impacts (Guan & Subrahmanyam, 2009; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Katzer, Fetchenhauer, & Belschak, 2009; Li, 2006; Mitchell, Finkelhor, & Wolak, 2001, 2007; Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007; Slonje & Smith, 2008; Smith et al., 2008; Wolak, Mitchell, & Finkelhor, 2006; Ybarra, Diener-West, & Leaf, 2007a; Ybarra, Leaf, & Diener-West, 2004) on the health and development of youth. Internet harassment and bullying victimization have received particular research attention, and are consistently found to be associated with psychosocial problems including depressive symptoms, poor caregiver-child relationships, social and behavior problems, and substance use (Guan & Subrahmanyam, 2009; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Katzer et al., 2009; Li, 2006; Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007; Slonje & Smith, 2008; Smith et al., 2008; Wolak et al., 2006; Ybarra et al., 2007a). Unwanted online sexual solicitation, defined as being asked to talk about sex, provide personal sexual information, or do something sexual when the youth does not want to when using the Internet, is another area of adolescent health concern.

Certainly, the Internet is but one environment in which youth must navigate. Victimization has been noted particularly at school, where youth spend a great deal of their time. Studies consistently report that victims of school bullying are significantly more likely to experience negative health and social consequences than non-bullied youth, including health problems, emotional and school adjustment problems, and poorer peer relationships (Due et al., 2005; Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Nansel et al., 2004; Sourander, Helstela, Helenius, & Piha, 2000). Unwanted sexual experiences in the schools is similarly associated with psychosocial problems, including alcohol use (Fineran & Bolen, 2006).

Many studies have reported relative rates of bullying online and offline (Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Katzer et al., 2009; Li, 2006; Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007; Slonje & Smith, 2008; Smith et al., 2008; Wang, Iannotti, & Nansel, 2009); most report bullying more commonly occurring in

Comparisons of Bully and Unwanted Sexual

less at Wave 3 versus 26% at Wave 1.

Youth and Household Demographic Characteristics

Annual household income

Sex

Race

**2.2 Measures**

Thompson, 2000; Kaplowitz, Hadlock, & Levine, 2004).

**2.1 Sample**

Experiences Online and Offline Among a National Sample of Youth 205

On average, adult surveys lasted 5-minutes and youth surveys 21 minutes. Youth received a \$20 gift certificate and caregivers a \$15 check for their participation at Waves 1 and 2; and \$25 and \$20, respectively at Wave 3. The surveys were administered by Harris Interactive.

Although parallel questions of bullying online and offline were added at Wave 2, it was not until Wave 3 that measures of perpetration and distress were added. To fully answer the research questions posed, the current analyses are restricted to Wave 3. The baseline survey response rate, 26%, was within the expected range of similar online surveys (Cook, Heath, &

To maximize data, respondents were invited to take part in the Wave 2 and Wave 3 surveys irrespective of their participation at previous Waves. Response rates were 76% and 73% of baseline participants at Wave 2 and Wave 3, respectively. Survey participants in subsequent Waves were similar to participants in Wave 1 and also to the national population (See table 1 below). For example, using weighted data, 49% of the sample was male at Wave 3, and 49% was male at Wave 1. Seventy-three percent identified as White race at Wave 3 and 71% at Wave 1. Twenty-five percent lived in a household with an annual income of \$35,000 or

> Wave 1 (n=1,577)

Female 51.0 (785) 50.3 (589) 50.8 (568) Male 49.0 (792) 49.7 (600) 49.2 (581) Age (mean) 12.6 13.7 14.5

Black or African American 13.6 (213) 12.5 (140) 13.6 (145) Mixed racial background 8.6 (113) 7.5 (80) 8.2 (84)

Hispanic ethnicity 18.1 (206) 16.7 (144) 16.6 (137)

Table 1. A comparison of demographic charactaeristics of respondents across waves

Respondents were asked about bullying *victimization* as well as *perpetration* using Olweus' definition of bullying (Olweus, 1994): "We say a young person is being bullied or harassed when someone else or a group of people **repeatedly** hits, kicks, threatens, or says nasty or unpleasant things to them. Another example is when no one ever talks to them. These things

White 71.3 (1155) 73.9 (900) 72.5 (855)

All other 6.5 (96) 6.1 (69) 5.7 (65)

<\$35,000 25.7 (399) 24.3 (251) 24.8 (241) \$35,000 - \$74,999 39.7 (685) 40.1 (525) 38.6 (490) \$75,000+ 34.6 (493) 35.6 (413) 36.7 (418)

Wave 2 (n=1,189)

% (n) % (n) % (n)

Wave 3 (n=1,149)

the schools. These studies use varying definitions for online and offline bullying and/or focus on regional or convenience samples. Furthermore, rates in non-school environments are not reported. Little has been reported in terms of bullying perpetration across environments also. Of note, Wang and colleagues (Wang et al., 2009) report that among 6- 10th graders nationally, 8% bully others online, 27% bully others socially, 37% bully verbally, and 13% bully others physically while at school. Online bullying is treated as a different *type* of bullying however; such that, for example, social bullying that occurs online is imperfectly measured. Importantly too, data are lacking about how the bullying *experience* may differ online versus offline. No data have been presented to compare relative rates of distress for bullying that occurs online versus offline. It also has been posited that a unique aspect of online bullying is the potential for anonymity; this assumes that all victims know their offline bullies. No research has examined however, whether this is a valid assumption.

Even less has been reported about unwanted sexual experiences online and offline. Ybarra and colleagues (Ybarra, Espelage, & Mitchell, 2007b) report overlaps in victimization for harassment and unwanted sexual experiences online; they do not report however, the relative rates of unwanted sexual experiences online and offline. To our knowledge, no other studies have reported relative rates of online and offline unwanted sexual solicitation in the general population of youth.

To address these gaps in the literature, we report data from the Growing up with Media study, a national survey of over 1,000 youth. Findings have implications for public policy initiatives as well as school and other community-based intervention efforts.