**4. Multiscale deconvolution (MD): The proposed algorithms**

### **4.1 First algorithm: Tikhonov-Miller regularization with a denoisy and deconvoluted signal as model of solution**

We have seen in § 2.2 eq. 10 that Mancina (Mancina, 2000) proposed to reiterate the algorithm of Barakat (Barakat et al, 1997) and to use a pre-deconvoluted signal as model of the solution with sufficient regularization. The accuracy of the solution is referred to the accuracy of the model, which suggests a reasonable formulation. It is obvious that a significant lack of precision in the a priori model leads to an error restoration more important than the usual one without the model. Moreover, if the pre-deconvoluted signal is a noisy signal (which is the case for SIMS signals) or contains aberrations, the iterative process worsens these aberrations and the result is an oscillatory signal. For this reason, it is important to remove noise components from the signal (the model of solution). The idea is to introduce a denoisy and deconvoluted signal as model of solution in Barakat's approach, which constitutes our first contribution in this field (Boulakroune, 2008). The first proposed deconvolution scheme is constructed by the following steps:

The mathematical formulation, in Fourier space, of this algorithm is as follows:

$$\begin{cases} \mathbf{X}\_{\text{mod}\_0} = \tilde{\mathbf{F}} \mathbf{y}\_a^{(j)} + \tilde{\mathbf{G}} \hat{\mathbf{y}}\_d^{(j)} \\ \hat{\mathbf{X}}\_{n+1} = \frac{\mathbf{H}^\top Y + \alpha \left| D \right|^2 \mathbf{X}\_{\text{mod}\_n}}{\left| H \right|^2 + \alpha \left| D \right|^2} \\ \mathbf{X}\_{\text{mod}\_n} = \hat{\mathbf{X}}\_{n+1} \end{cases} \tag{20}$$

Multi-Scale Deconvolution of Mass Spectrometry Signals 141

the generation of artifacts. With an over estimated value of the regularization parameter, which leads to a more conditioned matrix (*H*+) (see Fig. 2), one can reduces the number and the amplitude of these oscillations. The solution can be stable and smooth, but this operation

By applying the positivity constraint, one reinforces the positivity of the final deconvolution profile. The solution stays in accordance with physical reality, as is illustrated in Fig. 7(b). However, positiviting the signal is an arbitrary operation; it is only to direct the solution so that it becomes positive, without making sure that it is exact. Furthermore, the measured dose (the number of ions counted) must be identical for all signals (original, measured, deconvoluted) except for the noise. This dose must be preserved in the resolution of convolution equation and must take into account the generated negative components. With the application of the positivity constraint, the dose of the deconvoluted and constrained signal is higher than the initial dose. A variation of a few percent cannot be tolerated in the quantification of SIMS profiles. It is important to note that in the case of SIMS analysis, physical coherence is of paramount importance. The deconvoluted profile must be physically acceptable. Thus, it is important to adopt a method whose result is acceptable; otherwise the result obtained may be mathematically correct but have no connection with

Fig. 7. Results of TMMS algorithm for sample MD4 containing four delta layers of boron in

To completely remove artifacts from the deconvoluted profiles, Gautier et al (Gautier at al, 1997) proposed the application of local confidence level deduced empirically from the reconstruction error in the deconvoluted profiles. The goal of this confidence level is to separate the parts of the signal belonging to the original profile from those generated artificially by the process of deconvolution. According to these authors (Gautier at al, 1997), when the signal falls to the noise level, at which point one cannot be confident in the deconvolution result, one must fix a limiting value of the deconvoluted signal below which one should not take into account the deconvolution result that likely belongs to the original

silicon (8.5 keV/O2+, 31.8°); αc = 5.6552×10-6, n= 150 iterations.

(a) Without application of positivity constraint. (b) With application of positivity constraint.

is arbitrary and not based on any physical or mathematical support.

physical reality.

It can be noted that denoising reduces the noise power in data; the regularization parameter should be evaluated by cross-validation in regards of the denoisy signal.

Since the noise is controlled by multiscale transforms, the regularization parameter does not have the same importance as in standard deconvolution methods. Clearly it will be lower than obtained without denoising.

In order to validate the robustness of the proposed algorithm, the results must be compared with those of the previous Tikhonov-Miller regularization algorithms. In particular, we have chosen to compare our results with those obtained by Mancina algorithm (Mancina, 2000).

The results of deconvolution by Mancina's approach (Mancina, 2000) are given in Figs. 7(a) and 7(b). It is obvious by using this algorithm, that the deconvolution has improved the slope and the regularity of the delta layers which are completely separated. Indeed, their shape is symmetrical for all peaks, indicating that the exponential features caused by the SIMS analysis are removed. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the deconvoluted delta-layers is equal to 19.5 nm. This can be considered a very good result if one takes into account that the FWHM of the measured profile is approximately 59.7 nm. This corresponds to an improvement in depth resolution by a factor of 3.06. The dynamic range is enhanced by a factor of 2.03 for all peaks.

At both sides of the deconvoluted peaks, oscillations with negative components [Fig. 7(a)] appear under the level of noise where the reliability of the deconvolution process cannot be guaranteed. These artifacts, which have been produced by the deconvolution algorithm, must not be taken for a real concentration distribution. The negative values of these artifacts are not physically accepted for concentration measurements in SIMS analysis. Although a compromise was made between the iteration number and the quality of the deconvoluted peaks, if one increases the iteration number with a relatively weak regularization parameter (obtained by cross validation, it equals 5.6552×10-6), the number and the level of these oscillations increase more which reinforces the limits of this algorithm. Indeed, these oscillations are directly related to the quantity of noise. Part of this information, in particular in high frequencies, is masked by the noise, and this lack of information is compensated by

2. Denoising of this signal by thresholding. One conserves only high-frequency

3. Reconstruction of the denoisy signal from the approximations and thersholded details

4. The obtained denoisy signal constitutes the model of solution in iterative Tikhonov-

( ) ( )

*j j a d*

*H D*

ˆ

mod

*n*

(20)

\* 2

*HY D X*

1 2 2

1. Dyadic wavelet decomposition of the noisy signal at the resolution 2-j.

components of details which are above the estimated threshold.

The mathematical formulation, in Fourier space, of this algorithm is as follows:

0

mod 1

*n*

*X X*

ˆ

*X Fy Gy*

*n*

It can be noted that denoising reduces the noise power in data; the regularization parameter

Since the noise is controlled by multiscale transforms, the regularization parameter does not have the same importance as in standard deconvolution methods. Clearly it will be lower

In order to validate the robustness of the proposed algorithm, the results must be compared with those of the previous Tikhonov-Miller regularization algorithms. In particular, we have chosen to compare our results with those obtained by Mancina algorithm (Mancina, 2000). The results of deconvolution by Mancina's approach (Mancina, 2000) are given in Figs. 7(a) and 7(b). It is obvious by using this algorithm, that the deconvolution has improved the slope and the regularity of the delta layers which are completely separated. Indeed, their shape is symmetrical for all peaks, indicating that the exponential features caused by the SIMS analysis are removed. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the deconvoluted delta-layers is equal to 19.5 nm. This can be considered a very good result if one takes into account that the FWHM of the measured profile is approximately 59.7 nm. This corresponds to an improvement in depth resolution by a factor of 3.06. The dynamic range is enhanced

At both sides of the deconvoluted peaks, oscillations with negative components [Fig. 7(a)] appear under the level of noise where the reliability of the deconvolution process cannot be guaranteed. These artifacts, which have been produced by the deconvolution algorithm, must not be taken for a real concentration distribution. The negative values of these artifacts are not physically accepted for concentration measurements in SIMS analysis. Although a compromise was made between the iteration number and the quality of the deconvoluted peaks, if one increases the iteration number with a relatively weak regularization parameter (obtained by cross validation, it equals 5.6552×10-6), the number and the level of these oscillations increase more which reinforces the limits of this algorithm. Indeed, these oscillations are directly related to the quantity of noise. Part of this information, in particular in high frequencies, is masked by the noise, and this lack of information is compensated by

mod

ˆ

*X*

*n*

should be evaluated by cross-validation in regards of the denoisy signal.

Miller regularization at the first iteration.

using eq.19.

than obtained without denoising.

by a factor of 2.03 for all peaks.

the generation of artifacts. With an over estimated value of the regularization parameter, which leads to a more conditioned matrix (*H*+) (see Fig. 2), one can reduces the number and the amplitude of these oscillations. The solution can be stable and smooth, but this operation is arbitrary and not based on any physical or mathematical support.

By applying the positivity constraint, one reinforces the positivity of the final deconvolution profile. The solution stays in accordance with physical reality, as is illustrated in Fig. 7(b). However, positiviting the signal is an arbitrary operation; it is only to direct the solution so that it becomes positive, without making sure that it is exact. Furthermore, the measured dose (the number of ions counted) must be identical for all signals (original, measured, deconvoluted) except for the noise. This dose must be preserved in the resolution of convolution equation and must take into account the generated negative components. With the application of the positivity constraint, the dose of the deconvoluted and constrained signal is higher than the initial dose. A variation of a few percent cannot be tolerated in the quantification of SIMS profiles. It is important to note that in the case of SIMS analysis, physical coherence is of paramount importance. The deconvoluted profile must be physically acceptable. Thus, it is important to adopt a method whose result is acceptable; otherwise the result obtained may be mathematically correct but have no connection with physical reality.

Fig. 7. Results of TMMS algorithm for sample MD4 containing four delta layers of boron in silicon (8.5 keV/O2+, 31.8°); αc = 5.6552×10-6, n= 150 iterations. (a) Without application of positivity constraint. (b) With application of positivity constraint.

To completely remove artifacts from the deconvoluted profiles, Gautier et al (Gautier at al, 1997) proposed the application of local confidence level deduced empirically from the reconstruction error in the deconvoluted profiles. The goal of this confidence level is to separate the parts of the signal belonging to the original profile from those generated artificially by the process of deconvolution. According to these authors (Gautier at al, 1997), when the signal falls to the noise level, at which point one cannot be confident in the deconvolution result, one must fix a limiting value of the deconvoluted signal below which one should not take into account the deconvolution result that likely belongs to the original

Multi-Scale Deconvolution of Mass Spectrometry Signals 143

application of positivity constraint any more, which validates this approach. The question for the SIMS user is to know whether these peaks are to be considered as physical features or as deconvolution artifacts. The origin of these *positive* oscillations lies in the strong local concentrations of the high frequencies of noise, and which cannot be correctly restored. It should be noted that these small peaks can be eliminated by the support constraint, but we consider that the application of any kind of constraints is a purely arbitrary operation.

In the classical approaches of the regularization (including our first algorithm) the regularization operator applies in a total way to all bands of the signal. This results in treating low frequencies which contain the useful signal like high frequencies mainly constituted by noise. The result is then an oscillating signal, because the regularization parameter is insufficient to compensate all high frequencies. To overcome these limits, it is important to adopt a powerful deconvolution that leads to a smoothed and stable solution. In this context, multiresolution deconvolution, which is never used to recover SIMS profiles,

Because of the very abrupt concentration gradients in circuits produced by the microelectronics industry the original SIMS depth profiles are likely to contain some very high frequencies (Gautier et al, 1998). SIMS signals can extend over several decades in a very short range of depth. The intention of any SIMS analyst, as well as of any deconvolution user, is to recover completely all the frequencies lost by the measurement process. Unfortunately, considering again the fact that the resolution function is a low-pass filter, the recovery of high frequencies is always limited, and the recovery of the highest frequencies is definitely impossible, particularly when the profile to be recovered is noisy, which is always the case. It is possible to produce some very high frequencies during the deconvolution process, but there are many chances that these high frequencies are only produced by the high-frequency noise or are created during the inversion of eq. (3) from the very small components of H(υ). High frequencies in the results of a deconvolution must be regarded suspiciously, except if we are just trying to recover very sharp spikes with no interesting low frequencies. This is definitely not the case for SIMS signals, which contain an appreciable amount of low frequencies, too. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to solve this problem by separating high frequencies and low frequencies in the signal, and then further recovering correctly the high frequencies which are not attributable to noise and which contain useful information. Using multiresolution deconvolution, the final result of the deconvolution should be reasonably smooth. This arises from the observation that, even though the SIMS profiles are likely to contain very high frequencies, which can be

In classical regularization approaches, in order to limit the noise content, one must give a higher bound to the quantity of high frequencies that are likely to be present in the result of the deconvolution [eq. (5)], which might be invalid. However, by this process one limits the quantity of high frequencies, not the quantity of noise. The best solution is to recover correctly the frequencies in different bands of the signal and to find an objective criterion to separate the high frequencies which contain noise from those containing the useful information. Moreover, in these traditional regularized methods (monoresolution

may be the most appropriate technique.

thresholded by wavelet shrinkage.

**4.2 Second algorithm: Multiresolution deconvolution**

signal. However, a confidence level that authorizes to take into account certain parts of the signal and eliminates the lower parts in which the signal should not be taken into account any more, does not bring any information about the quality of information. One of the advantages of SIMS analysis is the great dynamic range of the signal, and allowing the deconvoluted signal to be restricted to a dynamic range which does not exceed two decades and thus does not reflect the original signal. The parts filtered by the confidence level can provide precious information about the sample. In ref. (Mancina, 2000), Mancina showed that the artifacts are not always aberrations of the deconvolution; they can be structures with low concentrations. The interpretation of the artifacts must be measured, especially if their amount is not negligible, in which case, one cannot eliminate them from the deconvoluted profiles. Therefore, it is important to find another tool which leads to a solution lacking of any non physical features and without any arbitrary operations.

Fig. 8. Result of deconvolution by the first proposed algorithm of SIMS profile containing four delta-layers of boron in silicon (8,5 keV/O2+, 38,1°), α = 5,6552.10-6, n = 250 iterations. The level of estimated noise, by using (17) et (18), is of SNR = 40,92 dB. The threshold λ = 55.7831 counts/s. The used wavelet is Sym4.

By using the first proposed algorithm, the results are quite satisfactory suggesting that this approach is indeed self-consistent, see Fig. 8. A significant improvement in the contrast is observed; the delta layers are more separated. The shape of the results is symmetrical for all layers, indicating that the exponential features (in particular the distorted tail shape observed in the boron profile is due to a significantly larger ion mixing effect) caused by SIMS analysis are removed. The same gains that those obtained by Mancina approach of the depth resolution and maximum of picks (dynamic range) are obtained. It can be noted that the width of measured peaks indicates that the δ-layers are not truths deltas - doping, they are close to gaussian more than delta-layers. At the right side of the main deconvoluted peaks some other small peaks appear without any negative component and without

signal. However, a confidence level that authorizes to take into account certain parts of the signal and eliminates the lower parts in which the signal should not be taken into account any more, does not bring any information about the quality of information. One of the advantages of SIMS analysis is the great dynamic range of the signal, and allowing the deconvoluted signal to be restricted to a dynamic range which does not exceed two decades and thus does not reflect the original signal. The parts filtered by the confidence level can provide precious information about the sample. In ref. (Mancina, 2000), Mancina showed that the artifacts are not always aberrations of the deconvolution; they can be structures with low concentrations. The interpretation of the artifacts must be measured, especially if their amount is not negligible, in which case, one cannot eliminate them from the deconvoluted profiles. Therefore, it is important to find another tool which leads to a

solution lacking of any non physical features and without any arbitrary operations.

Fig. 8. Result of deconvolution by the first proposed algorithm of SIMS profile containing

By using the first proposed algorithm, the results are quite satisfactory suggesting that this approach is indeed self-consistent, see Fig. 8. A significant improvement in the contrast is observed; the delta layers are more separated. The shape of the results is symmetrical for all layers, indicating that the exponential features (in particular the distorted tail shape observed in the boron profile is due to a significantly larger ion mixing effect) caused by SIMS analysis are removed. The same gains that those obtained by Mancina approach of the depth resolution and maximum of picks (dynamic range) are obtained. It can be noted that the width of measured peaks indicates that the δ-layers are not truths deltas - doping, they are close to gaussian more than delta-layers. At the right side of the main deconvoluted peaks some other small peaks appear without any negative component and without

The level of estimated noise, by using (17) et (18), is of SNR = 40,92 dB. The threshold

+, 38,1°), α = 5,6552.10-6, n = 250 iterations.

four delta-layers of boron in silicon (8,5 keV/O2

λ = 55.7831 counts/s. The used wavelet is Sym4.

application of positivity constraint any more, which validates this approach. The question for the SIMS user is to know whether these peaks are to be considered as physical features or as deconvolution artifacts. The origin of these *positive* oscillations lies in the strong local concentrations of the high frequencies of noise, and which cannot be correctly restored. It should be noted that these small peaks can be eliminated by the support constraint, but we consider that the application of any kind of constraints is a purely arbitrary operation.

In the classical approaches of the regularization (including our first algorithm) the regularization operator applies in a total way to all bands of the signal. This results in treating low frequencies which contain the useful signal like high frequencies mainly constituted by noise. The result is then an oscillating signal, because the regularization parameter is insufficient to compensate all high frequencies. To overcome these limits, it is important to adopt a powerful deconvolution that leads to a smoothed and stable solution. In this context, multiresolution deconvolution, which is never used to recover SIMS profiles, may be the most appropriate technique.


**2. Materials and Methods**

This systematic review included publications investigating the association between ADHD and addictive-like eating behavior such as loss of control overeating, binge eating, and preoccupation with food, which are the main FA symptoms, and some DSM-5 EDs (eating disorders mentioned in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth edition) such as BN and BED, which show high FA prevalence [19,20].

This review was undertaken according to the quality standards of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA; Figure 1).


*Article* **Spectroscopic Identification of Hydrogen Bond Vibrations and Quasi-Isostructural Polymorphism in N-Salicylideneaniline**

**Łukasz Hetma ´nczyk 1, Eugene A. Goremychkin 2, Janusz Waliszewski 3, Mikhail V. Vener 4,5, Paweł Lipkowski 6, Peter M. Tolstoy 7,\* and Aleksander Filarowski 2,8,\***

**Abstract:** The *ortho*-hydroxy aryl *Schiff* base 2-[(E)-(phenylimino)methyl]phenol and its deuteroderivative have been studied by the inelastic incoherent neutron scattering (IINS), infrared (IR) and Raman experimental methods, as well as by Density Functional Theory (DFT) and Density-Functional Perturbation Theory (DFPT) simulations. The assignments of vibrational modes within the 3500–50 cm−1 spectral region made it possible to state that the strong hydrogen bond in the studied compound can be classified as the so-called quasi-aromatic bond. The isotopic substitution supplemented by the results of DFT calculations allowed us to identify vibrational bands associated with all five major hydrogen bond vibrations. Quasi-isostructural polymorphism of 2-[(E)-(phenylimino)methyl]phenol (**SA**) and 2-[(E)-(phenyl-D5-imino)methyl]phenol (**SA-C6D5**) has been studied by powder X-ray diffraction in the 20–320 K temperature range.

**Keywords:** *Schiff* bases; inelastic incoherent neutron scattering; hydrogen bond; isotopic effect


*5.1. Implementation Details*

The proposed model was first pre-trained using our synthetically generated bilingual dataset and Synthetic [22], then fine-tuned using the union of other real-world datasets indicated in Section 4.2.2. Due to the lack of real sample images in the fine-tuning stage, data augmentation and multi-scale training were applied by randomly modifying brightness, hue, contrast, the angle of the image between −30 and 30. Following [9], for multi-scale training, the shorter sides of the input images were randomly resized to five scales (600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400). We used Adam [46] (base learning rate = 0.0001, β1 = 0.9, β2 = 0.999, weight decay = 0) as an optimizer. Following the result of [21], we set the value to α = 0.25 which denotes the ratio of the low-frequency part.

The experiment of the proposed bilingual scene text reading model is conducted on the Ubuntu machine containing Intel Core i7-7700 (3.60 GHz) CPU with 64 GB RAM and GeForce GTX 1080 Ti 11176 MiB GPU. For the implementation, we use Python 3.7 and PyTorch1.2.


**3. Changes in vision of the project team: Responses to formative evaluation of the programme during the initial funding phase**

#### **3.1 Evaluation design**

54 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

However, a number of shifts took place from this initial conception of a programme originally designed to implement an approach which had been tried and tested elsewhere in the world. Shifts initially took place from a purely measurement-based summative evaluation design, towards a more contextual, holistic, formative and multimethod approach to programme evaluation (Potter, 1993a; 1993b). The programme's behaviourist assumptions were also challenged (Leigh, 1995; Perraton, 2000), being replaced with a more responsive and process approach to curriculum development and evaluation (OLSET, 1995;

This section provides an overview of the implementation of the South African Radio Learning programme as outlined in its funding contract with USAID. The programme's brief was to offer direct support to the South African Department of Education in improving the quality of teaching in primary schools. This would be achieved by targeting the development of English language competencies in the junior primary phase, through the

After an initial pilot (Leigh, 1992), 118 radio lessons were scripted in 1993 to support the teaching of English at Grade One level. These were implemented with 14 500 learners in five regions of South Africa in 1993 (Potter & Leigh, 1995; Leigh, 1995). This was followed in 1994 by the development of 130 radio lessons at Grade Two level. The lessons were of half

As radio broadcasting in South Africa at the time was controlled by the national broadcaster (the SABC), initial implementation of the programme took place through the medium of audio-cassettes. These were packaged in cardboard boxes and delivered to the participating schools in each region by a regional coordinator, together with a radio tape-recorder and other classroom materials. These included a teacher's manual and printed classroom posters and alphabet friezes to support the radio lessons. As the tapes and materials were developed in stages over the year, the regional coordinator was able to establish ongoing

The regional coordinator was also able during her visits to the schools, to act as adviser on matters relating to programme implementation. Her roles included observing lessons, suggesting ways of supporting the programme at classroom level, as well as ways of linking the programme and other facets of the curriculum. Participating teachers were encouraged in the process to make contact with each other, and to form teacher support groups. Workshops on use of the programme and on primary school teaching were also organized regionally, and then implemented through the school visiting and teacher support group

By the end of 1994 when the initial funding grant provided to the programme by USAID came to an end, a network of teacher and school support had been set up across five provinces of South Africa, centred around materials distribution, teacher support groups and in-service training workshops to support the teaching of English at lower primary school level had been established. At the Grade One level, 118 radio lessons and supporting

personal contact with the teachers and principals of the participating schools.

Potter, Dube, Kenyon et al., 1995).

medium of interactive radio.

structures.

These changes are traced in the initial sections which follow.

**2. Initial implementation of the programme**

an hour duration, and were recorded on audio-tapes.

Like its predecessors using interactive radio in other parts of the world, the South African Radio Learning Programme was subject to evaluation for developmental and accountability purposes. The initial evaluation design was conceptualised as based on measurement involving development of a test of English language vocabulary which would be applied in pre and post-testing of learners in a number of schools involved in the programme. The performance of these learners would then be compared with pre- and post-test performance of learners in a similar number of contrast schools not involved in the programme. If learning gains could be demonstrated using audio-cassettes, this evidence would then be used to make the case to the national broadcaster to provide a national radio footprint to support national implementation of the programme.

At the time of the time of the programme's inception in 1992, a number of other projects in South Africa were also working to develop procedures for teaching English at the lower primary level (such as the Molteno project; MAPEP) and at the upper primary level (such as SELP; TELIP; TOPS; the Molteno Project; READ). In a context of rapid change in South African in its transition to democracy, the evaluation design was criticized as insufficiently responsive to context of South African schools, as well as the changes occurring in South Africa on both a socio-political and educational level. A broader contextually based evaluation design was then developed (Potter, 1993a), in which pre-and post-testing would form one element or strand. The design was evolved consultatively and responsively (Stake, 1983), and addressed six questions through use of multiple data sources and multiple methods (Potter, 1993a; 1993b), as follows:

Is the "English in Action" programme effective in teaching primary English?

Are teachers who use the programme empowered, supported in their jobs and assisted in professionalisation?

 Is there acceptance of the programme by the community, inclusive of teachers, parents, principals and other stakeholders?

Teacher Development Through Distance Education:

developed by the programme had promise.

evaluation (OLSET, 1995; Potter, Dube, Kenyon et al., 1995). .

Grade Two children (Potter, Arnott, Hingle et al., 1995).

innovation would take place.

(OLSET, 1995).

Contrasting Visions of Radio Learning in South African Primary Schools 57

was necessary. At the same time, however, the evaluators commented that the infrastructure

Specific criticisms were that, while individual members of the project team were highly skilled in the technical side of materials writing and production, these activities were taking place in the absence a coherent policy framework as regards language teaching. There were similar gaps with respect to the teacher development side of the project's work. In both areas, there was a need for the development of a guiding programme theory, which would provide the necessary framework within which the work of the staff, and the overall

The project team's response to an unfavourable initial evaluation was to focus on both teaching and learning issues, and to change its view of curriculum from a focus on the skills development of learners, to include focus on the professional development of their teachers in the context of school and classroom. This implied a focus on issues relating to classroom teaching and learning relative to teacher development (OLSET, 1995). As these involved major shifts within the programme's vision and focus, recommendations were made for ongoing internal, formative and process evaluation, in addition to external and summative

In their second interim report in 1994, the evaluators were thus able to report that the programme had moved to address the conceptual and curricular issues raised in the initial 1993 report. This was evident both in the setting up of mechanisms in the programme for staff to meet and discuss the form of the materials and their usage, as well as in the appointment of a number of persons with qualifications and experience in second language teaching to assist with the development of the classroom side of the programme's work.

The teacher development side of the programme was also being addressed through the appointment of a teacher development coordinator to provide conceptual direction to the school and teacher support provided by the programme. The programme was thus developing an increasingly coherent curricular framework, and had also produced evidence of learning gains at school and classroom levels, both with respect to Grade One as well as

For the reasons that these changes still needed to be implemented and their viability tested, the evaluators cautioned in their final evaluation reports (Potter, 1994a; Potter, Arnott, Hingle et al., 1995) that, despite evidence of significant learning gains favouring project learners at both Grade One and Grade Two levels (Arnott, Mansfield, & Mentis, (1993b; Arnott, Mentis, & Mansfield, 1994), both the radio learning project's classroom and inservice training curricula were not ready for wider implementation. It was suggested that what was required at the next stage should involve revision of the materials base, and implementation of the existing materials via various delivery media (e.g. via radio; via cassettes) in line with the open learning principles recommended in the project's blueprint

This would need to be accompanied by evaluation of the support processes and transactions necessary to successful implementation with teachers and in schools (Potter, Dube, Kenyon et al., 1995). It was thus envisaged that the development of both the classroom-based and teacher support curricula would need to take place simultaneously with revision of the

project's existing materials base and ongoing materials evaluation (OLSET, 1995).

Table 1. Focusing Questions used in the 1993-1994 Formative Evaluation of the South African Radio Programme

To answer the evaluation questions, evidence from a number of sources was utilised. Qualitative data were gathered from school visits, classroom visits and observation of lessons, the reports of teachers, principals and parents concerning pupil progress, observation of teacher support groups, interviews with project staff and with teachers, and narrative case studies of the programme in the schools (Potter, Arnott, Mansfield, et al., 1993). Focus groups were also conducted in all regions in which the programme operated, involving a range of community stakeholders (Nene, 1993).

Quantitative data were also used to answer the evaluation questions, based on pre- and post-testing of learners (Arnott, Mansfield, & Mentis, 1993a; 1993b) conducted in 71 schools (36 project and 35 matched comparison schools), and yielding evidence of significantly better performance on English language tests favouring the project schools (F = 118,31 (70); p < ,0001; R = 0,39). In addition, an economic analysis was conducted, projecting the costs of radio learning in relation to different scales of implementation in terms of learner numbers, and comparing these data with alternative forms of instruction (Cobbe, 1994).

#### **3.2 Issues raised by the evaluators**

In their initial review of the programme in 1993, the evaluators focused on both product and process issues (Hamilton, 1976; Stenhouse, 1975; 1980; 1981, Walker, 1969; 1971). They reported that after a shaky start with respect to credibility, the programme had been successful in establishing an infrastructure and a body of materials which could form the basis for future work. The intervention was also regarded positively by both teachers and parents. However, it lacked a coherent conceptual and curricular framework in terms of both the classroom and teacher support sides of its work. Many of the staff also lacked qualifications and experience in second language teaching, which reflected in the approach to and type of materials being developed (Potter, Arnott, Mansfield et al., 1993).

Despite quantitative evidence of advantage among learners in the project schools in 1993, it was evident that there were major gaps both in the way in which the project's curriculum was being conceptualized, as well as a lack of relationship of many of the activities included in the radio lessons with the South African lower primary school curriculum. Recommendations were made that the team involved in the radio learning project should place emphasis on the development of a coherent theoretical, policy and curricular framework, which could guide its future work.

The initial evaluation report (Potter, Arnott, Mansfield et al., 1993) was critical of the programme's assumptions, its conception of curriculum, its behaviourist view of learning, and the technicist vision of educational change implicit in an attempt to improve education through increasing the English language skills of learners in the absence of focus on the context of school and classroom. A broader vision based on both product and process issues

Are radio and cassette efficacious as a delivery medium?

involving a range of community stakeholders (Nene, 1993).

implementation?

African Radio Programme

**3.2 Issues raised by the evaluators**

framework, which could guide its future work.

Is "English in Action" having an effect on the school environment?

Is the programme cost-effective, and are there economies of scale for national

Table 1. Focusing Questions used in the 1993-1994 Formative Evaluation of the South

To answer the evaluation questions, evidence from a number of sources was utilised. Qualitative data were gathered from school visits, classroom visits and observation of lessons, the reports of teachers, principals and parents concerning pupil progress, observation of teacher support groups, interviews with project staff and with teachers, and narrative case studies of the programme in the schools (Potter, Arnott, Mansfield, et al., 1993). Focus groups were also conducted in all regions in which the programme operated,

Quantitative data were also used to answer the evaluation questions, based on pre- and post-testing of learners (Arnott, Mansfield, & Mentis, 1993a; 1993b) conducted in 71 schools (36 project and 35 matched comparison schools), and yielding evidence of significantly better performance on English language tests favouring the project schools (F = 118,31 (70); p < ,0001; R = 0,39). In addition, an economic analysis was conducted, projecting the costs of radio learning in relation to different scales of implementation in terms of learner numbers,

In their initial review of the programme in 1993, the evaluators focused on both product and process issues (Hamilton, 1976; Stenhouse, 1975; 1980; 1981, Walker, 1969; 1971). They reported that after a shaky start with respect to credibility, the programme had been successful in establishing an infrastructure and a body of materials which could form the basis for future work. The intervention was also regarded positively by both teachers and parents. However, it lacked a coherent conceptual and curricular framework in terms of both the classroom and teacher support sides of its work. Many of the staff also lacked qualifications and experience in second language teaching, which reflected in the approach

Despite quantitative evidence of advantage among learners in the project schools in 1993, it was evident that there were major gaps both in the way in which the project's curriculum was being conceptualized, as well as a lack of relationship of many of the activities included in the radio lessons with the South African lower primary school curriculum. Recommendations were made that the team involved in the radio learning project should place emphasis on the development of a coherent theoretical, policy and curricular

The initial evaluation report (Potter, Arnott, Mansfield et al., 1993) was critical of the programme's assumptions, its conception of curriculum, its behaviourist view of learning, and the technicist vision of educational change implicit in an attempt to improve education through increasing the English language skills of learners in the absence of focus on the context of school and classroom. A broader vision based on both product and process issues

and comparing these data with alternative forms of instruction (Cobbe, 1994).

to and type of materials being developed (Potter, Arnott, Mansfield et al., 1993).

was necessary. At the same time, however, the evaluators commented that the infrastructure developed by the programme had promise.

Specific criticisms were that, while individual members of the project team were highly skilled in the technical side of materials writing and production, these activities were taking place in the absence a coherent policy framework as regards language teaching. There were similar gaps with respect to the teacher development side of the project's work. In both areas, there was a need for the development of a guiding programme theory, which would provide the necessary framework within which the work of the staff, and the overall innovation would take place.

The project team's response to an unfavourable initial evaluation was to focus on both teaching and learning issues, and to change its view of curriculum from a focus on the skills development of learners, to include focus on the professional development of their teachers in the context of school and classroom. This implied a focus on issues relating to classroom teaching and learning relative to teacher development (OLSET, 1995). As these involved major shifts within the programme's vision and focus, recommendations were made for ongoing internal, formative and process evaluation, in addition to external and summative evaluation (OLSET, 1995; Potter, Dube, Kenyon et al., 1995). .

In their second interim report in 1994, the evaluators were thus able to report that the programme had moved to address the conceptual and curricular issues raised in the initial 1993 report. This was evident both in the setting up of mechanisms in the programme for staff to meet and discuss the form of the materials and their usage, as well as in the appointment of a number of persons with qualifications and experience in second language teaching to assist with the development of the classroom side of the programme's work.

The teacher development side of the programme was also being addressed through the appointment of a teacher development coordinator to provide conceptual direction to the school and teacher support provided by the programme. The programme was thus developing an increasingly coherent curricular framework, and had also produced evidence of learning gains at school and classroom levels, both with respect to Grade One as well as Grade Two children (Potter, Arnott, Hingle et al., 1995).

For the reasons that these changes still needed to be implemented and their viability tested, the evaluators cautioned in their final evaluation reports (Potter, 1994a; Potter, Arnott, Hingle et al., 1995) that, despite evidence of significant learning gains favouring project learners at both Grade One and Grade Two levels (Arnott, Mansfield, & Mentis, (1993b; Arnott, Mentis, & Mansfield, 1994), both the radio learning project's classroom and inservice training curricula were not ready for wider implementation. It was suggested that what was required at the next stage should involve revision of the materials base, and implementation of the existing materials via various delivery media (e.g. via radio; via cassettes) in line with the open learning principles recommended in the project's blueprint (OLSET, 1995).

This would need to be accompanied by evaluation of the support processes and transactions necessary to successful implementation with teachers and in schools (Potter, Dube, Kenyon et al., 1995). It was thus envisaged that the development of both the classroom-based and teacher support curricula would need to take place simultaneously with revision of the project's existing materials base and ongoing materials evaluation (OLSET, 1995).

Teacher Development Through Distance Education:

acquisition of such skills" (Buckland 1984, 383).

the apartheid era as:

and post-testing.

Arnott, Mansfield et al., 1993).

Contrasting Visions of Radio Learning in South African Primary Schools 59

Commission in the early 1980's (Buckland, 1984). Buckland draws on the work of Apple (1979) and Giroux (1981) to characterize technicism as applied in South African education in

"The treatment of social issues as technical problems open to technical solutions, the componential thinking implicit in the division of education into eighteen separate areas, the ahistorical approach and the orientation to the future all serve to rule out consideration of how schooling has been used to further political and economic ends. Knowledge is seen in terms of skills, with an 'appropriate value system' serving to legitimate the differentiated

Buckland's analysis is pertinent to the behaviourist conception of the South African Radio Learning Programme's curriculum between 1992 and 1994, as well as the shifts in conception of curriculum which took place in the programme at the end of its first funding phase (OLSET, 1995). The assumptions of the project planners in 1992 can be characterized as technicist in the sense that the South African Radio Learning Project was initially planned with a focus solely on the form and content of the radio lessons, and their role in developing the skills of learners. It was assumed that English would be improved using principles of distributed learning in scripts applying principles of educational technology (Rowntree, 1974; 1982) with judgement of programme success being based on evaluation through pre

The problem with this vision was its simplistic and mechanistic logic (Stenhouse, 1975; 1980). Essentially, despite evidence in 1993 and 1994 that learners in project schools made greater learning gains than learners in non-project schools, the programme was heavily criticised by the evaluators for its behaviourist and technicist assumptions, the application of similar content to the Kenyan scripts by the scriptwriters without reference to the South African primary school curriculum or the needs of teachers who had borne the brunt of the apartheid struggle, and the project team's acontextual way of working as evidenced by lack of contact

Given the conflict which had taken place in schools and in South African education over an extended period prior to the project's inception in 1992, the need was for a coherent intervention strategy based on the needs of teachers and schools over South Africa's transition to democracy. The programme's intervention model, however, did not focus on issues relating to the teaching of English as a second language. Nor was there mention of the skills of teachers, and the need for in-service training and support of teachers (Potter,

In response to these criticisms, curriculum development took place in the project, and the programme was remodeled. The project team developed a curriculum blueprint at the end of 1994 (OLSET, 1995), reflecting very different assumptions. The project team was guided through the process by an experienced facilitator with considerable experience in teaching English as a second language in South African schools, who was versed in the literature on second language teaching and the bilingual classroom (e.g. Langhan, 1992; Willig, 1985), and who was able to juxtapose the needs for support and empowerment of teachers against a

The curriculum document developed through this process (OLSET, 1995) reflected a vision of educational change as not only skills-based but person-centred. To undertake teacher

view of education focused on skills development in learners (MacDonald, 1990).

with others working in South African education (Potter, Arnott, Mansfield et al, 1993).

Even at this early stage in the project's development (end 1994), the evaluators also noted that there was overwhelming evidence that teachers were supportive of "English in Action", and had used the materials to the benefit of their teaching, and their learners. With respect to in-service training of the teachers, there was value in the teacher support group structure developed by the project. With respect to the evaluation, teacher support groups had provided observational, focus group and case study data, suggesting a potential for interactive radio as a framework for teacher, school and community development, as well as wider possibilities for educational technology in curriculum development in the primary school. The teacher support groups also provided the project with a broad-based and country-wide basis for developmental work directed at both networking and empowerment (Potter, Dube, Kenyon et al., 1995).