**1. Introduction**

5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA) is a key intermediate in the tyrosinase catalyzed oxidation of tyrosine leading to eumelanins, the main epidermal human pigments responsible for skin photoprotection. The levels of DHICA are dictated by the activity of the enzyme dopachrome tautomerase or tyrosinase related protein-2, that favors the non-decarboxylative rearrangement pathway of dopachrome, determining a significant incorporation of this indole in natural eumelanins and its presence at nM levels in blood and body fluids in the form of two methylated metabolites, 6-hydroxy-5-methoxyindole-2-carboxylic acid and 5-hydroxy-6-methoxyindole-2-carboxylic acid [1]. In addition to DHICA, other melanin precursors like tyrosine and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) have been shown to exert important role acting as inducers and regulators of the melanogenic apparatus and of MSH receptors [2,3].

In the last decade, several evidences have accumulated indicating that DHICA may exert an antioxidant and protective function *per se* unrelated to pigment synthesis. Early studies showed that DHICA inhibits lipid peroxidation in vitro [4]. Subsequent works indicated that DHICA is oxidized by nitric oxide and e fficiently inhibits H2O2-Fe(II)/EDTA (Fenton)-induced oxidation processes [5,6]. Moreover, DHICA exhibits excellent triplet quenching properties [7]. DHICA has also an intense absorption maximum at 313 nm, in the erythemigenic UVB region, and exhibits e fficient excited state relaxation mechanisms of potential relevance to UV dissipation [8].

The antioxidant profile characterized in di fferent in vitro assays suggested that it may act as a di ffusible protective mediator under oxidative stress conditions [9]. In addition, studies on primary cultures of human keratinocytes disclosed its remarkable protective and di fferentiating e ffects [10]. At micromolar concentrations, DHICA induced: (a) time- and dose-dependent reduction of cell proliferation without concomitant toxicity; (b) enhanced expression of early and late di fferentiation markers; (c) increased activities and expression of antioxidant enzymes; and (d) decreased cell damage and apoptosis following UVA exposure. Similarly to DHICA, other structurally related compounds were reported to ensure e ffective protection of cutaneous homeostasis from hostile environmental factors [11].

All together these results suggest a high potential of DHICA for applicative purposes including treatment of disorders and pathological conditions a ffecting skin and mucous membranes. Severe limitations in this perspective stem from the ease of this compound to undergo oxidation with subsequent loss of its properties. In addition, proper formulation allowing for vehiculation through the skin and a controlled release would greatly add to the beneficial e ffects prolonging the action and taking the bioavailable concentrations relatively low.

In recent years, several natural compounds have been tested for the topical treatment of skin disorders by use of a variety of transcutaneous delivery systems including lipophilic nanoparticles like liposomes [12], solid lipid nanoparticles [13,14], nanostructured lipid carriers, monoolein aqueous dispersions [15,16], ethosomes [17,18], and lecithin organogels [19,20]. Speed up of wound healing process by a nanohydrogel embedding an antioxidant compound like baicalin has been described that exhibited optimal performance for a complete skin restoration and inhibition of specific inflammatory markers [21].

A variety of hydrophilic delivery systems have also been explored such as gelatin, the product of collagen hydrolysis, as it o ffers several advantages including the historical safe use in a wide range of medical applications, low costs, inherent electrostatic binding properties, and proteolytic degradability. In addition, gelatin versatility allows the design of di fferent carrier systems, spanning from micro or nanoparticles, to fibers and hydrogels. Hydrogel based sca ffolds are largely applied in the field of tissue engineering since their mechanical features can be tuned to the tissue being repaired and because they o ffer 3D networks able to support cell growth, di fferentiation, and migration.

Several reports have described the ability of gelatin hydrogels to adsorb bioactive molecules and/or drugs into the polymer network, thus allowing their controlled release, e.g., for pain treatment and wound healing and tissue regeneration applications [22,23].

In order to design gelatin-based systems, to proper tuning the mechanical properties, swelling behavior, thermal properties, and other physiochemical properties [24,25], gelatin is usually cross-linked by chemical, enzymatic or physical methods and many di fferent approaches have been proposed in the last years. As for the chemical cross-linking, one may rely directly on the chemistry of amino acid side chains by coupling reactions (i.e., amide bond formation) or cross-linking by homo- or heterofunctional cross-linkers (i.e., glutaraldehyde [26], genipin [27], triazolinedione [28]) or convert them into suitable functionalities in order to exploit di fferent chemistries (i.e., photopolymerizable acrylates [29,30] and thiol-ene chemistry [31]).

In addition, gelatin-based hydrogels may be further improved by the use of blends in combination with natural or synthetic polymers such as polyglutammic acid [32,33], chitosan [34], or polyvinyl alcohol [35].

Within this framework in the present work, we have investigated the ability of gelatin-based hydrogels of incorporating and releasing under controlled conditions DHICA. The methyl ester of DHICA, MeDHICA, was also tested in view of its higher stability and different solubility profile [36]. Three different type of gelatin-based hydrogels were prepared as drug release systems: (a) pristine porcine skin type A gelatin (HGel-A); (b) pristine gelatin cross-linked by amide coupling of lysines and glutamic/aspartic acids (HGel-B), and (c) a gelatin/chitosan blend (HGel-C).

These gelatin-based hydrogels could have different potential applications e.g., for topical uses or as scaffolds for cellular growth. In all cases, a satisfactory loading and a smooth release at physiological pH of DHICA and its methyl ester were observed while chemical assays confirmed the antioxidant power of the indole loaded gelatin hydrogels.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

Gelatin type A from porcine skin (gel strength ~300 g bloom), 4-(4,6-dimethoxy-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)- 4-methylmorpholinium-chloride (DMTMM), chitosan, glacial acetic acid, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrilhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric chloride (III) hexahydrate, and 2,4,6-tris(2-pyridyl)-*s*-triazine (TPTZ) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Milano, Italy) and used without any further purification. Phosphate buffer saline (PBS) 10× was purchased from VWR. DHICA and MeDHICA were prepared according to a procedure previously developed [36,37].

The UV–Vis spectra were recorded on a Jasco V-730 Spectrophotometer (Lecco, Italy).

HPLC analyses were performed on an Agilent 1100 binary pump instrument (Agilent Technologies, Milan, Italy) equipped with a SPD-10AV VP UV–visible detector using an octadecylsilane-coated column, 250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm particle size (Phenomenex Sphereclone ODS, Bologna, Italy) at 0.7 mL/min. Detection wavelength was set at 300 nm. Eluant system: 1% formic acid:acetonitrile, 85:15 *v*/*v*.


Nutrient Management

*Organic Agriculture*

Applications. 2009;**2**:3

2006b. pp. 273-277

2016;**97**:162-174

2013;**710**:265-277

[68] Burklew CE, Ashlock J, Winfrey WB, Zhang B. Effects of aluminum oxide nanoparticles on the growth, development, and microRNA expression of tobacco (*Nicotiana tabacum*). PLoS One. 2012;**7**(5):e34783

chemical reduction method and their antibacterial activity. International Journal of Chemical Engineering and

[64] Rajkumar RS, Kandeepan G, Prejit Susitha K. Poultry research priorities to 2020. In: Sasidhar PVK, editor. Proceedings of National Seminar. Contributory Papers. Izatnagar, India: Central Avian Research Institute; 2006

[65] Kannaki TRV, Verma PC. Poultry research priorities to (2020). In: Sasidhar PVK, editor. Proceedings of National Seminar. Keynote Addresses and Lead Papers. Izatnagar, India: Central Avian Research Institute;

[66] Copetti D, Finsterle K, Marziali L, Stefani F, Tartari G, Lurling M.

Eutrophication management in surface waters using lanthanum modified bentonite: A review. Water Research.

[67] Van Oosterhout F, Lurling M. The effect of phosphorus binding clay (Phoslocks) in mitigating

cyanobacterial nuisance: A laboratory study on the effects on water quality variables and plankton. Hydrobiologia.

[69] Priester JH, Ge Y, Mielke RE, et al. Soybean susceptibility to manufactured nanomaterials with evidence for food quality and soil fertility interruption. Proceedings of the National Academy of

Sciences. 2012;**109**:E2451-E2456

[70] Reddy SBAP. The "efficacy" of Indian patent law: Ironing out the creases in section 3(d). SCRIPTed.

**30**

2008;**5**:1-35

**33**

**Chapter 3**

**Abstract**

restore soil productivity.

**1. Introduction**

Packages of Organic Nutrient

Management as Soil Policy for

Upgrading Cropping System to

The indigenous farming systems are, by and large, organically practiced. Organic farming systems facilitate the buildup of soil organic matter, reducing risk of erosion and runoff and enhancing nutrient storehouse in soils for plants. Rapid developments in organic farming promotion necessitated continuous flow of technology to meet day-to-day challenges. Farmyard manure (FYM), compost, and green manure are the most important and widely used bulky organic manures. Manuring with different short-duration legumes is suitable for maintenance of soil quality in terms of adding nitrogen to soil. Sustainable quantity of potassium can be maintained by vegetative mulching with crop residues. The use of balanced dosages of mixed compost at 5–10 t/ha along with 2 t/ha dolomite increases yield of maize, rice, mustard, and soybean. This article briefly describes about the integrated organic nutrient management as soil policy for upgrading cropping system to

**Keywords:** organic farming, balanced dose, soil, policy, manure, cropping system

Sikkim enjoys a wide range of climate, physiographic, geology, and vegetation that influence formation of different kinds of soils. Hills of Sikkim mainly consist of gneissose and half-schistose rocks, producing generally poor and shallow brown soils [1, 2]. The soil is coarse, with large concentrations of iron oxide, and ranges from neutral to acidic, making it lacking in mineral nutrients. This type of soil tends to support evergreen and deciduous forests [3]. Rock consists of phyllites and schists, which is much younger in age and is highly susceptible to weathering and erosion [4–8]. This combined with the state's heavy rainfall causes extensive soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients through leaching. Soils of Sikkim belong to 3 orders, 7 suborders, 12 great groups, and 26 subgroups. It is observed that inceptisols are dominant (42.84%) followed by entisols and mollisols occupying 42.52 and

) in Sikkim

14.64%, respectively. Percentage area under Zn deficiency (<0.6 mg kg−1

is 15.69% (202.35 sq. km) of the geographic area having highest Zn deficiency in South Sikkim district (82.07 sq. km, 19.1% of TGAD) followed by East (56.84 sq. km, 13.3% of TGAD), West (48.91 sq. km, 15.7 of TGAD), and North (14.53 sq. km,

Restore Soil Productivity

*Shaon Kumar Das and Ravikant Avasthe*

## **Chapter 3**


**5. Conclusion**

Cyber security should employ a variety of security concepts such as threat modeling techniques to safeguard asset, environment and organization from being attacked. Five essential components of threat modeling process which are threat intelligence, asset identification, mitigation capability, risk assessment, and threat mapping are pivotal to mitigating security threat that are based on IUI design while taking into cognizance the baseline design principles. There must be proper application of different threat model methods at the requirement and design stages of the project life-cycle using a well-formulated Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) model. The design of Intelligent User Interfaces requires incorporation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to analyze various user interactions to detect anomalies such as phishing, spamming, fake news/hate posts, among others. To achieve this, predicative analytics must be institutionalized to further improve the intelligence of the design. Deep leaning can be used for sentimental analysis to determine expressions that can aid in qualifying potentially new type of attacks or threats. AI-driven User Interface (UI) design must be user-centered instead of technology-centered to give lasting UX which cannot be derived or experienced with the traditional UI Design. HCI provides design techniques for User Interfaces that are efficient and the AI components are used to embed intelligence into those interfaces. Therefore, appropriate IUI Design Methods, models coupled with AI-Based UI and UX Prototyping Tools are crucial for developing efficient cyber security threat modeling applications. This is highly essential because in the IUI design, direct manipulation method of design has low predictability which does not guarantee effective cyber threat mitigation.

*Application of Artificial Intelligence in User Interfaces Design for Cyber Security Threat Modeling DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96534*


*Article* **Analysis of Light Penetration Depth in Apple Tissues by Depth-Resolved Spatial-Frequency Domain Imaging**

**Tongtong Zhou 1,†, Dong Hu 1,†, Dekai Qiu 1, Shengqi Yu 1, Yuping Huang 2, Zhizhong Sun 3, Xiaolin Sun 1, Guoquan Zhou 1, Tong Sun 1 and Hehuan Peng 1,\***

**Abstract:** Spatial-frequency domain imaging (SFDI) has been developed as an emerging modality for detecting early-stage bruises of fruits, such as apples, due to its unique advantage of a depthresolved imaging feature. This paper presents theoretical and experimental analyses to determine the light penetration depth in apple tissues under spatially modulated illumination. Simulation and practical experiments were then carried out to explore the maximum light penetration depths in 'Golden Delicious' apples. Then, apple experiments for early-stage bruise detection using the estimated reduced scattering coefficient mapping were conducted to validate the results of light penetration depths. The results showed that the simulations produced comparable or a little larger light penetration depth in apple tissues (~2.2 mm) than the practical experiment (~1.8 mm or ~2.3 mm). Apple peel further decreased the light penetration depth due to the high absorption properties of pigment contents. Apple bruises located beneath the surface peel with the depth of about 0–1.2 mm could be effectively detected by the SFDI technique. This study, to our knowledge, made the first effort to investigate the light penetration depth in apple tissues by SFDI, which would provide useful information for enhanced detection of early-stage apple bruising by selecting the appropriate spatial frequency.

**Keywords:** light penetration depth; apple; spatial-frequency domain imaging; depth-resolved; bruise; scattering


**1. Introduction**

Historically, several lighting systems have been used for indoor plant growth, among them fluorescent lamps, metal-halide, high-pressure sodium (HPS), and incandescent lamps [1]. These different light types share common negative features like huge energy consumption, short lifetime, and unwanted heat generation [2]. Recently, the lighting industry has seen rapid growth and the introduction of several new lighting systems. One of the most interesting and quickly developing are light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which show high efficiency, long lifetime, and negligible heat emission [3]. Furthermore, LEDs allow an enormous variety of lighting effects to be produced, among these, the CoeLux® lighting system is one of the last arrivals on the market [4]. CoeLux® system is an innovative LED-based technology for indoor lighting that uses nanostructured materials and optical systems to reproduce Rayleigh scattering effect that occurs when light crosses the earth's atmosphere [5]. Furthermore, CoeLux® is able to simulate the visual effect of the sun in a blue sky and project realistic shadows in the room. The key difference with other artificial lighting systems is that CoeLux® provides a real impression of natural sunlight together with all its properties [6]. Thus far, the numerous applications of the CoeLux® system include the lighting of hospital wards, subway systems, underground rooms and offices, and, in general, all those spaces that are not naturally illuminated. Furthermore, there is an increasing interest in the possible effects of the CoeLux® lighting systems on

**Citation:** Beatrice, P.; Terzaghi, M.; Chiatante, D.; Scippa, G.S.; Montagnoli, A. Morpho-Physiological Responses of *Arabidopsis thaliana* L. to the LED-Sourced CoeLux® System. *Plants* **2021**, *10*, 1310. https:// doi.org/10.3390/plants10071310

Academic Editors: Petronia Carillo, Valeria Cavallaro and Rosario Muleo

Received: 28 April 2021 Accepted: 24 June 2021 Published: 28 June 2021

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

human health, in particular on human mood, cognition, and physiological reactions. It has already been demonstrated that this artificial skylight generates positive long-term psycho-physiological effects on human beings comparable to the real counterpart [7].

On the other hand, there are no investigations so far concerning plant responses to CoeLux® lighting. The great suitability of CoeLux® technology for closed or underground environments raises the question of whether this lighting system could be appropriate to grow crop plants for human subsistence [8] or ornamental plants for human well-being [9]. In this context, it must be taken into account that both the quality [10] and quantity [11] of visible light received by plants are crucial for their growth and development. Terrestrial green plants absorb photons unevenly across the electromagnetic spectrum, and only photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is used to carry out photosynthesis [12]. The photosynthetic pigments in the chloroplasts respond mainly to blue (400–490 nm) and red light (590–700 nm), whereas green and yellow light (490–590 nm) is considerably less efficient in driving photosynthesis [13]. Moreover, in the natural environment, every species of plants is adapted to manage a certain variety of light intensity [14], as in the sunbeam the radiation can easily reach values of 1000–2000 µmol m−2 s −1 , whereas in the shade, radiation intensity can lower down to 10–20 µmol m−2 s −1 [15]. Several features of plant form, physiology, and resource allocation vary with the level of irradiance to which plants are acclimated [16]. Plant species adapted to live at a high light intensity show a shade avoidance response when they grow at low light intensity [17].

The interest for further development of the CoeLux® technology continues to grow due to its application in a wide range of artificially illuminated environments. In this context, it is crucial to understand how plants react to this peculiar lighting system and assess if this artificial skylight could sustain plant growth in underground or confined environments. We hypothesized that the low light intensity of these systems could be the principal limit for their use for plant growth, while the light spectrum might affect plant growth only marginally. To test our hypothesis, *Arabidopsis thaliana* plants were grown at four different distances from the CoeLux® system light source, each of them corresponding to different light intensities (120, 70, 30, 20 µmol m−2 s −1 ). High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps, historically considered as an ideal light source for indoor plant growth [18,19], were used to provide a control light type in our study.


**3. Oscillating heat pipe (OHP)**

Oscillating heat pipe (OHP) or pulsating heat pipe (PHP) is a relatively new development that was proposed by Akachi in the field of the heat pipe in cooling technology [11].

OHP is characterized by the following basic features (see **Figure 5**):

**315**

**Figure 5.**

*Types of oscillating heat pipes [12].*

*Heat Pipes Heat Exchanger for HVAC Applications DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95530*

3.No internal wick structure (simple manufacturing).

**3.1 Operation of oscillating heat pipe (OHP)**

in **Figure 5c** [12].

became from its long capillary tube forming a closed loop. While **Figure 5b** depicts the second type, which is a CLOHP with check valves; it is manufactured from a long capillary pipe with the joining ends to configure a closed loop. The closed-loop heat pipe/check valves contain one or more direction-control oneway check valves in the loop to make the working fluid circulate in one direction only. A closed-end oscillating heat pipe is a third type of heat pipe, which is manufactured from a long capillary tube with closed at both ends, as shown

4.At least one heat-receiving section (evaporator), heat-dissipating section (condenser), and an optional in-between adiabatic section are present [13].

When the evaporator section receives heat, the temperature in the evaporator region increases, which will lead to a rise in the vapor pressure in the channel, and causes the growth of bubbles size in the evaporator section, then bubbles move to the condenser zone by the difference between the pressure of the evaporator and condenser. During the movement of the vapor plug to the condenser section, which is under low temperature, so the condensation process occurs, and the vapor plug collapses. Then, the slug-train in the condenser section is pushed to the adjoining vapor plug, and the liquid slug moves to the evaporator section for nucleation.

*Heat Transfer - Design, Experimentation and Applications*

**314**

**3. Oscillating heat pipe (OHP)**

*Schematic operation of a thermosyphon heat pipe [9].*

*Schematic operation of a conventional heat pipe [9].*

working fluid [13].

technology [11].

**Figure 4.**

**Figure 3.**

Oscillating heat pipe (OHP) or pulsating heat pipe (PHP) is a relatively new development that was proposed by Akachi in the field of the heat pipe in cooling

1.The structure of OHP is manufactured from a bending tube comprised of serpentine channel capillary dimensions with many turns, filled partially by a

2.The OHPs are classified into three main types. **Figure 5a** illustrates the first type of OHP, which is a closed-loop oscillating heat pipe (CLOHP). The name

OHP is characterized by the following basic features (see **Figure 5**):

became from its long capillary tube forming a closed loop. While **Figure 5b** depicts the second type, which is a CLOHP with check valves; it is manufactured from a long capillary pipe with the joining ends to configure a closed loop. The closed-loop heat pipe/check valves contain one or more direction-control oneway check valves in the loop to make the working fluid circulate in one direction only. A closed-end oscillating heat pipe is a third type of heat pipe, which is manufactured from a long capillary tube with closed at both ends, as shown in **Figure 5c** [12].


**4.1 Anterior thoracotomy approach**

I believe for surgical approach to pericardial effusion that simple is better and the best is the enemy of the good. Like many other surgical techniques, different approaches have been described to get to the same end point. My suggested surgical approach is summarized in **Figure 3**. Left anterior thoracotomy is most commonly done in my surgical practice and it is outlined below.

As mentioned earlier, whenever possible I advocate percutaneous drainage of the pericardial effusion before bringing the patient to the operating theater. This will reduce the risk of cardiovascular collapse upon initiation of general anesthesia. Often, nonsurgical colleagues or even the patient will ask the need for surgery if the

**Figure 3.** *Suggested flowchart for surgical approach.*

#### *Inflammatory Heart Diseases*

effusion has been already drained. The answer is simple; creation of a surgical window is to bring about long-term benefits by reducing the risk of recurrent effusions.

The patient is positioned supine before general anesthesia via a single-lumen endotracheal tube. This approach has several advantages. Firstly, in sick and unstable patients, there is no need to turn to lateral decubitus position compared to lateral thoracotomy or VATS approaches. Conversion to midline sternotomy is also easier if required in emergency situation. Subsequently, this incision is also optimal if ascending aorta and superior vena cava cannulations are needed for crash cardiopulmonary bypass. There is always the risk of injury to the heart during surgery that requires the bypass circuit for repair. If the patient is unwell, communication with the anesthesia team is paramount. It takes an experienced anesthesiologist to intubate a patient who cannot lie flat and who requires only a little more sedation to collapse. I frequently ensure the surgical team and scrub team are ready to proceed with crash incision if required prior to onset of anesthesia.

The left anterior thoracotomy incision is made at left fourth intercostal space. This is done by surface marking the left fifth rib. I would also utilize any recent computed tomography (CT) scan of the thorax to help guide the incision over the pericardium (**Figure 4**). The incision is centered over the mid-clavicular line and extends either side to about a total of 4–5 cm in length. This is just below the nipple line in males, but care is required to avoid incision thru breast tissue in females. The incision is deepened pass the intercostal muscles, staying close and on top of the inferior fifth rib to avoid injury to any intercostal vessels. Another pitfall is to extend too medially, where the internal mammary vessels run about 1 cm from the lateral sternal margin (**Figure 4**). If done correctly, the pleural cavity is breached first, with the surface of the pericardium seen after (**Figure 5**). If the incision is too low, pericardial fat could be obscuring the actual pericardium tissue. This fat would need to be removed for adequate exposure. Further exposure could be also improved by using a sponge-stick to gently retract the lung laterally again from the pericardium.

Before incision of the pericardium, proper communication with the anesthesia team is important. Frequently, a drop in blood pressure can be encountered on drainage of the pericardial effusion. This is attributed to inadequate venous return

#### **Figure 4.**

*CT used to plan incision at left fourth intercostal space (white line), inferior to the nipple. Take a note of the location of left internal mammary artery, about 1 cm from the lateral sternal edge (arrow).*

**61**

*Pericardial Diseases: Surgery for Pericardial Effusion DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81927*

*pleural cavity is breached first before the pericardium is seen.*

injury to the heart chambers.

**Figure 5.**

to the patient's re-expanded heart chambers; hence, fluids should be prepared prior to drainage. Occasionally, blood-stained pericardial fluid is seen from a malignant process. If this occurs, caution is required. I suggest waiting to ensure no further hemodynamic compromise occurs before extension of the incision. Injury of the myocardium can mimic this, and even experienced surgeons can get into trouble via

*Circumferential pericardial effusion (arrow) in noncontrast scan. Following the direction of the white line, left*

Once the pericardial cavity is drained, I would usually excise the pericardium approximately to 3–4 cm diameter. It should be extended as laterally as possible. I believe that a bigger-sized incision and going more lateral reduces the risk of spontaneous closure of the window. A surgical pitfall is to injure the phrenic nerve which runs on the lateral pericardial surface. To avoid this, the tough pericardial tissue can be grasped and retracted towards the ceiling while the lung is retracted laterally. This is usually enough to identify the phrenic nerve and to avoid it. From this approach the pericardium can only be opened anterior to the phrenic nerve. A left-sided approach is better suited if the effusion is circumferential as minimal retraction of the lung is required to reach the pericardium (**Figure 6**). For right anterior thoracotomy, I would reserve this for redo-window creation or when there is a loculated effusion that is only accessible from the right. From the right, more of the lung is in the way before the pericardium can be seen. This may require lung isolation or even periods of intermittent apnoea from the anesthesia team for optimal visualization.

If the patient is stable enough for lung isolation via double-lumen endotracheal tube or a bronchial blocker, VATS approach can be utilized. The benefits of VATS and other minimally invasive approaches have been described at length by many authors [5, 6, 9–11]. Visualization is definitely better through a camera; the entire pericardium can be visualized once the lung is isolated well. The phrenic nerve which is the lateral limit of excision can be accurately identified and preserved. Another benefit of VATS includes a less painful incision during the perioperative period, which will reduce the amount of opioids given and hence reduces their side effects. However, this effect is less pronounced compared to my preference for the anterior thoracotomy incision, which is not that painful as there is minimal spreading of ribs. The patient could be positioned either supine or lateral position for VATS, depending on the surgeon's preference. I prefer the supine approach as

**4.2 Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) approach**

*Pericardial Diseases: Surgery for Pericardial Effusion DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81927*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Inflammatory Heart Diseases*

effusion has been already drained. The answer is simple; creation of a surgical window is to bring about long-term benefits by reducing the risk of recurrent effusions. The patient is positioned supine before general anesthesia via a single-lumen endotracheal tube. This approach has several advantages. Firstly, in sick and unstable patients, there is no need to turn to lateral decubitus position compared to lateral thoracotomy or VATS approaches. Conversion to midline sternotomy is also easier if required in emergency situation. Subsequently, this incision is also optimal if ascending aorta and superior vena cava cannulations are needed for crash cardiopulmonary bypass. There is always the risk of injury to the heart during surgery that requires the bypass circuit for repair. If the patient is unwell, communication with the anesthesia team is paramount. It takes an experienced anesthesiologist to intubate a patient who cannot lie flat and who requires only a little more sedation to collapse. I frequently ensure the surgical team and scrub team are ready to proceed

The left anterior thoracotomy incision is made at left fourth intercostal space. This is done by surface marking the left fifth rib. I would also utilize any recent computed tomography (CT) scan of the thorax to help guide the incision over the pericardium (**Figure 4**). The incision is centered over the mid-clavicular line and extends either side to about a total of 4–5 cm in length. This is just below the nipple line in males, but care is required to avoid incision thru breast tissue in females. The incision is deepened pass the intercostal muscles, staying close and on top of the inferior fifth rib to avoid injury to any intercostal vessels. Another pitfall is to extend too medially, where the internal mammary vessels run about 1 cm from the lateral sternal margin (**Figure 4**). If done correctly, the pleural cavity is breached first, with the surface of the pericardium seen after (**Figure 5**). If the incision is too low, pericardial fat could be obscuring the actual pericardium tissue. This fat would need to be removed for adequate exposure. Further exposure could be also improved by using a sponge-stick to gently retract the lung laterally again from the pericardium. Before incision of the pericardium, proper communication with the anesthesia team is important. Frequently, a drop in blood pressure can be encountered on drainage of the pericardial effusion. This is attributed to inadequate venous return

*CT used to plan incision at left fourth intercostal space (white line), inferior to the nipple. Take a note of the*

*location of left internal mammary artery, about 1 cm from the lateral sternal edge (arrow).*

with crash incision if required prior to onset of anesthesia.

**60**

**Figure 4.**

*Circumferential pericardial effusion (arrow) in noncontrast scan. Following the direction of the white line, left pleural cavity is breached first before the pericardium is seen.*

to the patient's re-expanded heart chambers; hence, fluids should be prepared prior to drainage. Occasionally, blood-stained pericardial fluid is seen from a malignant process. If this occurs, caution is required. I suggest waiting to ensure no further hemodynamic compromise occurs before extension of the incision. Injury of the myocardium can mimic this, and even experienced surgeons can get into trouble via injury to the heart chambers.

Once the pericardial cavity is drained, I would usually excise the pericardium approximately to 3–4 cm diameter. It should be extended as laterally as possible. I believe that a bigger-sized incision and going more lateral reduces the risk of spontaneous closure of the window. A surgical pitfall is to injure the phrenic nerve which runs on the lateral pericardial surface. To avoid this, the tough pericardial tissue can be grasped and retracted towards the ceiling while the lung is retracted laterally. This is usually enough to identify the phrenic nerve and to avoid it. From this approach the pericardium can only be opened anterior to the phrenic nerve. A left-sided approach is better suited if the effusion is circumferential as minimal retraction of the lung is required to reach the pericardium (**Figure 6**). For right anterior thoracotomy, I would reserve this for redo-window creation or when there is a loculated effusion that is only accessible from the right. From the right, more of the lung is in the way before the pericardium can be seen. This may require lung isolation or even periods of intermittent apnoea from the anesthesia team for optimal visualization.

#### **4.2 Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) approach**

If the patient is stable enough for lung isolation via double-lumen endotracheal tube or a bronchial blocker, VATS approach can be utilized. The benefits of VATS and other minimally invasive approaches have been described at length by many authors [5, 6, 9–11]. Visualization is definitely better through a camera; the entire pericardium can be visualized once the lung is isolated well. The phrenic nerve which is the lateral limit of excision can be accurately identified and preserved. Another benefit of VATS includes a less painful incision during the perioperative period, which will reduce the amount of opioids given and hence reduces their side effects. However, this effect is less pronounced compared to my preference for the anterior thoracotomy incision, which is not that painful as there is minimal spreading of ribs. The patient could be positioned either supine or lateral position for VATS, depending on the surgeon's preference. I prefer the supine approach as

**Figure 6.** *Healed scar from the left anterior thoracotomy incision (arrow).*

mentioned earlier; it is easier to convert to sternotomy if required. However, most surgeons would avoid sternotomy if possible, as it brings about more pain with a bigger scar as well as higher risk of infection to both the superficial tissue and sternum. The greater the surgical trauma, the longer healing requires before adjuvant treatment like chemotherapy or radiotherapy could be initiated.


**Author details**

Tomoaki Suzuki\* and Tohru Asai

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Shiga University of Medical Science, Setatsukinowa, Ootsu, Shiga, Japan

#### **References**

[3] Hagl, C, Ergin, M. A, Galla, J. D, et al. Neurologic putcome after ascending aorta-aortic arch operations; effect of brain protection technique in high-risk patients. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg (2001). , 121, 1107-21.

**Operative Data Total arch replacement (n=67)**

**(Postoperative Data)**

**Mortality**

Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Shiga University of Medical Science, Setatsukinowa,

[1] Ergin, M. A, Galla, J. D, Lansman, L, et al. Hypothermic circulatory arrest in operations on the thoracic aorta. Determinants of iperative mortality and neurologic outcome. J

[2] Griepp, R. B, Stinson, E. B, Hollingaworth, J. F, et al. Prosthetic replacement of the aortic

Operative time 156~419 minutes (mean 238 ± 64) CPB time 82-268 minutes (mean 140 ± 36) Coronary ischemic time 38-158 minutes (mean 76 ± 26) Circulatory arrest time 28-137minutes (mean 45 ± 21) SCP time 65-212 minutes (mean 83 ± 29).

Reoperation for bleeding 3 (4%) Deep sternal infection 2 (3%) Permanent stroke 3 (4%) Respiratory failure\* 4 (6%)

30days 0 (0%) Hospital 2 (3%)

\*Requiring prolonged ventilation support of more than 48 hours

and Tohru Asai

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Thorac Cardiovasc Surg (1994). , 107, 788-97.

arch. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg (1975). , 70, 1051-63.

CPB = cardiopulmonary bypass

**Table 1.** Operative and Postoperative Data

392 Principles and Practice of Cardiothoracic Surgery

ICU = intensive care unit

**Author details**

Tomoaki Suzuki\*

Ootsu, Shiga, Japan

**References**

**Chapter 17**

**Contemporary Surgical Management of**

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is the most lethal pulmonary condition in the United States and internationally. It is also the third most common cause of death in hospitalized pa‐ tients. Since the introduction of computed tomographic pulmonary angiography (CT-PA), the estimated incidence of PE has risen from 62.1 to 112.3 cases per 100,000 [1]. Untreated, the associated mortality of PE is as high as 30% with recurrent embolism being the most common cause. Globally, systemic anticoagulation is the mainstay of treatment for both chronic and acute PE. In the case of acute massive PE (presenting with hypotension and systolic arterial pressure less than 90 mm Hg) the prognosis is much graver and associat‐ ed with a mortality of 30-60%, second only to sudden cardiac death as a cause of sudden death. This condition mandates a more aggressive and urgent algorithm for diagnosis and treatment. Prompt and appropriate treatment, which may include surgical pulmonary em‐

The history of venous thrombosis and PE is intertwined with landmark developments in the disciplines of anatomy, pathology, hematology, and surgery [2]. While pathologic observa‐ tions of postmortem pulmonary thrombi were detailed by Morgagni [3], Laennec [4], and Cruveilhier [5] in the 18th and 19th centuries, it was not until the late 19th century that the concept of thromboembolism was by recognized by Virchow. Virchow wrote "A plug may extend into the vena cava as thick as the last phalanx of the thumb. These are the thrombi that constitute the source of real danger; it is in them that ensues the crumbling away which

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Hui and McFadden; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Acute Massive Pulmonary Embolism**

Dawn S. Hui and P. Michael McFadden

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53969

bolectomy, can be life-saving.

**2. Historical developments**

**1. Introduction**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter


Stem Cell Transplantation in Acute Myeloid Laeukemia

*Salvatore Leotta, Annalisa Condorelli, Giovanni Schininà, Roberta Sciortino, Alessandra Cupri and Giuseppe Milone*

#### **Abstract**

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation represents the only potentially curative therapeutic approach for Acute Myeloid Leukemia. The choice to perform an allogeneic hematopoietic transplant is the result of a decision-making process that considers disease-related factors (AML-risk category and the state of disease at the time of transplant), the type of donor available and his characteristics (HLA compatibility, gender, CMV serostatus) and the individual risk associated with the procedure itself. The choice of the appropriate conditioning regimen depends on the patient's age and comorbidities. While the introduction of reduced intensity regimen and the availability of alternative donors allows more patients to be eligible for transplantation, myeloablative conditioning remains the standard of care for fit patients. Disease relapse is the leading cause of treatment failure and new strategies attempting at reducing the relapse incidence post transplantation are currently being investigated.

**Keywords:** acute myeloid leukemia, allogeneic stem cell transplantation, treatment-related mortality, donor selection, conditioning regimen

#### **1. Introduction**

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) represents the only potentially curative therapeutic approach for Acute-Myeloid Leukemias (AML) [1]. This approach is often limited by the patient's transplant-eligibility, which depends on age and comorbidities. Moreover, in patients considered at low risk of relapse, allogeneic transplantation can be offered in case of disease relapse rather than in first complete remission. The high percentage of relapse of leukemia is the leading cause for failure of transplant [2]. The outcome of patients who relapse after transplantation is poor, especially for those who relapse within six months after transplantation for which overall survival at two years is often inferior to 20% [3].

Allogeneic HSCT for AML in first CR is indicated, according to The European Leukemia Network (ELN), when the risk of relapse exceeds 30–40% and the advantage in disease-free survival (DFS) that can derive from it is greater than 10% [4].

The choice to perform an allogeneic hematopoietic transplant is the result of a decision-making process that considers the AML-risk category together with the transplant risk calculated by evaluating both age and comorbidities. In adjunct, the decision-making process comprises the assessment of the disease-status at the moment in which the patient comes to the observation of the transplant-physician. For patients in complete remission of the disease, also, the status of minimal residual disease must be considered [5] so that the most appropriate conditioning regimen and modulation of immunosuppressive therapy post-transplant can be chosen.

follow-up of 3.8 years while the remaining five patients lost at follow-up. The authors conclude that ASCT in 1st CR may cure about 40% of patients affected by intermediate-risk AML. However, the study of Mannis et al. is limited by the absence of mutational testing for FLT3-ITD and NPM1 end CEBPA for the vast majority of patients and the risk stratification is based on cytogenetics only [11]. National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines do not recommend ASCT as a treatment option for intermediate-risk AML in 1st CR outside of a clinical trial [12]. The recent GIMEMA AML 1310 study evaluated a risk-oriented treatment in intermediate-risk (IR) patients in 1st CR: the patients underwent to autologous or to allogeneic transplantation according to post-consolidation negative or positive MRD respectively [13]. Overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) in intermediate-risk MRD-positive patients who underwent to allo-HSCT were comparable to OS and DFS of favourable-risk (FR) patients that underwent to autologous transplantation (IR-MRD+: OS and DFS 70% and 67% respectively – FR: OS and DFS 74% and 61% respectively). In IR-MRD negative patients who underwent to autologous stem cells transplantation (ASCT) OS and DFS were 79% and 61% respectively [13]. MRD was evaluated by detecting Leukemia-associated phenotype (LAIP) by 8-colour multiparametric flow cytometry and the threshold was 3.5 x

*Stem Cell Transplantation in Acute Myeloid Laeukemia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94416*

Based on the GIMEMA AML 1310 trial, the transplant choice in transplanteligible intermediate-risk AML patients in 1st CR should be taken according to postconsolidation MRD. Some difficulties limit the application of MRD in clinical practice: the cut-off levels, the absence of LAIP or genetic mutations evaluable as MRDmarkers in a portion of AML-patients, experience of the laboratory, the method used for molecular MRD assessment. As regard to cut off levels, a consensus from the ELN recommends 0,1% as the threshold level for MRD-positivity [14]. Some studies indicate that also MRD levels inferior to 0.1% are consistent with MRD [15, 16], although residual leukemic cells between 0.01% and 0.1% may define a good-prognosis sub-group of patients. Further studies are needed to address the prognostic significance of very low levels of MRD. As regards to the method used for molecular MRD assessment, the ELN consensus recommends real-time quantitative PCR (RQ-PCR) as the standard. RQ-PCR can detect up to 0.1% residual leukemic cells, although further improvements will come from more advanced approaches based on techniques not yet validated such as next-generation sequencing (NGS) and digital-PCR. Validated markers for MRD are *RUNX1-RUNX1T1*, *CBF-B/MYH11*, *PML-RARα*, *NPM1*-mutation. About 60% of AML-patients lacks a somatic mutation suitable for MRD monitoring and *WT1*is not recommended as a marker for MRD [14]. Mutations interesting *DNMT3A*,*TET2* and *ASXL1* loci may persist in CR without having a defined prognostic significance in terms of increased

The categories comprising high-risk acute myeloid leukaemias (i.e. AML harboring *FLT3-ITD*, monosomic karyotype or complex karyotype, abn(17p), 5q- or del(5), 7q- or del(7), inv.(3) or t(3;3), t(8;9), t(8;22), AML harboring mutated *RUNX1*, *ASXL1*,*TP53*, secondary and therapy-related AML) have a poor prognosis

As regard to *FLT3*-mutated-AML, the mitigating effect of *NPM-1* mutation on outcome has been established [18, 19]. ELN has distinguished between two categories: AML harboring *NPM1*-mutated and *FLT3*-*ITD* at high allelic ratio or *FLT3-ITD* at low allelic ratio and wild-type *NPM1* are classified into intermediate-risk AML while AML harboring *FLT3-ITD* at high allelic ratio and wild-type *NPM1* are

in the absence of allogeneic hematopoietic transplantation.

10e-4 leukemic cells.

risk of relapse [17].

*2.1.2 High-risk AML*

**187**


**1. Introduction**

The switched reluctance machine (SRM) is the type of machines that develop output torque due to reluctance variation without using permanent magnets or rotor excitation. The switching of phases is made according to position of rotor in such a way to produce torque (induce voltage in generation mode). Reluctance variation happens with rotation as a function of certain geometric parameters. The currents of SRM are mainly in the form of pulses. The flux inside the machine is not sinusoidal. All of the previously mentioned facts of SRM give this type of machines its unique features. The SRM has shown attractive characteristics, such as simple and robust construction, low manufacturing cost, and high efficiency, over wide range of speeds [1,2]. SRM's construction simplicity and low manufacturing cost have motivated both researchers and manufacturer.

**Citation:** Afifi, M.; Rezk, H.; Ibrahim,M.; El-Nemr, M. Multi-Objective Optimization of Switched Reluctance Machine Design Using Jaya Algorithm (MO-Jaya). *Mathematics* **2021**, *9*, 1107. https:// doi.org/10.3390/math9101107

Academic Editor: David Barilla

Received: 12 April 2021 Accepted: 6 May 2021 Published: 13 May 2021

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**Copyright:** © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

However, the pulsative behaviour of currents results in torque ripples that are considered a problem of SRM and a challenge. The saliency of poles and non-sinusoidal wave-forms of flux in SRM result in noisy operation and radial vibrations. In addition, SRM structure is not simple from geometric perspective due to the wide range of probabilities for dimensions of a certain design. Moreover, the relationships between SRM's geometric parameters and performance indices are indirect and non-linear. Hence, the search for a good design is difficult despite the search for the best (optimal) design.

Optimization is the search for the best solution (the optimal solution) for a certain problem [3]. Various types of optimization algorithms exist, including traditional optimization techniques that have many limitations and advanced population-based meta-heuristic algorithms [4–6]. Optimization is needed with a switched reluctance machine (SRM) design to reach better designs. Sensitivity analysis is the study of the degree of influence of each parameter on the final objectives of the design. Subsequently, the most influencing parameters are chosen to be optimized to save computation time. Because of the large number of geometric parameters or design parameters of SRM, sensitivity analysis is usually made to make the optimization process less complicated, as in [7–9].

It is essential to have a mathematical model of SRM in order to evaluate its performance and include this evaluation in the optimization process. The performance of SRM is mainly evaluated by rated torque, torque per weight, torque per volume, rated speed, and efficiency. Other quantities can be added to give more detailed evaluation, such as torque ripples, acoustic noise, mechanical vibrations, and maximumtemperature rise, and so forth. All of these performance indices are calculated by various methods that differ from each other according to their accuracy and computational time. These method can be classified to numerical methods, such as finite elements analysis (FEA) and boundary element method (BEM), and analytical methods, such as curve-fitting methods, magnetic equivalent circuits (MECs), and Maxwell's-equation-based approaches [1]. Numerical methods provide high accuracy with the cost of its high computational time. Analytical methods can be simplified to achieve a fast calculation process. However, in most cases, this results in a reduction of accuracy. FEA is commonly used in SRM modelling to achieve accurate results, as in [10–14]. Magnetic equivalent circuit (MEC) is faster than FEA, as shown in in [15–17]. However, it is less frequent because of its reduced accuracy. Fuzzy logic and regression methods are also used, as shown in [18,19]. However, they are less reliable and have complex structures when compared with FEA and MEC. Each performance index (i.e., rated torque, torque ripples and so forth) of SRM is called "objective function" when it is used in the optimization process.

Each possible solution (candidate) of the optimization problem has a corresponding objective function value. According to this value, the candidate solution is ranked. Solution Optimization techniques may be classified according to the objective of optimization into single-objective and multi-objective. In single-objective optimization techniques, only one objective function is considered and solution candidates are ranked based on their corresponding objective function value. For example, if it is required to maximize the objective function, the optimal solution is the one that results in the maximum value of objective function (and vice versa). In multi-objective optimization techniques, more than one objective functions are considered and solution candidates are treated in a different way, as will come later. Multi-objective optimization provides a set of optimal solutions instead of one in single-objective optimization. Optimization techniques have been used together with a modelling method to obtain optimal designs. The enumeration optimization method with FEA is used in [20–22]. A genetic algorithm with FEA is used in [10,13,14]. In [18], a genetic algorithm is used with fuzzy logic. The non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) method is used in [23] with FEA. Differential evolutions are used in [24,25] with FEA. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is used in [26–29] with different SRM modelling techniques. The increase in computation time in most approaches is due to time-consuming SRM electromagnetic modelling. Using other methods instead of FEA is even less accurate or complicated to build.

In this paper, FEA is chosen for SRM modelling to complement the mathematical formulas for average torque and core losses calculations. FEA usage is limited to inductance calculation and to obtain flux density for some points inside SRM core. This simulation has proved to be achieved in a very short time while using free software FEMM4.2. Accordingly, the computational time is reduced to an acceptable limit while achieving high accuracy. The Jaya algorithm is introduced to optimize SRM design due to its inherent characteristics, as it takes the path directly toward optimal solutions, saving computational time and achieving better objective functions values [30]. The multi-objective version of Jaya (MO-Jaya) algorithm is considered with three objective functions, and they are rated average torque, efficiency, and iron weight. The three objective functions calculation methods are presented in details. The results of optimization and the performance of the Jaya algorithm are compared with those of the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) under the same constraints and for the same objectives [31]. The proposed method represents a general frame work for SRM multi-objective optimization. Unlimited design parameters and objective functions can be included. The objective of this study is to investigate the performance of MO-Jaya algorithm in SRM design optimization.

## **2. Design of SRM**

Before starting the design process of switched reluctance machine, available space should be well investigated. The available space is represented as constraints of SRM dimensions values. The most important space constraints are axial length, maximum outer diameter (maximum frame size), and shaft diameter. The axial length and maximum frame size are obtained from measurements of the available space. The shaft diameter is calculated based on the maximum torque and speed. The difference between maximum outer diameter and Shaft diameter is the space that is available for SRM cores and turns. SRM cores are the stator and rotor, which are salient in producing reluctance variation. The number of poles in both stator and rotor is specified at the beginning as will come later.

In conventional design approaches, lamination dimensions, coil diameter, and number of turns are calculated analytically. Subsequently, the average torque is calculated and compared with the rated required torque. The average torque is calculated based on the flux-current ( *λ* − *i*) curves for aligned and unaligned positions. Finally, the whole process is repeated with modified dimensions values and the number of turns to match the output average torque with the required torque. Other performance indices can also be considered, such as torque ripples, efficiency, and so forth. This section demonstrates calculation methods of the considered performance indices and characteristics.

#### *2.1. Number of Poles Selection*

Stator poles *Ps* number and rotor poles *Pr* number is specified mainly according to general understanding of their influence on SRM performance. A higher pole number produces higher average torque, lower torque ripples, and provides more reliable operation; however, it requires more switching devices and reduces the maximum speed. Lower poles number produces lower average torque and higher torque ripples; however, it requires less switching devices and provides higher maximum speed. For general purpose SRM design, 6/4 and 8/6 SRM configurations are commonly used. Hence, these two configurations are considered for optimization in this paper.

## *2.2. Poles Arcs Calculation*

When considering *βs*,*βr* are stator pole arc and rotor pole arc, respectively. To achieve self-starting SRM design, minimum stator pole arc may be expressed—as in [32]—by:

$$
\min[\beta\_5] = \frac{4\pi}{P\_s P\_r}, \qquad \qquad rad \tag{1}
$$

The following condition prevents overlap between phases:

$$
\beta\_s + \beta\_r \le \frac{2\pi}{P\_r} \tag{2}
$$

If this condition not being followed, then the SRM machine inductance will start to increase before reaching the minimum inductance value. This results in higher unaligned inductance value and the developed torque becomes lower.


**2. Notations**

In the rest of this approach, we have used these notations:

D: is the concerned multi-label dataset.

N: is the size of multi-label dataset.

L: the set of labels.

Q: is the number of labels.

Y: is a set of labels, where Y is included in L with k = |Y|. It is known as k-label set.

*Y*: is the complementary set of Y.


**4. Discussion**

Promoting the adoption of water conservation practices in irrigated agriculture has been a principal initiative to slow down the decline of the Mississippi River Valley Alluvial Aquifer (MRVAA). Ongoing agronomic research from scientists at Mississippi State University's Delta Research and Extension Center (DREC) and the USDA Agricultural Research Service in Stoneville, MS, continue to show the potential for these practices to reduce water use while maintaining farm yield and revenue levels. The Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality and the Yazoo Mississippi Delta Joint Water Management District require the use of a minimum number of these practices to issue groundwater well drilling and use permits in the area. Grower associations such as the Delta Farmers Advocating Resource Management (F.A.R.M.) sponsor and promote the use of these practices among their members. Financial and technical assistance from USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) is geared towards minimizing farmer risk exposure associated with the implementation of these conservation practices. However, little is known about the farmer factors that drive their decision to adopt any given conservation practice. This article provides insights that help identify and understand the determinants of conservation practice adoption in the Delta region in Mississippi.

The regression analyses indicated that no single factor consistently predicted the adoption of every conservation practice, but many factors influence a farmer's decision to adopt a given practice. The size of the farming operation is an important factor in deciding the adoption of agricultural

practices in general. Indeed, it is the factor with the most statistically significant coefficients (positive) in the regression analyses. From an economic perspective, this may be attributed to the fact that practices that are marginally beneficial on a per hectare basis may not be worth the managerial cost to small operations, but could add-up to significant economies of scale for larger operations in which fixed and overhead costs associated with a practice can be spread over more hectares.

Results from the 2016 Mississippi Irrigation Survey indicated that groundwater is a source for irrigation for almost 93 percent of growers in the sample. Yet, only a third of the growers think there is a groundwater problem at the farm or state level. The analysis presented suggests that this lack of awareness is significantly related to whether the growers observe a change in the depth to water in their wells or not.

Perception of the existence of a GW problem at the farm or state level was the second most important factor identified. This is an encouraging finding because the results show a strong influence of this variable on the probability of the adoption of several adoption practices and because this is, essentially, an awareness issue. Perception of water quantity issues in regions of high rainfall can be difficult to overcome. This suggests that additional incentives are necessary to bring those who do not perceive a problem to the realization that it actually exists.

Increasing producer awareness is a task that fits, for example, the mission of university extension services, which can aid the communications efforts of federal and state research and regulatory entities in that regard. Regulatory agencies and universities can work together to have a consistent message regarding the projection of groundwater in the state and to increase grower awareness of the issue with a focus on county-based expected changes in wells' depth-to-water distances. However, such efforts have been carried out by these organizations, which suggests there is a need for an additional signal to help convince farmers of the seriousness of the situation.

At nearly 70 percent of respondents, this sample far surpasses the national average of 30 percent flow-meter use [31]. However, only 10 to 15 percent of permittees report individual water-use every year. There is promising evidence from areas with mandatory water use reporting that producers become better informed and more concerned with the health of the aquifer.

For example, growers near Sheridan county in Kansas widely supported a self-imposed Local Enhancement Management Area to create a five year allocation of groundwater that resulted in a 26 percent reduction in water use [32]. A similar case where the threat of regulation from the state level induced irrigators to form the Groundwater Subdistrict No. 1 in the San Luis Valley of Colorado and "formulate a homegrown governance response" that reduced water use by 33 percent in the district [33].

The survey results in our study indicated that farmers may require stronger signals that the aquifer problem is real and important. Furthermore, the experience documented in the aforementioned studies suggested that aquifer problem awareness, resulting largely from individual water use monitoring, and the threat of top-down regulation can induce more active farmer participation in water conservation.

Although participation in conservation programs was a statistically significant factor for only one of the practices (SMS), Figure 1 shows how NRCS expenditures [34] and practice adoption in the region track similar time trends. In particular, the rate of adoption of CHS, SMS, and surge starting in 2009 are noteworthy. This suggests there is an effect of NRCS technical and financial assistance in terms of adoption. However, perhaps due to insufficient data, this association cannot be validated empirically in this study.

These results can inform policy makers, regulatory entities, university extension services, and producers about the salient aspects of conservation practice adoption in Mississippi. Conservation agencies can use the insights in this study to better target their incentive programs, for instance focusing on incentivizing relatively young farmers to adopt practices with long-term benefits such as cover crops. Similarly, further research, extension, and incentives are necessary to devise incentives and training

to facilitate practice adoption by smaller farms. Lastly, periodic surveys (2–5 year intervals) may be necessary to track trends and assess the effectiveness of conservation practice adoption programs.

Our results are largely consistent with the most recent literature [4,6,22]; see Table 8 for a comparison. The GAO report in particular describes policy options at the federal level including their benefits and challenges. With respect to irrigation technology, it recommends that policy makers promote: (1) the use of more efficient irrigation technology and practices, in conjunction with appropriate agreements to use the technology and practices to conserve water; and (2) the use of precision agriculture technologies, in conjunction with appropriate agreements to use the precision agriculture technologies to conserve water. These recommendations are consistent with the ongoing efforts mentioned above, and this study lends empirical validity to the recommendations for the case of Mississippi.

Adoption of Conservation Practices in MS

**Figure 1.** Timeline of the adoption of conservation practices and USDA-NRCS EQIP expenditures in the MS Delta area.

**Table 8.** Impact of conservation practice adoption factors compared to existing literature.

Note: Pos denotes a Positive influence of the factor on adoption; Neg denotes a Negative influence of the factor on adoption; Mix denotes Mixed or undetermined influence of the factor on adoption.

The main limitation of this study is the small sample relative to the number of practices and factors being considered. This limitation determined the choice of probit regression models rather than multivariate and sequential modeling. There is evidence that practices, especially add-ons to furrow irrigation, are adopted in bundles. This feature is not incorporated in this study and constitutes a promising avenue for future research.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, N.Q.-A. and D.M.G.; methodology, N.Q.-A.; software, N.Q.-A.; validation, D.M.G. and L.J.K.; formal analysis, N.Q.-A.; investigation, L.J.K. and C.G.H.; resources, L.J.K., C.G.H., and T.C.; data curation, N.Q.-A.; writing, original draft preparation, N.Q.-A.; writing, review and editing, N.Q.-A., D.M.G., and L.J.K.; funding acquisition, L.J.K., C.G.H., and T.C. All authors read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This publication is a contribution of the National Center for Alluvial Aquifer Research and the Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station. This material is based on work that was funded jointly by the Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, under Cooperative Agreement Number 58-6001-7-001. Financial support for the 2016 Mississippi Survey of Irrigators came from the Mississippi Soybean Board, Mid-South Soybean Board, and United Soybean Board.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors acknowledge and thank Paul Rodrigue, USDA-NRCS Supervisory Engineer Area 4, for helpful advice and regional NRCS expenditure data. Additionally, the authors are grateful for financial support for the survey from the Mississippi Soybean Board, Mid-South Soybean Board, and United Soybean Board.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**1. Introduction**

Bangladesh is a small country geographically situated in between Himalaya and Bay of Bengal. It is among the most vulnerable countries in world to future climate change due to the flat deltaic topography, very low elevation (below 10 meters above sea level) and high population density [1–3]. Eating a lot of rice is the primary food

habit of Bangladeshi people. Next to rice, wheat is the second most important cereal crops in Bangladesh for attaining food and nutritional security [4]. Although being one of the major rice producers and consumers in world [5], consumption and import of wheat in Bangladesh are growing significantly over the years [5, 6–9]. The speedy economic growth, swift urbanization, and the associated alterations in lifestyle are accountable for the increased consumption of wheat which is not going to change [8]. Instead the demand of wheat will be enhanced in near future [4]. Despite increasing yield, gradual decrease of wheat growing area make the domestic wheat production curve more or less static [10]. At present, the domestic production of the country can only encounter around 20% of total wheat consumption [11, 12] and import is the only way for meeting her demand–supply gap [6]. Several periodic natural calamities such as salinity, drought, high temperature stress, flash floods and cyclones have been accelerated due to climate change in recent years [4, 13]. Among the abiotic stresses, drought is the most prominent and prevalent limiting factors of wheat production [14–16]. Rising temperature and changing in precipitation pattern lead to increasing incidence and intensity of drought events in country like Bangladesh [17–21]. Drought employs expressively adverse effects on production of winter crop wheat in northern and central part of Bangladesh [22, 23]. Around 3.5 million ha land are vulnerable to crop production due to drought and wheat is one of the major cereal crops under the radar of this threat [24]. Considering these facts, drought should be highly preferred in future wheat improvement programs. For attaining self-sufficiency in wheat production, wheat breeders of Bangladesh have no alternatives but to develop well adapted drought tolerant varieties [22]. In spite of the polygenic nature, there are ample opportunities to increase drought tolerance of wheat through making some alterations in genetic and molecular levels. Therefore recent wheat breeding programs for drought stress should focus on utilization of both conventional as well as advanced molecular techniques.


**1. Introduction**

238 Olive Germplasm – The Olive Cultivation, Table Olive and Olive Oil Industry in Italy

Diego, CA, ISBN 0-12-672690-6.

Stone, H. & Sidel, J.L. (2004). Sensory evaluation practise. 3nd ed., Academic Press, San