There are two general categories of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational analysis. Both types of content analysis were applied. Conceptual analysis focused on establishing the existence and frequency of certain concepts in the dissertations. In this study conceptual analysis was undertaken by using open coding. Open coding is the part of analysis that pertains specifically to naming and categorizing phenomena through close examination of data (Mertens, 2005). In order to come up with a checklist of concepts and codes, the four researchers initially analysed 10 dissertations. Our analysis produced a checklist of six subcomponents of the dissertation: research questions, data form, research paradigm, research design, data collection instruments, procedures for data analysis and procedures for presentation and discussion of research findings. These concepts were

**Concept Category Code**

Context of the study

Non-Experimental

Documents / records

Questionnaires Interviews Observations

Tests

Table 2. Checklist of Concepts, Categories and Codes.

Qualitative Quantitative

Previous Research Studies

Constructivist (Qualitative)

Pragmatic (Quantitative – Qualitative)

D E1 E2

N W

CS CX T

P C P(Q-Q)

E NE

Q I O T D/R

Q1 Q2

Explanatory Exploratory

Words

Theory

dissertation, the research topic must be approved by the project supervisor.

**27. Research design and methodology**

categorized and coded as presented in Table 2.

Research Questions Descriptive

Data Form Numbers

Literature Review Concepts/constructs

Research Paradigm Positivist (Quantitative)

Research Design Experimental

Data collection instruments

Presentation and discussion of findings

focused on research projects submitted by B. Ed students.

We checked the reliability of the coding a (90% agreement is suggested; .8 for Cohen's kappa). To establish the dependability of the categorization decisions, we worked in pairs. First one researcher coded all the items and the second researcher independently coded a 10% random sample of those items. The proportion of simple agreement between the coders was 0.95.

To conduct relational analysis of the dissertations we adopted and adapted the relational model developed by Kangai, Bukalia, Mapuranga and Musika (2011) in an earlier study (see figure 1).

Fig. 1. Relational Analysis Model for Post – Graduate Dissertations Adapted from Kangai, Bukaliya, Musika and Mapuranga (2011).

Social Research Methods in Higher Education: A Critical Analysis

**Degree Programmes**

of Methodological Issues and Emerging Trends at the Zimbabwe Open University 19

MBA (50) 15 **30** 6 **12** 23 **46** 6 **12**  M.ED (50) 14 **36** 8 **16** 24 **40** 4 **8**  MSC.-SPED (50) 16 **32** 5 **10** 26 **52** 3 **6**  MPHIL (50) 13 **32** 9 **18** 23 **40** 5 **10 Totals (200) 58 29 % 28 14 % 96 48 % 18 9 %**

Our findings indicate that most of the dissertations 182 (91 percent) employed research questions rather than hypotheses. Defining the research questions represents one of the most important steps to be taken in any empirical study **(Benbasat et al. 1987**; Eisenhardt, 1989; Mays and Pope, 1995; Miles and Huberman, 1994). Most of the reviewed dissertations (79 percent) specified clear research questions, 12 percent of the questions were not very clear, and 9 percent did not state research questions. The fact that 79 percent of the analysed dissertations were guided by very clear research questions is quite encouraging since a clear research question expresses the essence of an inquiry, allows one to easily link a study to its practical and theoretical contributions, and is the backbone of a solid research design (Mason, 1996). Exploratory questions (48 %) dominated in the dissertations compared to descriptive (29 percent). Yin (1994) explains that social research is most likely to be appropriate for "*how"* and "*why"* questions because these deal with operational links needing to be traced over time, rather than mere frequencies of incidence. In the present study, explorative research questions, *what* questions were the most frequent followed by *how* and *why* questions. Research studies which address a *what* question are most appropriate when the purpose of the study is to explore a new phenomenon (Yin 1994). Our findings support this contention. Indeed, *what* questions were most frequently posed in exploratory and descriptive studies. It is interesting to note that whilst descriptive questions dominated in research projects submitted by ZOU undergraduate students, (Kangai, Bukalia, Musika and Mapuranga, 2011), exploratory questions were more dominant in post graduate dissertations, although the shift is not very significant. Amongst post graduate students, descriptive research questions are still very popular. This finding agrees with Benbasat I. and Weber R. (1996) who argue that a descriptive study is less demanding than an exploratory or an explanatory one. For descriptive studies, little theory is said to be needed, causal links do not have to be made, and analysis is minimal. In a dominant

Table 4. Research questions most preferred by ZOU Post- graduate students.

research question used by ZOU undergraduate student was the questionnaire.

The **second** concept we examined was the context of the study. Placing the study in its theoretical context can be bewildering especially to beginning researchers. Beginning researchers often have the perplexing task of building a convincing argument in support of their current research. This is done by presenting background of the study. The background of the study starts by identifying the research problem and relating it to the prevailing theory. The background highlights the importance of the problem and explains why it is a

**31. Context of the study**

**RESEARCH QUESTIONS Descriptive Explanatory Exploratory Hypothesis N** % **N** % **N** % **N** %

The primary purpose of this analysis was to establish whether the dissertations submitted by post-graduate students met and satisfied the scientific enquiry research process. Although there is no universally accepted format for the research process, most studies adhere to the general sequence of scientific enquiry. Scientific enquiry is a sequential research process that is based on recognized methods in data collection, analysis and interpretation. The typical steps in the scientific enquiry are (1) Define a problem (2) state the hypotheses to be tested. (3) collect and analyse data (4) interpret the results and draw conclusions about the problem (McMillan and Schumacher, 1993). Different universities and even faculties in the same university may adopt adapt this process to suit their local conditions and needs. Students' dissertations at the ZOU are structured following eight stages. We analysed each of these subcomponents of the dissertation in order to establish the extent to which each was related to the other parts.

#### **29. Sample**

Data for the current study was collected from a stratified random sample of 100 dissertations, which were submitted by ZOU postgraduate students between 2005-2010. The 100 dissertations were distributed as follows (See table 3).

Table 3. Stratified Random Sample of Post- graduate Dissertations content analysed for the current study.

#### **30. Conceptual analysis results**

#### **30.1 Dominant research questions and hypotheses**

The first concept we analysed was the research questions or hypotheses that guided each study.

The primary purpose of this analysis was to establish whether the dissertations submitted by post-graduate students met and satisfied the scientific enquiry research process. Although there is no universally accepted format for the research process, most studies adhere to the general sequence of scientific enquiry. Scientific enquiry is a sequential research process that is based on recognized methods in data collection, analysis and interpretation. The typical steps in the scientific enquiry are (1) Define a problem (2) state the hypotheses to be tested. (3) collect and analyse data (4) interpret the results and draw conclusions about the problem (McMillan and Schumacher, 1993). Different universities and even faculties in the same university may adopt adapt this process to suit their local conditions and needs. Students' dissertations at the ZOU are structured following eight stages. We analysed each of these subcomponents of the dissertation in order to establish the

Data for the current study was collected from a stratified random sample of 100 dissertations, which were submitted by ZOU postgraduate students between 2005-2010. The

**Degree Programme Dissertation 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010**

(MSc- SPED) **50** 10 10 10 10 10 10

**Total 200 40 40 40 40 40 40**

Administration (MBA) **50** 10 10 10 10 10 10

Master of Education (M.Ed) **50** 10 10 10 10 10 10

Master of Philosophy (MPhil) **50** 10 10 10 10 10 10

Table 3. Stratified Random Sample of Post- graduate Dissertations content analysed for the

The first concept we analysed was the research questions or hypotheses that guided each

extent to which each was related to the other parts.

4. Describe and explain the research paradigm and design 5. Describe data collection instruments and procedures 6. Describe data analysis techniques and procedures 7. Data presentation and discussion of findings

100 dissertations were distributed as follows (See table 3).

1. Define the research problem

Master of Business

Master of Science Special Education

**30. Conceptual analysis results**

**30.1 Dominant research questions and hypotheses**

3. Review related literature

8. References

**29. Sample**

current study.

study.

2. State research questions/ Hypotheses

Table 4. Research questions most preferred by ZOU Post- graduate students.

Our findings indicate that most of the dissertations 182 (91 percent) employed research questions rather than hypotheses. Defining the research questions represents one of the most important steps to be taken in any empirical study **(Benbasat et al. 1987**; Eisenhardt, 1989; Mays and Pope, 1995; Miles and Huberman, 1994). Most of the reviewed dissertations (79 percent) specified clear research questions, 12 percent of the questions were not very clear, and 9 percent did not state research questions. The fact that 79 percent of the analysed dissertations were guided by very clear research questions is quite encouraging since a clear research question expresses the essence of an inquiry, allows one to easily link a study to its practical and theoretical contributions, and is the backbone of a solid research design (Mason, 1996). Exploratory questions (48 %) dominated in the dissertations compared to descriptive (29 percent). Yin (1994) explains that social research is most likely to be appropriate for "*how"* and "*why"* questions because these deal with operational links needing to be traced over time, rather than mere frequencies of incidence. In the present study, explorative research questions, *what* questions were the most frequent followed by *how* and *why* questions. Research studies which address a *what* question are most appropriate when the purpose of the study is to explore a new phenomenon (Yin 1994). Our findings support this contention. Indeed, *what* questions were most frequently posed in exploratory and descriptive studies. It is interesting to note that whilst descriptive questions dominated in research projects submitted by ZOU undergraduate students, (Kangai, Bukalia, Musika and Mapuranga, 2011), exploratory questions were more dominant in post graduate dissertations, although the shift is not very significant. Amongst post graduate students, descriptive research questions are still very popular. This finding agrees with Benbasat I. and Weber R. (1996) who argue that a descriptive study is less demanding than an exploratory or an explanatory one. For descriptive studies, little theory is said to be needed, causal links do not have to be made, and analysis is minimal. In a dominant research question used by ZOU undergraduate student was the questionnaire.

#### **31. Context of the study**

The **second** concept we examined was the context of the study. Placing the study in its theoretical context can be bewildering especially to beginning researchers. Beginning researchers often have the perplexing task of building a convincing argument in support of their current research. This is done by presenting background of the study. The background of the study starts by identifying the research problem and relating it to the prevailing theory. The background highlights the importance of the problem and explains why it is a

Social Research Methods in Higher Education: A Critical Analysis

Mixed methods (Quantitative – Qualitative) Research

Table 5. The Dominant Research Paradigm. N= 200.

surrounding their area of study.

No Mention of Research Paradigm

presented in table.

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

beginning to "interbreed".

**33. The dominant research design**

of Methodological Issues and Emerging Trends at the Zimbabwe Open University 21

another valuable approach for social research is the consideration of rival theories (propositions) and the analysis of the evidence in terms of such rivals (Lee 1989; Yin 1994). Our finding on review of rival theories was disappointing as only 24 percent of all dissertations considered rival theories in their literature review. A review of rival theories will enable the researcher to identify the knowledge gap in the theory of interest. The knowledge gap refers to the inadequacies of the existing theory in explaining the current research problem. This means that students failed to present the scholarly debate

The **fourth** concept for analysis was the research design. The results of our analysis are

**Research Paradigm Number Percentage**

Although Patton (2002) notes that the choice of qualitative methods might be appropriate in many social research studies because they are based on humanistic values. The present study shows that there is a trend towards the use of mixed methods as 63 percent of all the

Another interesting finding was that 5% of the projects did not identify a paradigm. Leaders in the field of research do not all agree as to the need to acknowledge an underlying paradigm, nor do they agree on the role that such paradigms serve in the research process. Whilst Patton (2002) says research paradigms are unnecessary and possibly handicapping, Schwandt, (2000), argues that research paradigms are inescapable. The need for a paradigm is also supported by Mertens (2005), who maintains that a researcher's theoretical orientation (paradigm) has implications for every decision made in the research process, including choice of methods. Skrtic (1991), argues that the absence of a research paradigm, renders the research atheoretical since it rests on an unexamined and unrecognized theory. In an earlier content analysis of research project submitted by ZOU undergraduate students, Kangai, Bukalia, Musika and Mapuranga (2011) found that 22 percent of the students did not mention the research paradigm that influenced their studies. Our results indicate an improvement in post graduate research studies. Our findings agree with Patton (1999) and Lincoln and Guba (2000) who note that many changes have occurred in the status of paradigms and choice of methods over the last decade such that various paradigms are

The **fifth** concept we analysed was the research design. We based our analysis on Borg and Gall's classification of research questions. According to Borg and Gall (1989) there are two categories of research questions- descriptive and relational. Descriptive questions lead to non- experimental designs and relational questions lead to experimental designs and the use

dissertations we reviewed employed quantitative and qualitative methods.

7% 20% 63% 5%

research problem in its present context. The context of the problem must identify the knowledge gap the present study aims to fill. The knowledge gap refers to the inadequacies of the existing theories in explaining the current research problem. Failure by findings of previous studies in explaining the present research problem also reflects the knowledge gap. The knowledge gap indicates a mismatch between the general theory and phenomenon under study.

A detailed description of the research context is necessary to assess the credibility of the research results and to determine their generalizability **(Benbasat et al.** 1987; Yin 1994). Several aspects of the research context are important. The first relates to the setting: a detailed account describing where the research was conducted and the specific period of time under investigation. Other key aspects are related to the moment data was collected in relation to the time the events occurred, whether there were one or more data collection periods, whether the researcher was able to gain sufficient access and spend enough time to develop an intimate understanding of the setting and the phenomenon of interest, and whether the researcher collected data during the course of the events (on-going) or *a posteriori.*

According to the present study, 26 percent of the dissertations clearly presented the context of the study, 57 percent were not very explicit about the context surrounding their research and 17 percent failed to place their studies in the appropriate conceptual and theoretical framework. First, we found that while most social researchers (98 percent) described to some extent where their research was conducted (site description), only 32 percent stated the specific period of time the study was conducted. Providing the latter information is important since the period defines the frame of reference under which phenomena are investigated (Pettigrew, 1989). Findings from social research are often time-bound and potentially confounded with time (Laudon 1989). The physical and social environment of a phenomenon is dynamic. Social values, attitudes, beliefs, customs, and norms change with time. Thus the time the study was undertaken is very important for the purposes of credibility, validity and generalization of the findings. Finally, we noted that only 19 percent of the articles reported how much time the researcher (s) had spent on the study, while 32 percent of the analysed dissertations provided no information about the nature of the data being collected.

#### **32. Review of related literature**

The **third** concept we analysed was the link between the study and prevailing literature. Prior theorizing constitutes an essential input in social research design (Lee, 1989; Yin, 1994). Markus, 1983). Literature review, besides reflecting important theoretical issues, also begin to tell researchers where to look for relevant evidence. Hence, positivist social research presumes that the theory of interest is stated explicitly in the first place and that predictions following from the theory are also explicitly stated (Lee 1989). However, in qualitative social research, the researcher may begin with no theory since the theory will develop from the study. Findings of the present study are encouraging with regard to these two desired attributes. Indeed, almost all of the 200 dissertations (76 percent) reviewed in this study stated explicitly the theory of interest while 87 percent stated clearly the various predictions deducted from the theory itself. As discussed above,

research problem in its present context. The context of the problem must identify the knowledge gap the present study aims to fill. The knowledge gap refers to the inadequacies of the existing theories in explaining the current research problem. Failure by findings of previous studies in explaining the present research problem also reflects the knowledge gap. The knowledge gap indicates a mismatch between the general theory and phenomenon

A detailed description of the research context is necessary to assess the credibility of the research results and to determine their generalizability **(Benbasat et al.** 1987; Yin 1994). Several aspects of the research context are important. The first relates to the setting: a detailed account describing where the research was conducted and the specific period of time under investigation. Other key aspects are related to the moment data was collected in relation to the time the events occurred, whether there were one or more data collection periods, whether the researcher was able to gain sufficient access and spend enough time to develop an intimate understanding of the setting and the phenomenon of interest, and whether the researcher collected data during the course of the events (on-going) or *a*

According to the present study, 26 percent of the dissertations clearly presented the context of the study, 57 percent were not very explicit about the context surrounding their research and 17 percent failed to place their studies in the appropriate conceptual and theoretical framework. First, we found that while most social researchers (98 percent) described to some extent where their research was conducted (site description), only 32 percent stated the specific period of time the study was conducted. Providing the latter information is important since the period defines the frame of reference under which phenomena are investigated (Pettigrew, 1989). Findings from social research are often time-bound and potentially confounded with time (Laudon 1989). The physical and social environment of a phenomenon is dynamic. Social values, attitudes, beliefs, customs, and norms change with time. Thus the time the study was undertaken is very important for the purposes of credibility, validity and generalization of the findings. Finally, we noted that only 19 percent of the articles reported how much time the researcher (s) had spent on the study, while 32 percent of the analysed dissertations provided no information about the nature of the data

The **third** concept we analysed was the link between the study and prevailing literature. Prior theorizing constitutes an essential input in social research design (Lee, 1989; Yin, 1994). Markus, 1983). Literature review, besides reflecting important theoretical issues, also begin to tell researchers where to look for relevant evidence. Hence, positivist social research presumes that the theory of interest is stated explicitly in the first place and that predictions following from the theory are also explicitly stated (Lee 1989). However, in qualitative social research, the researcher may begin with no theory since the theory will develop from the study. Findings of the present study are encouraging with regard to these two desired attributes. Indeed, almost all of the 200 dissertations (76 percent) reviewed in this study stated explicitly the theory of interest while 87 percent stated clearly the various predictions deducted from the theory itself. As discussed above,

under study.

*posteriori.*

being collected.

**32. Review of related literature**

another valuable approach for social research is the consideration of rival theories (propositions) and the analysis of the evidence in terms of such rivals (Lee 1989; Yin 1994). Our finding on review of rival theories was disappointing as only 24 percent of all dissertations considered rival theories in their literature review. A review of rival theories will enable the researcher to identify the knowledge gap in the theory of interest. The knowledge gap refers to the inadequacies of the existing theory in explaining the current research problem. This means that students failed to present the scholarly debate surrounding their area of study.

The **fourth** concept for analysis was the research design. The results of our analysis are presented in table.

Table 5. The Dominant Research Paradigm. N= 200.

Although Patton (2002) notes that the choice of qualitative methods might be appropriate in many social research studies because they are based on humanistic values. The present study shows that there is a trend towards the use of mixed methods as 63 percent of all the dissertations we reviewed employed quantitative and qualitative methods.

Another interesting finding was that 5% of the projects did not identify a paradigm. Leaders in the field of research do not all agree as to the need to acknowledge an underlying paradigm, nor do they agree on the role that such paradigms serve in the research process. Whilst Patton (2002) says research paradigms are unnecessary and possibly handicapping, Schwandt, (2000), argues that research paradigms are inescapable. The need for a paradigm is also supported by Mertens (2005), who maintains that a researcher's theoretical orientation (paradigm) has implications for every decision made in the research process, including choice of methods. Skrtic (1991), argues that the absence of a research paradigm, renders the research atheoretical since it rests on an unexamined and unrecognized theory. In an earlier content analysis of research project submitted by ZOU undergraduate students, Kangai, Bukalia, Musika and Mapuranga (2011) found that 22 percent of the students did not mention the research paradigm that influenced their studies. Our results indicate an improvement in post graduate research studies. Our findings agree with Patton (1999) and Lincoln and Guba (2000) who note that many changes have occurred in the status of paradigms and choice of methods over the last decade such that various paradigms are beginning to "interbreed".

#### **33. The dominant research design**

The **fifth** concept we analysed was the research design. We based our analysis on Borg and Gall's classification of research questions. According to Borg and Gall (1989) there are two categories of research questions- descriptive and relational. Descriptive questions lead to non- experimental designs and relational questions lead to experimental designs and the use

Social Research Methods in Higher Education: A Critical Analysis

descriptive ones.

*"genuinely integrate".*

**35. Data triangulation**

used by ZOU undergraduate research students.

**36. Elucidation of the data collection process**

of Methodological Issues and Emerging Trends at the Zimbabwe Open University 23

This finding is consistent with the research paradigm most preferred by the students. In addition to using multiple data collection methods, the specific use of a combination of quantitative (e.g., questionnaires) and qualitative (e.g., interviews) data sources is often advocated (Reichardt and Cook, 1978; Kaplan and Duchon, 1988 and Patton, 1999). As Eisenhardt (1989) stressed, quantitative data can keep researchers from being carried away by vivid, but false, impressions in qualitative data, and it can bolster findings when it corroborates those findings from qualitative evidence. The use of both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection is supported by Kirsch and Cummings (1996) who argue that explanatory and exploratory social research tend to rely more heavily on both multiple data collection methods and a mix of qualitative and quantitative data than do

Our findings point to an emerging positive trend in the use of mixed methods as compared to other previous content analysis studies. For example, Mingers (2001) observed that *about half* of the studies included in their sample used multiple data collection approaches. Alan Bryman (2007) also did a content analysis of 232 articles, published between 1994 and 2003, with 'mixed' research methods. He found that only 18% of the articles succeeded to mix

*As a result of the efforts of methodologists and researchers, there is nowadays considerable understanding of a variety of issues, such a various ways in which quantitative and qualitative research can be mixed … However, at the same time, the fundamental issue of the degree to which mixed methods researchers genuinely integrate their findings has not been addressed to a significant extent. In other words, how far do mixed methods researchers analyze, interpret, and write up their research in such a way that the qualitative and quantitative components are mutually illuminating?*

The present finding represents an improvement in social research methodology over the

The most important advantage of using multiple sources of evidence is the development of converging lines of inquiry (Patton, 1999; Yin 1999). The process of combining multiple data sources is called triangulation (Jick, 1979). Any finding or conclusion in social research is likely to be much more convincing and accurate if it is based on several different sources of information. However, our findings are disappointing in that fewer than one-third (30 percent) of the studies just mentioned using some form of data triangulation but did not elucidate how this was done and how the triangulation contributed to the validity and reliability of the findings. These findings are once again in line with those of Kangai C., Bukalia, R., Musika F. and Mapuranga, B. (2011) who showed that triangulation was rarely

Data Collection Process the **seventh** concept to be analysed. In addition to mentioning methods of data collection, it was quite encouraging to observe that more than 58 percent of all dissertations in our sample did elucidate how data was collected. This represents a very

(integrate) qualitative and quantitative methods. He remarks (p. 8):

past decade since 62.5 of our sample effectively employed mixed methods.

of both leads to mixed methods. We, therefore, identified and classified research designs as experimental, non-experimental or mixed methods (see Table 6).

Table 6. The Dominant Research Design in ZOU Postgraduate Dissertations.

Our results show that 178 (89 percent) of post-graduate dissertations employed non experimental research designs. Only 20 (10 percent) of the dissertations used mixed methods and 2 (1 percent) used experimental designs. Our findings agree with McMillan & Schumacher (1993), Borg and Gall (1996), Mertens (2005)and (Kangai, Bukalia, Musika and Mapuranga, 2011) who have noted that descriptive surveys are the most basic of methods, popular and used pervasively in social research. Descriptive surveys are mainly used to describe peoples' characteristics such as their attitudes, beliefs, habits, values, demographics, behaviours, opinions, desires, ideas, and other types of information and do not help much in developing theory or testing theory. We have argued elsewhere (Kangai, Bukalia, Musika and Mapuranga, 2011) that the confinement of students' research projects to one or two research designs is a function of the lack of theoretical foundations in research methodology.

#### **34. Data collection methods**

The **sixth** concept we analysed involved data collection instruments. A major strength of mixed methods data collection is the opportunity to use many different sources of evidence to provide a richer picture of the events and/or issues than would any single method (Sawyer 2001; Yin 1994). A multi-method approach to research involves several data collection techniques, such as interviews and observations organized to provide multiple but dissimilar data sets regarding the same phenomena (Mingers, 2001). As shown in Table 5, most dissertations (62.5 percent) employed multi-methods followed by the questionnaire (21 percent) and interview (16.5 percent).

Table 7. Data collection instruments mostly preferred by ZOU Post-graduate research students.

This finding is consistent with the research paradigm most preferred by the students. In addition to using multiple data collection methods, the specific use of a combination of quantitative (e.g., questionnaires) and qualitative (e.g., interviews) data sources is often advocated (Reichardt and Cook, 1978; Kaplan and Duchon, 1988 and Patton, 1999). As Eisenhardt (1989) stressed, quantitative data can keep researchers from being carried away by vivid, but false, impressions in qualitative data, and it can bolster findings when it corroborates those findings from qualitative evidence. The use of both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection is supported by Kirsch and Cummings (1996) who argue that explanatory and exploratory social research tend to rely more heavily on both multiple data collection methods and a mix of qualitative and quantitative data than do descriptive ones.

Our findings point to an emerging positive trend in the use of mixed methods as compared to other previous content analysis studies. For example, Mingers (2001) observed that *about half* of the studies included in their sample used multiple data collection approaches. Alan Bryman (2007) also did a content analysis of 232 articles, published between 1994 and 2003, with 'mixed' research methods. He found that only 18% of the articles succeeded to mix (integrate) qualitative and quantitative methods. He remarks (p. 8):

*As a result of the efforts of methodologists and researchers, there is nowadays considerable understanding of a variety of issues, such a various ways in which quantitative and qualitative research can be mixed … However, at the same time, the fundamental issue of the degree to which mixed methods researchers genuinely integrate their findings has not been addressed to a significant extent. In other words, how far do mixed methods researchers analyze, interpret, and write up their research in such a way that the qualitative and quantitative components are mutually illuminating? "genuinely integrate".*

The present finding represents an improvement in social research methodology over the past decade since 62.5 of our sample effectively employed mixed methods.

#### **35. Data triangulation**

22 Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to Social Sciences and Knowledge Management

of both leads to mixed methods. We, therefore, identified and classified research designs as

2 178 20

Our results show that 178 (89 percent) of post-graduate dissertations employed non experimental research designs. Only 20 (10 percent) of the dissertations used mixed methods and 2 (1 percent) used experimental designs. Our findings agree with McMillan & Schumacher (1993), Borg and Gall (1996), Mertens (2005)and (Kangai, Bukalia, Musika and Mapuranga, 2011) who have noted that descriptive surveys are the most basic of methods, popular and used pervasively in social research. Descriptive surveys are mainly used to describe peoples' characteristics such as their attitudes, beliefs, habits, values, demographics, behaviours, opinions, desires, ideas, and other types of information and do not help much in developing theory or testing theory. We have argued elsewhere (Kangai, Bukalia, Musika and Mapuranga, 2011) that the confinement of students' research projects to one or two research designs is a function of the lack of theoretical foundations in research

The **sixth** concept we analysed involved data collection instruments. A major strength of mixed methods data collection is the opportunity to use many different sources of evidence to provide a richer picture of the events and/or issues than would any single method (Sawyer 2001; Yin 1994). A multi-method approach to research involves several data collection techniques, such as interviews and observations organized to provide multiple but dissimilar data sets regarding the same phenomena (Mingers, 2001). As shown in Table 5, most dissertations (62.5 percent) employed multi-methods followed by the questionnaire

**Method Frequency of use Percentage**

**Total 200 100 %**

Table 7. Data collection instruments mostly preferred by ZOU Post-graduate research

1% 89% 10%

21 % 16.5 % 0 % 0 % 0 % 62.5 %

**Research Design Number Percentage**

Table 6. The Dominant Research Design in ZOU Postgraduate Dissertations.

experimental, non-experimental or mixed methods (see Table 6).

Experimental Non – Experimental Mixed Methods

methodology.

Questionnaire Interview Observation Documentation

Multi-methods

students.

Tests and Measurements

**34. Data collection methods**

(21 percent) and interview (16.5 percent).

The most important advantage of using multiple sources of evidence is the development of converging lines of inquiry (Patton, 1999; Yin 1999). The process of combining multiple data sources is called triangulation (Jick, 1979). Any finding or conclusion in social research is likely to be much more convincing and accurate if it is based on several different sources of information. However, our findings are disappointing in that fewer than one-third (30 percent) of the studies just mentioned using some form of data triangulation but did not elucidate how this was done and how the triangulation contributed to the validity and reliability of the findings. These findings are once again in line with those of Kangai C., Bukalia, R., Musika F. and Mapuranga, B. (2011) who showed that triangulation was rarely used by ZOU undergraduate research students.

#### **36. Elucidation of the data collection process**

Data Collection Process the **seventh** concept to be analysed. In addition to mentioning methods of data collection, it was quite encouraging to observe that more than 58 percent of all dissertations in our sample did elucidate how data was collected. This represents a very

Social Research Methods in Higher Education: A Critical Analysis

conclusions in only 44 percent of them.

**40. Summary of key findings**

1. Research questions

2. Dominant research question

3. Literature review

4. Context of the study

5. Dominant research paradigm

6. Dominant research design

> collection methods

7. Data

**39. Comparison with related literature**

since the results usually rest on a small number of cases.

research methodologies applied by ZOU post-graduate students.

**CONCEPT STATUS**

Analysed theory of interest

Clearly presented

of Methodological Issues and Emerging Trends at the Zimbabwe Open University 25

research has addressed the methodological problem of determining internal validity. In order to assess whether the authors of the dissertations we analysed had maintained a chain of evidence, we used the relational model (see figure ) to evaluated the extent to which we were able to move from one portion of the study to another, with minimal cross-referencing to methodological procedures and to the resulting evidence. Hence, for all of the articles included in our sample, we were able to trace the steps from initial research questions to

When building theories from social research, it is of utmost importance to compare the emergent concepts, theories or hypotheses with the extant literature. Examining literature that conflicts with the emergent theory is likely to enhance confidence in the findings of the study (Eisenhardt, 1989). Literature discussing similar findings is important as well because it ties together underlying similarities in phenomena normally not associated with each other. The result is often a theory with stronger internal validity, wider generalizations and higher conceptual level. Notwithstanding the potential benefits associated with such a tactic, Table 8 reveals that only 11 percent of all exploratory case studies related their findings to conflicting literature while 37 percent of them discussed similar literature. In short, tying the emergent constructs, hypotheses, or theories to extant literature is crucial in theory building

Table presents a synthesis of the key findings and of the present content analysis of social

67% Analysed

26% Poorly

Experimental 1% Non

Clear 79% Not clear 12% Not stated 9%

24% Analysed

57% Not

89% Mixed

unrelated theories

presented

methods

methods

methods

9%

17%

63%

10%

62.5%

Exploratory 48% Descriptive 29% Explanatory 14%

rival theories

presented

Experimental

Quantitative 7% Qualitative 20% Mixed

Quantitative 16.5% Qualitative 21% Multi-

important aspect of social research, since a clear description of the data sources and how data was collected enhances the reliability and validity of the findings (Benbasat, I. Goldstein, D. K. and Mead, M., 1987). However, the fact that 42 percent of the studies did not clearly elucidate how data was collected, is a course for concern. In social research, the reader must be able to tell what sources of information were used and how data was collected in order to judge the reliability of the information. The omission of such information undermines the credibility of social research studies.

#### **37. Elucidation of the data analysis process**

The **eighth** concept to be examined was the data analysis process. As Eisenhardt (1989) stressed, analyzing data is "both the most difficult and the least codified part of the process". It was, therefore, important to first assess the extent to which social researchers elucidated the data analysis procedures. In order to do so, we classified each article in the database as providing either "no information," "a brief description," or "a clear and detailed description" of the analytic procedures and/or rules followed.

Our findings show that a large number of dissertations (70 percent) did not explain how data was analysed, while 22 percent provided a brief description of the data analysis process, and 8 percent provided a clear and detailed description of analytic procedures. For example one researcher wrote, "Data collected was quantitatively analysed in tables". This represents another serious shortcoming since a clear description of the analytic procedures allows other readers to better understand the findings. In addition, since positivism considers qualitative data to be vulnerable to subjective interpretation and to surpass human ability to compile, a clear description of the data analysis process allows us to judge whether or not the results are the fruit of a systematic and rigorous process.

Our findings reveal that social researchers at the ZOU did not provide much information about the adoption of preliminary data analysis techniques. This represents another serious deficiency since technical rigor in analysis is a major factor in the credibility of qualitative findings (Patton 1999). Social research data can be analysed as it is being collected. Overlapping data collection with data analysis not only gives the researcher a head start in analysis but, more importantly, allows researchers to take advantage of flexible data collection. Indeed, a key feature of qualitative research, in general, and research, in particular, is the freedom to make adjustments during the data collection process.

#### **38. Discussion of findings**

The **ninth** and final concept we analysed was the discussion of research findings. Discussion of research findings must demonstrate a logical chain of evidence. To increase the reliability of the information presented in a case study, a key principle to be followed is the maintenance of a logical chain of evidence (Benbasat et al. 1987; Yin 1994). As Yin (1994) explained, the principle is to allow an external reviewer or observer to follow the derivation of any evidence from initial research questions to ultimate study conclusions. Furthermore, the observer should be able to trace the steps in either direction (from conclusions back to initial research questions or from questions to conclusions). The process should be tight enough so that evidence presented in the project or dissertation report is assuredly the same evidence that was collected during the data collection process. When this is achieved, social research has addressed the methodological problem of determining internal validity. In order to assess whether the authors of the dissertations we analysed had maintained a chain of evidence, we used the relational model (see figure ) to evaluated the extent to which we were able to move from one portion of the study to another, with minimal cross-referencing to methodological procedures and to the resulting evidence. Hence, for all of the articles included in our sample, we were able to trace the steps from initial research questions to conclusions in only 44 percent of them.

#### **39. Comparison with related literature**

24 Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to Social Sciences and Knowledge Management

important aspect of social research, since a clear description of the data sources and how data was collected enhances the reliability and validity of the findings (Benbasat, I. Goldstein, D. K. and Mead, M., 1987). However, the fact that 42 percent of the studies did not clearly elucidate how data was collected, is a course for concern. In social research, the reader must be able to tell what sources of information were used and how data was collected in order to judge the reliability of the information. The omission of such

The **eighth** concept to be examined was the data analysis process. As Eisenhardt (1989) stressed, analyzing data is "both the most difficult and the least codified part of the process". It was, therefore, important to first assess the extent to which social researchers elucidated the data analysis procedures. In order to do so, we classified each article in the database as providing either "no information," "a brief description," or "a clear and detailed

Our findings show that a large number of dissertations (70 percent) did not explain how data was analysed, while 22 percent provided a brief description of the data analysis process, and 8 percent provided a clear and detailed description of analytic procedures. For example one researcher wrote, "Data collected was quantitatively analysed in tables". This represents another serious shortcoming since a clear description of the analytic procedures allows other readers to better understand the findings. In addition, since positivism considers qualitative data to be vulnerable to subjective interpretation and to surpass human ability to compile, a clear description of the data analysis process allows us to judge

Our findings reveal that social researchers at the ZOU did not provide much information about the adoption of preliminary data analysis techniques. This represents another serious deficiency since technical rigor in analysis is a major factor in the credibility of qualitative findings (Patton 1999). Social research data can be analysed as it is being collected. Overlapping data collection with data analysis not only gives the researcher a head start in analysis but, more importantly, allows researchers to take advantage of flexible data collection. Indeed, a key feature of qualitative research, in general, and research, in

The **ninth** and final concept we analysed was the discussion of research findings. Discussion of research findings must demonstrate a logical chain of evidence. To increase the reliability of the information presented in a case study, a key principle to be followed is the maintenance of a logical chain of evidence (Benbasat et al. 1987; Yin 1994). As Yin (1994) explained, the principle is to allow an external reviewer or observer to follow the derivation of any evidence from initial research questions to ultimate study conclusions. Furthermore, the observer should be able to trace the steps in either direction (from conclusions back to initial research questions or from questions to conclusions). The process should be tight enough so that evidence presented in the project or dissertation report is assuredly the same evidence that was collected during the data collection process. When this is achieved, social

information undermines the credibility of social research studies.

description" of the analytic procedures and/or rules followed.

whether or not the results are the fruit of a systematic and rigorous process.

particular, is the freedom to make adjustments during the data collection process.

**37. Elucidation of the data analysis process**

**38. Discussion of findings**

When building theories from social research, it is of utmost importance to compare the emergent concepts, theories or hypotheses with the extant literature. Examining literature that conflicts with the emergent theory is likely to enhance confidence in the findings of the study (Eisenhardt, 1989). Literature discussing similar findings is important as well because it ties together underlying similarities in phenomena normally not associated with each other. The result is often a theory with stronger internal validity, wider generalizations and higher conceptual level. Notwithstanding the potential benefits associated with such a tactic, Table 8 reveals that only 11 percent of all exploratory case studies related their findings to conflicting literature while 37 percent of them discussed similar literature. In short, tying the emergent constructs, hypotheses, or theories to extant literature is crucial in theory building since the results usually rest on a small number of cases.

#### **40. Summary of key findings**

Table presents a synthesis of the key findings and of the present content analysis of social research methodologies applied by ZOU post-graduate students.

Social Research Methods in Higher Education: A Critical Analysis

**43. Literature review**

order to increase predictive power.

**44. Context of the study**

**45. Data collection**

social research findings.

**47. Discussion of research findings**

**46. Data analysis**

picture."

of Methodological Issues and Emerging Trends at the Zimbabwe Open University 27

It is disturbing that although most studies (76 percent) analysed the theory of interest as well as the various predictions following from the theory itself. However, failure by some dissertations to consider rival theory and in some cases, to review related literature, is a serious deficiency affecting the quality of social research. Exploratory social researchers must continue to define *a priori* constructs in order to help them make sense of occurrences, ensure that important issues are not overlooked, and guide their interpretation and focus when conducting theory-building research. Social research must consider rival theories in

Most social researchers (57 percent) were not explicit about the context of their study (time period, time spent at site, nature of data, etc.). More information about the context is needed to increase the credibility of the results and to determine whether they are generalizable. Contextual information also helps the external observer to get a better sense of the "bigger

Qualitative social research offers the opportunity to use many different sources of evidence. Seizing this opportunity represents one of the intrinsic advantages of the mixed methodology. Data collection instruments and procedures must be clearly described and explained. One shortcoming we identified in the present study was that (62.5 percent) of the dissertations did not elucidate how data were collected. Most dissertations omitted data collection plans and procedures. Multi-methods represented the most widely used data collection method in post graduate dissertations. However, researchers rarely described how questionnaires, interviews, observations or other methods were conducted (eg. sampling, number of interviews and interviewees, profile of interviewees, transcription, use, and validation of an interview guide, etc.). While reviewing documentation was used in several studies, most authors did not elaborate on how documents were used in the analysis and how they contributed to the findings. A clear description of the data sources and the way they contribute to the findings is an important aspect of the reliability and validity of

Another major deficiency we discovered in the post graduate dissertations we analysed was that 70 percent of all surveyed dissertations failed to provide a clear and detailed description of the data analysis plans, procedures, and rules. Clear descriptions of the analytic procedures used allow the reader to better understand the findings and judge the

Any research is guided by either research questions or hypotheses, Literature review is usually conducted in order to identify the knowledge gap to be filled by the present study, and related

extent to which they are the fruit of a systematic and rigorous process.

Table 8. The Status of Social Research by ZOU Post-Graduate Students: Methodological Issues and Emerging Trends.

Table 8 summarises major issues and emerging trends in social research. Our exhaustive assessment reveals that while modest progress has been made with respect to some specific attributes or criteria, there are still significant areas for improvement. In particular, the following 10 key findings should engage further reflection and action among the social research community: Little progress has been made over the years in several areas and our challenge as social researchers is to refine our tools and double our efforts in search of appropriate and quality research methodologies.

#### **41. Conclusions**

#### **41.1 Clear research questions**

It is encouraging that 79 percent of the research questions are clearly stated. However, it is a requirement that all research should be guided by clear research questions or hypotheses as 12 percent questions were not clear and 9 percent of the studies did not state research questions.

More attention should be paid to the definition of initial research questions given that, without a research focus, it is easy to become overwhelmed by the volume of qualitative data often collected in case research. Without a clear research question, it is more difficult for the reader to understand the focus of the study and how it relates to a larger domain or area.

#### **42. Type of research question**

As expected, *what* questions were mostly adopted in exploratory research.

#### **43. Literature review**

26 Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to Social Sciences and Knowledge Management

8% Poorly

32% Poorly

44% Logical chain

Table 8. The Status of Social Research by ZOU Post-Graduate Students: Methodological

Table 8 summarises major issues and emerging trends in social research. Our exhaustive assessment reveals that while modest progress has been made with respect to some specific attributes or criteria, there are still significant areas for improvement. In particular, the following 10 key findings should engage further reflection and action among the social research community: Little progress has been made over the years in several areas and our challenge as social researchers is to refine our tools and double our efforts in search of

It is encouraging that 79 percent of the research questions are clearly stated. However, it is a requirement that all research should be guided by clear research questions or hypotheses as 12 percent questions were not clear and 9 percent of the studies did not state research

More attention should be paid to the definition of initial research questions given that, without a research focus, it is easy to become overwhelmed by the volume of qualitative data often collected in case research. Without a clear research question, it is more difficult for the reader to understand the focus of the study and how it relates to a larger domain or

As expected, *what* questions were mostly adopted in exploratory research.

explained

Related to research questions, theory and other studies

from research question to the conclusions poorly established

70% Not

66% Did not

48% No Logical

explained

relate to research questions, theory and other studies

chain from research question to the conclusions 22%

2%

8%

**CONCEPT STATUS**

Clearly Explained

Clearly Related to research questions, theory and other studies

Logical chain from research question to the conclusions clearly established

appropriate and quality research methodologies.

8. Data

10. The

analysis procedures

9. Discussion of Research findings

> research process

Issues and Emerging Trends.

**41. Conclusions**

questions.

area.

**41.1 Clear research questions**

**42. Type of research question**

It is disturbing that although most studies (76 percent) analysed the theory of interest as well as the various predictions following from the theory itself. However, failure by some dissertations to consider rival theory and in some cases, to review related literature, is a serious deficiency affecting the quality of social research. Exploratory social researchers must continue to define *a priori* constructs in order to help them make sense of occurrences, ensure that important issues are not overlooked, and guide their interpretation and focus when conducting theory-building research. Social research must consider rival theories in order to increase predictive power.

#### **44. Context of the study**

Most social researchers (57 percent) were not explicit about the context of their study (time period, time spent at site, nature of data, etc.). More information about the context is needed to increase the credibility of the results and to determine whether they are generalizable. Contextual information also helps the external observer to get a better sense of the "bigger picture."

#### **45. Data collection**

Qualitative social research offers the opportunity to use many different sources of evidence. Seizing this opportunity represents one of the intrinsic advantages of the mixed methodology. Data collection instruments and procedures must be clearly described and explained. One shortcoming we identified in the present study was that (62.5 percent) of the dissertations did not elucidate how data were collected. Most dissertations omitted data collection plans and procedures. Multi-methods represented the most widely used data collection method in post graduate dissertations. However, researchers rarely described how questionnaires, interviews, observations or other methods were conducted (eg. sampling, number of interviews and interviewees, profile of interviewees, transcription, use, and validation of an interview guide, etc.). While reviewing documentation was used in several studies, most authors did not elaborate on how documents were used in the analysis and how they contributed to the findings. A clear description of the data sources and the way they contribute to the findings is an important aspect of the reliability and validity of social research findings.

#### **46. Data analysis**

Another major deficiency we discovered in the post graduate dissertations we analysed was that 70 percent of all surveyed dissertations failed to provide a clear and detailed description of the data analysis plans, procedures, and rules. Clear descriptions of the analytic procedures used allow the reader to better understand the findings and judge the extent to which they are the fruit of a systematic and rigorous process.

#### **47. Discussion of research findings**

Any research is guided by either research questions or hypotheses, Literature review is usually conducted in order to identify the knowledge gap to be filled by the present study, and related

Social Research Methods in Higher Education: A Critical Analysis

explanations on how the triangulation process is achieved

questions to conclusions and vice-versa.

as to increase the confidence in the findings.

Research (22), 1985, pp. 199-208.

validation, etc.)

information.

publications.

**50. Reference**

of Methodological Issues and Emerging Trends at the Zimbabwe Open University 29

Although adhering to all of the rules of social research is encouraged, it does not necessarily make a social research good *de facto.* The present study has focused on content analysis using the combined conceptual and relational model as *just one of many approaches to assess the high quality social research.* Other key aspects of quality could be considered in the future. Relevance and contribution of social research to new knowledge could be investigated. Use of computers in social research is also another fertile ground for research. Surveying researchers about their perceptions on social research could also provide valuable

In conclusion, it is clear that current research standards have evolved and are more demanding of social researchers than they were in the early 1980s. However, social researchers face the challenges of designing a study in a systematic and manageable yet flexible manner and integrating the results into a coherent document (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). Again, in the future, social researches need to be better organized and documented as a way to help us learn, get meaningful results, and develop a cumulative body of knowledge in our field. This calls for conceited effort by all genuine social researchers, social scientists and social scholars worldwide, to double our efforts towards the development of this field and to share the knowledge, thus created, through

Benbasat, I., and Weber, R. (1996) *"Research Commentary: Rethinking "Diversity" in Information*

Benbasat, I., and Zimud, R.W. (1999) *"Empirical Research in Information Systems: The Practice of*

Benbasat, I., Goldstein, D. K., and Mead, M. (1987) *"The Case Research Strategy in Studies of*

Bryman, A. 2007. *Barriers to integrating quantitative and qualitative research*. Journal of Mixed

*Relevance," MIS Quarterly* (23:1), pp. 3-16. Bonoma, T. V. "Case Research in Marketing: Opportunities, Problems, and a Process," Journal of Marketing

*System Research*," Information Systems Research (7:4), pp. 389-399.

Borg, W. R. and Gall, M. D. (1989). *Educational Research*. White Plains. N Y. Longman.

*Information Systems*," MIS Quarterly (11:3), , pp. 369-385.

Bryman, A. (2001) *Social research methods*, Oxford: Oxford University Press

previous research studies are analysed so as to what knowledge other researchers have contributed in the same field of study. When data have been collected and analysed, the findings must be presented and discussed in a logical manner. Readers are interested to know the extent to which the findings address the demands of the research questions. The findings must be discussed in the context of the prevailing theory and the rival theories. This helps readers to assess the contributions of the study to the existing theory (body of knowledge). The findings must also be compared with findings of related previous studies. This places the study and the findings in the relevant field. Our findings from the current analysis of postgraduate dissertations, revealed that most student (66) failed to relate their findings to the research questions, prevailing theory and the previous studies. This deficiency makes it difficulty to assess the significant contribution a particular research has made in a particular discipline. Only 24% of all dissertations related their findings to conflicting literature while 76% discussed similar literature. There is need to compare findings to both similar theories and rival theories. Comparison of findings with both conflicting and similar literature increases the confidence in the research findings i.e. generalization and validity. Hence, this practice must be more widely applied in social research.

#### **48. Conclusions**

Findings from the present case study of social research at the ZOU have a bearing on the current 'quantitative – qualitative' paradigmatic debate. Our findings support proponents of mixed methods (Patton, 1990; Strauss & Corbin 1990) who believe that qualitative and quantitative research methods can be effectively combined in the same research project. In fact, Patton (1990) advocates for a "paradigm of choices" that seeks "*methodological appropriateness* as the primary criterion for judging methodological quality. Mixed methods*,* Patton (1990) argues, will allow for a "situational responsiveness" that strict adherence to one paradigm or another will not. Our findings also show that many changes have occurred in the status of paradigms and choice of methods over the last decade such that various paradigms are beginning to "interbreed". In support of mixed methods, Russek and Weinberg (1993) claim that by using both quantitative and qualitative data, scial research can give insights that neither quantiattive nor qualitative research paradigm could provide alone. However, it is important to note that the field of social research has not yet reached the point of full integration of paradigms.

#### **49. Recommendations**

For the further maturation of our field, we believe that a careful consideration of the recommendations listed below is likely to enhance the overall rigor of social research. Specifically, for each of the areas considered in the present review, we encourage social researchers to:

previous research studies are analysed so as to what knowledge other researchers have contributed in the same field of study. When data have been collected and analysed, the findings must be presented and discussed in a logical manner. Readers are interested to know the extent to which the findings address the demands of the research questions. The findings must be discussed in the context of the prevailing theory and the rival theories. This helps readers to assess the contributions of the study to the existing theory (body of knowledge). The findings must also be compared with findings of related previous studies. This places the study and the findings in the relevant field. Our findings from the current analysis of postgraduate dissertations, revealed that most student (66) failed to relate their findings to the research questions, prevailing theory and the previous studies. This deficiency makes it difficulty to assess the significant contribution a particular research has made in a particular discipline. Only 24% of all dissertations related their findings to conflicting literature while 76% discussed similar literature. There is need to compare findings to both similar theories and rival theories. Comparison of findings with both conflicting and similar literature increases the confidence in the research findings i.e. generalization and validity. Hence, this

Findings from the present case study of social research at the ZOU have a bearing on the current 'quantitative – qualitative' paradigmatic debate. Our findings support proponents of mixed methods (Patton, 1990; Strauss & Corbin 1990) who believe that qualitative and quantitative research methods can be effectively combined in the same research project. In fact, Patton (1990) advocates for a "paradigm of choices" that seeks "*methodological appropriateness* as the primary criterion for judging methodological quality. Mixed methods*,* Patton (1990) argues, will allow for a "situational responsiveness" that strict adherence to one paradigm or another will not. Our findings also show that many changes have occurred in the status of paradigms and choice of methods over the last decade such that various paradigms are beginning to "interbreed". In support of mixed methods, Russek and Weinberg (1993) claim that by using both quantitative and qualitative data, scial research can give insights that neither quantiattive nor qualitative research paradigm could provide alone. However, it is important to note that the field of social research has not yet reached

For the further maturation of our field, we believe that a careful consideration of the recommendations listed below is likely to enhance the overall rigor of social research. Specifically, for each of the areas considered in the present review, we encourage social

practice must be more widely applied in social research.

the point of full integration of paradigms.

the validity and predictive power of social research

filled by their research

**49. Recommendations**

researchers to:

plans

**48. Conclusions**

Although adhering to all of the rules of social research is encouraged, it does not necessarily make a social research good *de facto.* The present study has focused on content analysis using the combined conceptual and relational model as *just one of many approaches to assess the high quality social research.* Other key aspects of quality could be considered in the future. Relevance and contribution of social research to new knowledge could be investigated. Use of computers in social research is also another fertile ground for research. Surveying researchers about their perceptions on social research could also provide valuable information.

In conclusion, it is clear that current research standards have evolved and are more demanding of social researchers than they were in the early 1980s. However, social researchers face the challenges of designing a study in a systematic and manageable yet flexible manner and integrating the results into a coherent document (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). Again, in the future, social researches need to be better organized and documented as a way to help us learn, get meaningful results, and develop a cumulative body of knowledge in our field. This calls for conceited effort by all genuine social researchers, social scientists and social scholars worldwide, to double our efforts towards the development of this field and to share the knowledge, thus created, through publications.

#### **50. Reference**

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**2**

*Japan*

**Methodology Transfers**

**and Government Policy**

Hajime Eto1 and Shinichi Yamamoto2

*1Professor emeritus, The University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, 2Professor, Director of Research Institute for Higher Education,*

*Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima,*

**Between Social Sciences and Humanities**

**in Relation to Natural Sciences, Technology**

Social sciences may be regarded as derived from humanities such as philosophy and history, but have been developed in different ways (sometimes parallel but often opposite ways) from humanities. In this chapter, social sciences denote the set of social scientific branches (economics, sociology, *etc*.) while social science denotes the general concept abstracted from each of social sciences. Analogously, natural sciences denote the set of natural scientific branches (physics, chemistry, *etc*.), while natural science denotes the general concept abstracted from each of natural sciences. An analogy is the difference between behavioral sciences (the set of behavioral psychology, behavioral sociology, *etc*.) and behavioral science as a general concept. The general concept abstracted from natural and social sciences and humanities (including arts) are referred to as knowledge (the modern version of medieval *scientia*). This chapter mainly or almost exclusively discusses western knowledge and ignore eastern or southern one because western knowledge is worldwide dominant in the latest centuries. The global transfer of methodologies of knowledge is a challenging theme but too

Since the Renaissance, particularly the Galileo's revolution of physics from Aristotelian *phusika* or scholastic *physica*, many philosophers have discussed the characteristics and methods of natural sciences. They have also discussed social sciences but very differently in discussing natural sciences. This chapter discusses their differences to clarify the fundamental characteristics of social sciences in relation to humanities, instead of presenting a particular theory of or the particular application of a theory of social sciences or humanities. In this discussion, the separation of social sciences from humanities are considered as a 'crisis' of knowledge, where crisis (*krisis*) means the decisive turning point in clinics or the radical change by conflict in drama as originally meant in Greek. Later, crisis began to mean the crossing to sharply or crucially change the direction. Hereafter, pre-

comprehensive for one chapter. Therefore it will be left for future research.

modern knowledge will be referred to as *scientia*.

**1. Introduction**

### **Methodology Transfers Between Social Sciences and Humanities in Relation to Natural Sciences, Technology and Government Policy**

Hajime Eto1 and Shinichi Yamamoto2

*1Professor emeritus, The University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, 2Professor, Director of Research Institute for Higher Education, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima, Japan*

#### **1. Introduction**

32 Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to Social Sciences and Knowledge Management

Sheets, R. H.. *Diversity pedagogy : examining the role of culture in the teaching-learning process*.

Smith, R. B., & Manning, p. K. (1982). *A Handbook of social science methods,* volume 2:

Teddlie, C. and Tashakkori, A. (2003). *Major issues and controversies in the use of mixed methods*

Lawrence W. Neuman (2006). *Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative*

Zikmund, William G. (1991*), Business Research Methods,* 3rd ed., Chicago, The Dryden Press.

Woolfolk, Anita. (1994). 8th Ed. *Educational Psychology*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2001. Yin, R. K. *Case Study Research, Design and Methods* (2nd. Ed.), Sage Publications, Beverly Hills,

Boston : Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2005.

*Approaches'*, 6th edition, Allyn & Bacon

CA.

Qualitative methods. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

*in Social and Behavioural Sciences.* Thousand Oaks, C A: Sage.

Social sciences may be regarded as derived from humanities such as philosophy and history, but have been developed in different ways (sometimes parallel but often opposite ways) from humanities. In this chapter, social sciences denote the set of social scientific branches (economics, sociology, *etc*.) while social science denotes the general concept abstracted from each of social sciences. Analogously, natural sciences denote the set of natural scientific branches (physics, chemistry, *etc*.), while natural science denotes the general concept abstracted from each of natural sciences. An analogy is the difference between behavioral sciences (the set of behavioral psychology, behavioral sociology, *etc*.) and behavioral science as a general concept. The general concept abstracted from natural and social sciences and humanities (including arts) are referred to as knowledge (the modern version of medieval *scientia*). This chapter mainly or almost exclusively discusses western knowledge and ignore eastern or southern one because western knowledge is worldwide dominant in the latest centuries. The global transfer of methodologies of knowledge is a challenging theme but too comprehensive for one chapter. Therefore it will be left for future research.

Since the Renaissance, particularly the Galileo's revolution of physics from Aristotelian *phusika* or scholastic *physica*, many philosophers have discussed the characteristics and methods of natural sciences. They have also discussed social sciences but very differently in discussing natural sciences. This chapter discusses their differences to clarify the fundamental characteristics of social sciences in relation to humanities, instead of presenting a particular theory of or the particular application of a theory of social sciences or humanities. In this discussion, the separation of social sciences from humanities are considered as a 'crisis' of knowledge, where crisis (*krisis*) means the decisive turning point in clinics or the radical change by conflict in drama as originally meant in Greek. Later, crisis began to mean the crossing to sharply or crucially change the direction. Hereafter, premodern knowledge will be referred to as *scientia*.

Methodology Transfers Between Social Sciences and Humanities

paradigm is believed etymologically unrelated to dogma.

**3. Views of humans and history in social sciences**

discussions below will avoid this term and use the word of methodology.

experimental or behavioral economic methods. .

the success in scientific development.

primitive humans (*e.g*., *home erectus*).

in Relation to Natural Sciences, Technology and Government Policy 35

into a universal theory by mathematically formulating the observed data. Centuries later, this founded the physics-mimicked economic theories, although the Galilean experimentalism is succeeded in social sciences only by psychology except for the recent

The denial of the Aristotelian *phusika* led to the denial of Aristotelian multi-disciplinary unification of knowledge encompassing *oikonomia*, *politika, ethikos*, *zoologia*, *kosmologia*, *meteorologia*, and many others. Modern science proudly distinguishes itself from *scientia* or metaphysics by the specialization of knowledge into narrow branches. The unification of theories of physics is only within physics, as the unified axiomatic system of geometry is only within geometry. This scientific systemization by narrowing the zone contributed to

Many philosophers and historians of natural sciences have almost unanimously regarded the Galilean and Newtonian methodologies as the first great steps of modern scientific paradigm. But they have no consensus about the paradigm of social sciences. Some of them seem to regard social sciences as occupied by para-dogmas or pseudo-dogmas, although

Dogmas or not, social sciences have had their paradigms and shifted them several times in the last few centuries. Each shift has been investigated by historians of social sciences, but little has been discussed about the shift in general. Philosophers usually prefer general discussions rather than case studies, but few succeeded in the general discussion of paradigm shifts in social sciences. To avoid the confusion of paradigm with dogma, the

In the ancient era, the studies on law and politics were founded on the ground of theological idea of justice. After theology was replaced with humanities, social *scientia* borrowed the methodology from humanities, which often explained social phenomena by historical background with the view of human behaviors and acts in the course of historical development or as path-dependent. Upon the view of history of ideas, Hegel founded his *Encyklopädie* of total knowledge and unified various branches of knowledge via dialectical logic demonstrated in the historical development of various ideas. Introducing the economic or materialistic view into the dialectic logic in historical development, Marx presented the view of history as the unifying core of social sciences. In opposition to founding social sciences upon history, however, the ideas of social engineering and social technology blamed the Marxian view of social sciences as the 'historicism' or the mixture of social sciences with social philosophy. In the meantime, the view of humans as *homo economics* rather than *homo sapiens* has been the core of the prevalent neoclassic economics, where *sapience* means wisdom or intellect and is often synonymous to the humanness or benevolence possibly to selflessly consider others (altruism). Before the *homo economics* view, the view of humans as *homo sapiens* was (and is outside economics) almost exclusively prevalent and has been used as the terminology of anthropology in distinction from more

The view of humans as *homo economics* or the economic rationalism validated the physicsmimicked economic theories. Physics took the economy-mimicked view of nature and

#### **2. Paradigms of social sciences and their shifts**

Humanities was central in *scientia* and concentrated itself on the study of the classics. Humanities was relatively free from the paradigm shift because it founded itself on the succeeded classics having the eternal values, although the introduction of Aristotelian metaphysics to West affected the paradigm of Bible-based knowledge and the comprehensive recognition of the entire Greek classics affected the belief in Christianity. Despite these influences, humanities retained the exegetic methodology of the classics. This affected the methodology of social sciences, and many social scientists were scholastically engaged in closely reading and faithfully interpreting or commenting on the classical books by Smith or Marx. The rise of social sciences little affected the paradigm of humanities at first. The concept of paradigm has been associated with science revolution [Kuhn, 1962] and used as a general (sometimes too general and ambiguous) term. This chapter uses this word as a general term and replaces this with methodology in more specific discussions.

Before the medieval era like in Greece, without particularly established 'bibles', humanities (particularly, philosophy in Greek) was rather natural historic (if not natural scientific) in embracing what may be called zoology, cosmolog*y*, *etc*. Greek knowledge was transferred to and developed in East, but not transferred to Europe except for Islamic Iberia. The Greek classics were rediscovered and became central in humanities in Europe in the Renaissance almost for the first time although Aristotelian metaphysic was already influential there.

Legal systems and their enforcements have often been called justice. This shows that they have been originally founded on ethics or religions. Pre-modern legal *scientia* was founded by jurisprudence that was a branch of theology or humanities. This helped political leaders persuade people. Policy-making and the implementations were founded by *philosophia* including social ethics, religions, and the view of history and historical lessons, all in humanities. This stabilized the paradigm of social *scientia* and prevented it from the paradigm shift against the social development. In the modern legal system, the constitutions mean the fundamental principles supposedly stable for decades, found other laws, and constrain "the evolution of law". This idea is extended to technology as the standardization, often stipulated by law.

When the close studies of ethical or religious texts were developed, the exegetic method dominated the study of classics. This method sought for the eternal truth uninfluenced by the shift of 'vulgar' life in time, and was developed by scholiasts as a positivism to strictly respect what was really written and to ignore the prevalent practices in contemporary life. This positivism prevented *scientia* from paradigm shift. While humanities specialized itself in the study of classics, the exegetic method influenced jurisprudence in the interpretation of laws, which was supposed to be eternal.

Ironically, classic-based humanities for the eternal truth drove a radical revolution in entire *scientia*, called the Renaissance. This revolution was to revolve from the Christian classics (the Bible) to non-Christian Greek classics or to rediscover the latter, and to transform the positivism but not to deny the positivism. The Renaissance physicists succeeded the exegetic positivism and successfully transformed it from reading the given texts like scholastic *physica* (translated from Aristotelian *phusika*) into experimenting the earthly movement, as ancient and medieval astronomers observed and predicted the heavenly movement. Motivated by the theological system, Newton unified the earthly and heavenly movements

Humanities was central in *scientia* and concentrated itself on the study of the classics. Humanities was relatively free from the paradigm shift because it founded itself on the succeeded classics having the eternal values, although the introduction of Aristotelian metaphysics to West affected the paradigm of Bible-based knowledge and the comprehensive recognition of the entire Greek classics affected the belief in Christianity. Despite these influences, humanities retained the exegetic methodology of the classics. This affected the methodology of social sciences, and many social scientists were scholastically engaged in closely reading and faithfully interpreting or commenting on the classical books by Smith or Marx. The rise of social sciences little affected the paradigm of humanities at first. The concept of paradigm has been associated with science revolution [Kuhn, 1962] and used as a general (sometimes too general and ambiguous) term. This chapter uses this word

as a general term and replaces this with methodology in more specific discussions.

Before the medieval era like in Greece, without particularly established 'bibles', humanities (particularly, philosophy in Greek) was rather natural historic (if not natural scientific) in embracing what may be called zoology, cosmolog*y*, *etc*. Greek knowledge was transferred to and developed in East, but not transferred to Europe except for Islamic Iberia. The Greek classics were rediscovered and became central in humanities in Europe in the Renaissance almost for the first time although Aristotelian metaphysic was already influential there.

Legal systems and their enforcements have often been called justice. This shows that they have been originally founded on ethics or religions. Pre-modern legal *scientia* was founded by jurisprudence that was a branch of theology or humanities. This helped political leaders persuade people. Policy-making and the implementations were founded by *philosophia* including social ethics, religions, and the view of history and historical lessons, all in humanities. This stabilized the paradigm of social *scientia* and prevented it from the paradigm shift against the social development. In the modern legal system, the constitutions mean the fundamental principles supposedly stable for decades, found other laws, and constrain "the evolution of law". This idea is extended to technology as the standardization,

When the close studies of ethical or religious texts were developed, the exegetic method dominated the study of classics. This method sought for the eternal truth uninfluenced by the shift of 'vulgar' life in time, and was developed by scholiasts as a positivism to strictly respect what was really written and to ignore the prevalent practices in contemporary life. This positivism prevented *scientia* from paradigm shift. While humanities specialized itself in the study of classics, the exegetic method influenced jurisprudence in the interpretation of

Ironically, classic-based humanities for the eternal truth drove a radical revolution in entire *scientia*, called the Renaissance. This revolution was to revolve from the Christian classics (the Bible) to non-Christian Greek classics or to rediscover the latter, and to transform the positivism but not to deny the positivism. The Renaissance physicists succeeded the exegetic positivism and successfully transformed it from reading the given texts like scholastic *physica* (translated from Aristotelian *phusika*) into experimenting the earthly movement, as ancient and medieval astronomers observed and predicted the heavenly movement. Motivated by the theological system, Newton unified the earthly and heavenly movements

**2. Paradigms of social sciences and their shifts**

often stipulated by law.

laws, which was supposed to be eternal.

into a universal theory by mathematically formulating the observed data. Centuries later, this founded the physics-mimicked economic theories, although the Galilean experimentalism is succeeded in social sciences only by psychology except for the recent experimental or behavioral economic methods. .

The denial of the Aristotelian *phusika* led to the denial of Aristotelian multi-disciplinary unification of knowledge encompassing *oikonomia*, *politika, ethikos*, *zoologia*, *kosmologia*, *meteorologia*, and many others. Modern science proudly distinguishes itself from *scientia* or metaphysics by the specialization of knowledge into narrow branches. The unification of theories of physics is only within physics, as the unified axiomatic system of geometry is only within geometry. This scientific systemization by narrowing the zone contributed to the success in scientific development.

Many philosophers and historians of natural sciences have almost unanimously regarded the Galilean and Newtonian methodologies as the first great steps of modern scientific paradigm. But they have no consensus about the paradigm of social sciences. Some of them seem to regard social sciences as occupied by para-dogmas or pseudo-dogmas, although paradigm is believed etymologically unrelated to dogma.

Dogmas or not, social sciences have had their paradigms and shifted them several times in the last few centuries. Each shift has been investigated by historians of social sciences, but little has been discussed about the shift in general. Philosophers usually prefer general discussions rather than case studies, but few succeeded in the general discussion of paradigm shifts in social sciences. To avoid the confusion of paradigm with dogma, the discussions below will avoid this term and use the word of methodology.

#### **3. Views of humans and history in social sciences**

In the ancient era, the studies on law and politics were founded on the ground of theological idea of justice. After theology was replaced with humanities, social *scientia* borrowed the methodology from humanities, which often explained social phenomena by historical background with the view of human behaviors and acts in the course of historical development or as path-dependent. Upon the view of history of ideas, Hegel founded his *Encyklopädie* of total knowledge and unified various branches of knowledge via dialectical logic demonstrated in the historical development of various ideas. Introducing the economic or materialistic view into the dialectic logic in historical development, Marx presented the view of history as the unifying core of social sciences. In opposition to founding social sciences upon history, however, the ideas of social engineering and social technology blamed the Marxian view of social sciences as the 'historicism' or the mixture of social sciences with social philosophy. In the meantime, the view of humans as *homo economics* rather than *homo sapiens* has been the core of the prevalent neoclassic economics, where *sapience* means wisdom or intellect and is often synonymous to the humanness or benevolence possibly to selflessly consider others (altruism). Before the *homo economics* view, the view of humans as *homo sapiens* was (and is outside economics) almost exclusively prevalent and has been used as the terminology of anthropology in distinction from more primitive humans (*e.g*., *home erectus*).

The view of humans as *homo economics* or the economic rationalism validated the physicsmimicked economic theories. Physics took the economy-mimicked view of nature and

Methodology Transfers Between Social Sciences and Humanities

economic policies, and later, promoted technology assessment.

as the source of fictions in novels, comics, and other media.

development of mass-media as sociologists predicted.

in Relation to Natural Sciences, Technology and Government Policy 37

After the prevalence of the philosophical methodology of history on the basis of the views of history, history in academia resumed the scholasticism to limit itself to the exegetic positivism of historical documents. The progress of information technology helps historians in academia efficiently process the documents in ivory towers. Mass media contributed to the renaissance of the view of history that great leaders or single events determine the course of history. This helped management science stress the decisive power of decisions made by leadership. Outside academia, Marx saw the driving force of history in the economic or materialistic desire as in Smith, and focused on the conflicts between the production system and technological development and that between the ruling and the ruled classes. Although Marx himself failed to discuss technology in detail, philosophers including Heidegger discussed the effects of technology on societies and humans in the 1900s. As its effect on humans, the alienation of humans from technological societies motivated philosophers to develop the existentialism to rediscover the value of spiritually independent individuality. This stimulated the anti-industrialization feeling, affected

The Hitler's view of the global conflict as resulting from the division of the world between the have and the have-not nations helped some social scientists and historians to interpret the struggles in Asia and Africa against West. Further, the Toynbee's method to explain history via the responses against the outer stimuli as in the ecological living world helped social scientists interpret the struggles in Asia and Africa against West. After the competition between the views of history was replaced with the quantitative analyses of social sciences, social sciences almost exclusively explained the *status quo* in precise ways. The range of quantitative social sciences is limited by the data availability as the range of astronomy is limited by the performance of telescopes. Meanwhile, history remains useful

Around 1900, theoretical philosophers (epistemologists and logicians) like Russell viewed humans as rational and logical (maybe termed *homo logos*). They were optimistic about the human capability to construct symbolic logic, mathematics, and linguistics of artificially constructed symbolic language. This program was to unify all sciences including social sciences and psychology in rigorously unifying ways with the persuasive power over all rational beings beyond national borders and classes. This was called the unity of science or unified science movement. This optimism was broken by Gödel in the early 1930s in the era of the fall of traditional social sciences and the rise of different types of social sciences between Great Panic and World War II. This failure encouraged the idea to base intellect on emotion. The national emotion was proved powerful in decision-making via the

After the failure of formal logic as the power to unify all sciences, logicians and mathematical philosophers with the help of linguists conceptually generalized the strict symbolism to more flexible semiotics to embrace all kinds of language- or symbolexpressible knowledge by following Kant, the epistemology of whom was to consider only the perception itself instead of the thing itself. Semiotics is the first methodology jointly originated in mathematics, physics, linguistics, poetics, aesthetics, *etc*. and influencing social sciences, particularly sociology. The semiotic methodology is to "poeticize" all knowledge and thereby justifies the deviation of knowledge from the reality. This is acceptable and applicable not only to aesthetics but also to the theories of mass-media, election campaigns,

successfully constructed a set of calculations of variations to explain natural 'behaviors' as minimizing the 'power' or 'energy'. This method led physics to successfully explain the ball shape of the earth as resulting from the 'purposed effort' to minimize the surface area for the given volume. Economics imported this economy-mimicked methodology of physics and successfully modeled the human behavior to minimize the cost and similarly to maximize the profit by multiplying by -1.

The success of modern science largely owes to that of physics, particularly that of mechanics. The Cartesian view of human body (*phusike*) as a machine was successfully extended to societies. As machine is mechanical and calculable, the mechanistic view of everything as mechanicals promoted the application of mathematics to everything including society. In legal prudence and political science, the monarchical system and the congressional system were unified as 'the Emperor as Machine' theory that viewed the Emperor as no dictator but as controllable by congress.

Yet another view of humans is to view humans as mankind or humankind, where 'mankind' or 'human-kind' means humans collectively or the genus (kind). With deep knowledge of the Greek classics, Marx followed the traditional ethics to view humans in society like Aristotle, Kant, Hegel and Feuerbach. The Feuerbach's view of humans as mankind affected the Marxian view of humans as beings fostered in history. As history is the product of the collaboration of humans, the view of humans in history is nearly synonymous to the view of humans as collaborative or societal beings. In the first half of the 1800s, before Marx, many intellectuals from the established families accused the capitalism that promoted the competition motivated by individual desires, and they proposed the 'renaissance' of cooperative society or community called the socialism or communism. Workers from fallen but formerly established families in agricultural areas led workers to the socialism movement. This radically changed the intellectuals' movement into the class struggle, or the individuals' movement into unionized movement of similar kind of workers or 'workers-kind'. The mankind view of humans helped workers unions oppose the individual competition principle. The history of borderless collaboration of Jewish businesses also helped the international unionization of Jewish-led communism movement against the pursuit of the wealth of each nation.

The resources within Europe limited its growth. The alternatives were to decrease the population; to revolutionize the social system for the equal distribution of resources to all; or to bring the resources outside to Europe. The progress of transportation technology and its adroit management allowed Europe to choose the last one. This meant the inequality of humans between Europe and elsewhere and resulted in the denial of the Marxian economic and anthropological equalities (*i.e*., same kind) including his view of humans as mankind. The competition was intensified at the global and domestic levels and led the world to the war. The worldwide prediction of global war may partly be one factor of the Kant renaissance, who discussed the eternal peace in Napoleonic Wars in the entire Europe. World War I replaced the neo-Kantian philosophy with the neo-Hegelian philosophy, the state philosophy of which justified the worldwide domination of the best system for the global and eternal peace. This idea was supported by Heidegger, Jaspers, Tanabe, and other intellectuals besides economists. Traditional ethics and lesson-based view of history failed to prevent the repetition of global war. Traditional humanities proved to be materially powerless. The only lesson of the wars is to replace the armed race with the economic one by extending the *homo economics* view to the view of the world.

successfully constructed a set of calculations of variations to explain natural 'behaviors' as minimizing the 'power' or 'energy'. This method led physics to successfully explain the ball shape of the earth as resulting from the 'purposed effort' to minimize the surface area for the given volume. Economics imported this economy-mimicked methodology of physics and successfully modeled the human behavior to minimize the cost and similarly to maximize

The success of modern science largely owes to that of physics, particularly that of mechanics. The Cartesian view of human body (*phusike*) as a machine was successfully extended to societies. As machine is mechanical and calculable, the mechanistic view of everything as mechanicals promoted the application of mathematics to everything including society. In legal prudence and political science, the monarchical system and the congressional system were unified as 'the Emperor as Machine' theory that viewed the

Yet another view of humans is to view humans as mankind or humankind, where 'mankind' or 'human-kind' means humans collectively or the genus (kind). With deep knowledge of the Greek classics, Marx followed the traditional ethics to view humans in society like Aristotle, Kant, Hegel and Feuerbach. The Feuerbach's view of humans as mankind affected the Marxian view of humans as beings fostered in history. As history is the product of the collaboration of humans, the view of humans in history is nearly synonymous to the view of humans as collaborative or societal beings. In the first half of the 1800s, before Marx, many intellectuals from the established families accused the capitalism that promoted the competition motivated by individual desires, and they proposed the 'renaissance' of cooperative society or community called the socialism or communism. Workers from fallen but formerly established families in agricultural areas led workers to the socialism movement. This radically changed the intellectuals' movement into the class struggle, or the individuals' movement into unionized movement of similar kind of workers or 'workers-kind'. The mankind view of humans helped workers unions oppose the individual competition principle. The history of borderless collaboration of Jewish businesses also helped the international unionization of Jewish-led communism movement

The resources within Europe limited its growth. The alternatives were to decrease the population; to revolutionize the social system for the equal distribution of resources to all; or to bring the resources outside to Europe. The progress of transportation technology and its adroit management allowed Europe to choose the last one. This meant the inequality of humans between Europe and elsewhere and resulted in the denial of the Marxian economic and anthropological equalities (*i.e*., same kind) including his view of humans as mankind. The competition was intensified at the global and domestic levels and led the world to the war. The worldwide prediction of global war may partly be one factor of the Kant renaissance, who discussed the eternal peace in Napoleonic Wars in the entire Europe. World War I replaced the neo-Kantian philosophy with the neo-Hegelian philosophy, the state philosophy of which justified the worldwide domination of the best system for the global and eternal peace. This idea was supported by Heidegger, Jaspers, Tanabe, and other intellectuals besides economists. Traditional ethics and lesson-based view of history failed to prevent the repetition of global war. Traditional humanities proved to be materially powerless. The only lesson of the wars is to replace the armed race with the economic one

the profit by multiplying by -1.

Emperor as no dictator but as controllable by congress.

against the pursuit of the wealth of each nation.

by extending the *homo economics* view to the view of the world.

After the prevalence of the philosophical methodology of history on the basis of the views of history, history in academia resumed the scholasticism to limit itself to the exegetic positivism of historical documents. The progress of information technology helps historians in academia efficiently process the documents in ivory towers. Mass media contributed to the renaissance of the view of history that great leaders or single events determine the course of history. This helped management science stress the decisive power of decisions made by leadership. Outside academia, Marx saw the driving force of history in the economic or materialistic desire as in Smith, and focused on the conflicts between the production system and technological development and that between the ruling and the ruled classes. Although Marx himself failed to discuss technology in detail, philosophers including Heidegger discussed the effects of technology on societies and humans in the 1900s. As its effect on humans, the alienation of humans from technological societies motivated philosophers to develop the existentialism to rediscover the value of spiritually independent individuality. This stimulated the anti-industrialization feeling, affected economic policies, and later, promoted technology assessment.

The Hitler's view of the global conflict as resulting from the division of the world between the have and the have-not nations helped some social scientists and historians to interpret the struggles in Asia and Africa against West. Further, the Toynbee's method to explain history via the responses against the outer stimuli as in the ecological living world helped social scientists interpret the struggles in Asia and Africa against West. After the competition between the views of history was replaced with the quantitative analyses of social sciences, social sciences almost exclusively explained the *status quo* in precise ways. The range of quantitative social sciences is limited by the data availability as the range of astronomy is limited by the performance of telescopes. Meanwhile, history remains useful as the source of fictions in novels, comics, and other media.

Around 1900, theoretical philosophers (epistemologists and logicians) like Russell viewed humans as rational and logical (maybe termed *homo logos*). They were optimistic about the human capability to construct symbolic logic, mathematics, and linguistics of artificially constructed symbolic language. This program was to unify all sciences including social sciences and psychology in rigorously unifying ways with the persuasive power over all rational beings beyond national borders and classes. This was called the unity of science or unified science movement. This optimism was broken by Gödel in the early 1930s in the era of the fall of traditional social sciences and the rise of different types of social sciences between Great Panic and World War II. This failure encouraged the idea to base intellect on emotion. The national emotion was proved powerful in decision-making via the development of mass-media as sociologists predicted.

After the failure of formal logic as the power to unify all sciences, logicians and mathematical philosophers with the help of linguists conceptually generalized the strict symbolism to more flexible semiotics to embrace all kinds of language- or symbolexpressible knowledge by following Kant, the epistemology of whom was to consider only the perception itself instead of the thing itself. Semiotics is the first methodology jointly originated in mathematics, physics, linguistics, poetics, aesthetics, *etc*. and influencing social sciences, particularly sociology. The semiotic methodology is to "poeticize" all knowledge and thereby justifies the deviation of knowledge from the reality. This is acceptable and applicable not only to aesthetics but also to the theories of mass-media, election campaigns,

Methodology Transfers Between Social Sciences and Humanities

economy was relatively related to biology.

developed in Vienna.

the natural selection as the driving force for biological evolution.

in Relation to Natural Sciences, Technology and Government Policy 39

Conversely, the method of social sciences owes to humanities, natural sciences and technology. Extending the Arabic and Cartesian view of blood circulation in human body to the circulation of commodities and money, Quesnay, a surgeon and a physiocrat, presented *tableau économique* to represent economic flows and made the first step towards econometrics and economic planning. But this physiological view of economics failed to win the worldwide support of economists, the majority of whom have almost exclusively regarded physics aided by mathematics as central in science. This may partly be explained as the bias of the mainstream manufacturing- and trade-oriented Anglo-American economists against the land-based French physiocratic economists. Naturally, manufacturing-based economy was rather related to mechanics, while agriculture-based

Biology (historically, botany, zoology, entomology, and ichthyology were not unified) seldom affected the methodology of social sciences after the modern civilization succeeded in conquering the nature by using mechanical technology based on physics. Contrarily, the severe competition of *home economics* after Industrial Revolution induced Darwin to think of

Ethics (*praktische Philosophie*) was influenced by biology like the collaborative behaviors of bees and ants, but theoretical philosophy (epistemology and logic) considered physics and mathematics as central in natural science. Before February Revolution, Comte at *École Polytechnique* presented positive philosophy to found all knowledge including social study (*sociologie*) upon natural sciences, particularly physics. Later, Marx claimed his social science (*Sozialwissenschaft*) to be as rigorous as physics. Around 1900, Frege, Russell and Hilbert attempted to construct the logico-mathematical system upon which all knowledge is supposed to stand. This yielded the logico-mathematical movement toward the unified science (unity of science) in the 1930s in Vienna and then Chicago, where many Jewish scholars fled from Vienna. At the same time, the biological idea of general systems was

Today, many social scientists, particularly economists, take the physico-mathematical view of natural sciences, although they have almost no knowledge of the recent states of natural sciences and mathematics. Actually, central in physics is solid-state physics or alternatively called material science, which is located between physics and chemistry (solid-state chemistry). Many papers in this field appear in the journals of the fields called chemical physics, physical chemistry or chemistry itself even if all the authors have the background of physics [Eto, 2003; Whiteside, 2007]. Biology is shifting towards biochemistry and is often renamed life science. Biochemical views date back to the origin of pharmacology, which has paid deep attention to material or chemical processes in living bodies. Deeply connected with pharmacology, medical *scientia* from China, India, Arabia to Roma had long considered human bodies (and sometimes also the minds) as controlled by the subtle rate between various fluids or moisture (humidity) like *humor*. Rather than mechanically, Descartes biochemically considered mental and emotional states as determined by the internal liquid secreted from pineal body. In many aspects, chemistry is rather central in natural sciences. As chemistry and biology or life science are rather central in natural sciences today, mathematics is no longer the central method of natural sciences [Eto, 2008a; Kemsley, 2009].

social panics, marketing, and the likes. Economics remains uninvolved in semiotics itself because it has already involved itself in money by valuing physical or material commodities symbolically in monetary terms. In this respect, economics is nothing but semiotics. Another origin of semiotics is from medicine, physics and astronomy. The symptom is the most important information to "symbolize" the internal state of body. Astronomers observe images via lens, and modern physicists read the numerals on measurement instruments. Instead of experiencing the reality, economists read the statistical data provided by government, "operate" economic theories in terms of differential or integral calculus, and use computers, as poets create the imaginations of worlds and minds, and painters create worlds and emotions on paper. In this respect, the idea of *homo economics* is consistent with that of *homo logos*. As *homo logos* of logical intelligence is deeply related with *homo sapience*, *homo economics* may be considered as related with *homo sapience* in this respect.

The view of humans is now experimentally examined to provide the evidences of the pros and the cons of viewing humans as *homo economics.* This view is also called the economic rationalism and is often attributed to Smith, an ethicist in a Catholic city. As the economic rationalism is opposite to the classic rationalism that respects the religious and ethical reasonableness, it fails to persuade non-economists. Using natural or behavioral scientific methods, brain scientists and psychologists test the *homo economics* view of humans [Gazzaniga, 2005; Camerer and Fehr, 2006; Warmeken and Tomasollo, 2006; Haidt, 2007].

#### **4. Mathematical, quantitative and physicalistic methodologies in social sciences and humanities**

Many philosophers and historians of natural sciences regard physics (particularly, mechanics) as the core of natural sciences and the mathematics as its core method, which all sciences are supposed to make efforts to use.

Astrology and the calendar based on real observation and calculation provided the foundation of decision-making (divination). Policy making of government and families' (or clans') household (*oikonomia*) also depended on the calendar and the financial calculation like the calculation of inventory or provision. Under the strong control of myths, religions and historical lessons (all in humanities), social techniques collecting data for taxation and the calculation were undervalued. Despite the economic usefulness, calculation was not respected as knowledge (*sophia*). Greek philosophers were interested in geographic figures and the properties of natural numbers including their ratio. As the calculation was important in distribution, algebra as the fundamental theory of calculation was developed in the Islam countries, where the studies of complicated figures or patterns were also developed. Owing to the development of transportation, such knowledge was transferred to West, where mathematics was combined with physics (particularly dynamics) during and after the Renaissance. Much later, this provided economics with powerful methods.

Transportation techniques including calculation techniques for road or bridge construction, shipbuilding and navigation accomplished the expansion of territories to obtain more resources and knowledge. This stimulated social technocrats in judiciary and administration into geography including anthropology, and contributed to the development of natural sciences, science-based technologies and humanities. Informed of the customs in various civilizations, for example, Montesquieu presented the comparative philosophy of law.

social panics, marketing, and the likes. Economics remains uninvolved in semiotics itself because it has already involved itself in money by valuing physical or material commodities symbolically in monetary terms. In this respect, economics is nothing but semiotics. Another origin of semiotics is from medicine, physics and astronomy. The symptom is the most important information to "symbolize" the internal state of body. Astronomers observe images via lens, and modern physicists read the numerals on measurement instruments. Instead of experiencing the reality, economists read the statistical data provided by government, "operate" economic theories in terms of differential or integral calculus, and use computers, as poets create the imaginations of worlds and minds, and painters create worlds and emotions on paper. In this respect, the idea of *homo economics* is consistent with that of *homo logos*. As *homo logos* of logical intelligence is deeply related with *homo sapience*,

The view of humans is now experimentally examined to provide the evidences of the pros and the cons of viewing humans as *homo economics.* This view is also called the economic rationalism and is often attributed to Smith, an ethicist in a Catholic city. As the economic rationalism is opposite to the classic rationalism that respects the religious and ethical reasonableness, it fails to persuade non-economists. Using natural or behavioral scientific methods, brain scientists and psychologists test the *homo economics* view of humans [Gazzaniga, 2005; Camerer and Fehr, 2006; Warmeken and Tomasollo, 2006; Haidt, 2007].

**4. Mathematical, quantitative and physicalistic methodologies in social**

after the Renaissance. Much later, this provided economics with powerful methods.

Transportation techniques including calculation techniques for road or bridge construction, shipbuilding and navigation accomplished the expansion of territories to obtain more resources and knowledge. This stimulated social technocrats in judiciary and administration into geography including anthropology, and contributed to the development of natural sciences, science-based technologies and humanities. Informed of the customs in various civilizations, for example, Montesquieu presented the comparative philosophy of law.

Many philosophers and historians of natural sciences regard physics (particularly, mechanics) as the core of natural sciences and the mathematics as its core method, which all

Astrology and the calendar based on real observation and calculation provided the foundation of decision-making (divination). Policy making of government and families' (or clans') household (*oikonomia*) also depended on the calendar and the financial calculation like the calculation of inventory or provision. Under the strong control of myths, religions and historical lessons (all in humanities), social techniques collecting data for taxation and the calculation were undervalued. Despite the economic usefulness, calculation was not respected as knowledge (*sophia*). Greek philosophers were interested in geographic figures and the properties of natural numbers including their ratio. As the calculation was important in distribution, algebra as the fundamental theory of calculation was developed in the Islam countries, where the studies of complicated figures or patterns were also developed. Owing to the development of transportation, such knowledge was transferred to West, where mathematics was combined with physics (particularly dynamics) during and

**sciences and humanities**

sciences are supposed to make efforts to use.

*homo economics* may be considered as related with *homo sapience* in this respect.

Conversely, the method of social sciences owes to humanities, natural sciences and technology. Extending the Arabic and Cartesian view of blood circulation in human body to the circulation of commodities and money, Quesnay, a surgeon and a physiocrat, presented *tableau économique* to represent economic flows and made the first step towards econometrics and economic planning. But this physiological view of economics failed to win the worldwide support of economists, the majority of whom have almost exclusively regarded physics aided by mathematics as central in science. This may partly be explained as the bias of the mainstream manufacturing- and trade-oriented Anglo-American economists against the land-based French physiocratic economists. Naturally, manufacturing-based economy was rather related to mechanics, while agriculture-based economy was relatively related to biology.

Biology (historically, botany, zoology, entomology, and ichthyology were not unified) seldom affected the methodology of social sciences after the modern civilization succeeded in conquering the nature by using mechanical technology based on physics. Contrarily, the severe competition of *home economics* after Industrial Revolution induced Darwin to think of the natural selection as the driving force for biological evolution.

Ethics (*praktische Philosophie*) was influenced by biology like the collaborative behaviors of bees and ants, but theoretical philosophy (epistemology and logic) considered physics and mathematics as central in natural science. Before February Revolution, Comte at *École Polytechnique* presented positive philosophy to found all knowledge including social study (*sociologie*) upon natural sciences, particularly physics. Later, Marx claimed his social science (*Sozialwissenschaft*) to be as rigorous as physics. Around 1900, Frege, Russell and Hilbert attempted to construct the logico-mathematical system upon which all knowledge is supposed to stand. This yielded the logico-mathematical movement toward the unified science (unity of science) in the 1930s in Vienna and then Chicago, where many Jewish scholars fled from Vienna. At the same time, the biological idea of general systems was developed in Vienna.