On the other hand, there have undoubtedly several negative points in higher education resulting from state universities' turning to open and distance education (Güven, 2002; Erdem, 2006; Balyer & Gündüz, 2010): (1) *Universities are gradually likely to became a center for certificate*. Upon the increasing importance of university degree and certificates, a fierce competition has nearly become inevitable between universities and the institutions which deliver these certificates, and as a result certain institutions have nearly regarded such certificates of private bodies as sufficient to gain professional career, which has made these private agents considerable competitors of universities. In the meantime, seeking themselves as a commercial body, universities have also taken a counter-action by opening a number of programmes in order to obtain financial resource. Nevertheless, over time, such a trend is likely to create "*universities to be drained*". (2) *Universities could also turn into be instutions that merely deal with "education & training" process*. One of the considerable functions of universities is "education & training", yet they also have some other critical responsibilities such as "*research*" and "*social service*". (3) *The mentality of a university based on "client-market" could turn to be ermanent*. Sub-units of universities or faculties are awarded for their contributions thanks to projects and etc., and so universities are gradually turning into an attraction center as a "*profiting body*". However, they are supposed to be inevitably "*nonprofit institutions*". In this respect, they are expected to work for new technologies and knowledge, making contribution to national and universal culture, as well as taking some respects and point of views into consideration such as leading in the society. (4) *Academic*  *staff and students could be regarded as only a material in the process*. Academic staff is today regarded as a commercial material to attract more students to the university while the students are considered to be an object that could access learening materials through user names or codes, without using interactive methods and social environment which are heavily based on. Considering today's universities exclusive function for society, it could be concluded that academic staff and students are both and element. (5) *Universities have steadily lost their autonomy given as a right*. The university could be observed closely and strictly in academic, financial and administrational terms, even including censor as a means of strict control.

#### **4. Conclusion**

18 Distance Education

Doğan, Biroğul & Koç, 2008; Çnar, 2009; Balyer & Gündüz, 2010): (1) *Universities have gradually turned out to be virtual institutions*. Virtual universities, on one hand, benefit from a great many applications in higher education period. They, on the other hand, use varied new concepts such as blended education, unsynchronized distance education, in-line learning, whole–life learning, web–based distance education, mobil learning and virtual classrooms. Thanks to new concept known as "*Non-wall University*" in state universities, the major aim is now to establish a large net in global sense of potential students, teaching elements, employers and graduates. (2) *Distance education by using internet based technologies is available to large masses*. Therefore, distance education has gradually been run on new technologies based on internet. Considered in this respect, it could be assumed that the major aim in distance education is, by using different methods from traditional teaching methods, to meet the ever-increasing global demand for higher education. (3) *In-line training has now been available*. Students could now efficiently benefit from in-line training facilities by which e-learning and distance education service opportunities has inevitably resulted in globalization of education by using virtual universities without needing to leave a city or a country. (4) *The student profile has gradually been internationalized*. Today, thanks to great contributions of open and distance education applications, the student profile in state universities have also gradually been away from nationaland more and more srudent from different countries register their names on-line for training. (5) *Costs are gradually declining*. Because all the services for students are available faster, more efficient and at lower cost, distance education is the cheapest one of all other education systems on condition that there is enough number of students, apart from formal to support the financial investment.

On the other hand, there have undoubtedly several negative points in higher education resulting from state universities' turning to open and distance education (Güven, 2002; Erdem, 2006; Balyer & Gündüz, 2010): (1) *Universities are gradually likely to became a center for certificate*. Upon the increasing importance of university degree and certificates, a fierce competition has nearly become inevitable between universities and the institutions which deliver these certificates, and as a result certain institutions have nearly regarded such certificates of private bodies as sufficient to gain professional career, which has made these private agents considerable competitors of universities. In the meantime, seeking themselves as a commercial body, universities have also taken a counter-action by opening a number of programmes in order to obtain financial resource. Nevertheless, over time, such a trend is likely to create "*universities to be drained*". (2) *Universities could also turn into be instutions that merely deal with "education & training" process*. One of the considerable functions of universities is "education & training", yet they also have some other critical responsibilities such as "*research*" and "*social service*". (3) *The mentality of a university based on "client-market" could turn to be ermanent*. Sub-units of universities or faculties are awarded for their contributions thanks to projects and etc., and so universities are gradually turning into an attraction center as a "*profiting body*". However, they are supposed to be inevitably "*nonprofit institutions*". In this respect, they are expected to work for new technologies and knowledge, making contribution to national and universal culture, as well as taking some respects and point of views into consideration such as leading in the society. (4) *Academic*  "Things will change over time. Then, you'll either be the one who changes them or someone will invariably change them for you."

#### *Sergio Zyman*

Undoubtedly, we are experiencing a period of rapid changes, increased interaction, developing technologies and advanced scientific knowledge. In other words, the period we experience today is heavily composed of computer technologies, brain power and qualified man power all of which are inevitably related to global-based speed economy; also know as "*society of knowledge*". The developed society of today is identified as society of knowledge. Therefore, the key words of "*change*" has now turned out "*globalization*" that refers to some concepts such as the spread and development of economic, social and politic affairs among countries, increased activity of capital movement, as well as taking encouragigng steps against ideologic discrimination based on extreme ends, better awareness of different social, cultures, beliefs and expectations and more intensified affairs between countries. On the other hand, according to ones who are of positive opinions of it, globalization inevitably refers to increased cross-border trade, remarkable development in efforts for establishment of democracy and human rights as well as considerable contribution to enhancement of social affluence. However, ones who are opposed to globalization maintains that globalization is a global market in which cross-borders corporotions are closely kept under control and therefore globalization and developments in information technologies as an accelerator of globalization invariably affect almost any field of life and so as to closely observe and benefit from such developments, a form of qualified individual with new attitudes and values are needed. Globalization is the greatest challenge against universities. By this challenge, the developments that mostly affected universities can be said as the technological developments. To speak objectively, recent developments in information technologies also affect intensively a large number of traditional values in universities as in many other fields of education. In this respect, today's higher education institutions are experience a painstaking period of many changes including obting transmission and spread of knowledge. As aresult, universities have gradually become institutions that provide professional knowledge and documents to allow a number of occupation categories. The changes occurred in last quarter caused change in the structure and function of higher education in the world. Neo-liberalism and international educational exchanges are some examples for these changes. Rapid developments in computational technology have created opportunities for new implementations in both face to face education and on-line learning as one from of distance education. For this purpose, developments in knowledge and communication technologies have increasingly gained ground in modern universities "*open*" and "*distane*" education service, both of which are based on the internet. "*Distance education applications*" through the internet make up for a new economic learning dynamic based on rigorous education & training by which it is available to students to benefit virtually from higher education programmes in any other country without needing to live abroad, which is called "*programme mobility*". However, it also seems likely that spreading technologies in universities to a large extend could also resultin neglecting their social functions and studies or regarding such social responsibilities as inferior anyway. Furthermore , due to marketinspired reforms, higher education service is not only offered by state universities, but it is also available in profit foundation universities or corporation universities (Güven, 2002; Balay, 2004; Ylmaz & Horzum, 2005; Aktan, 2007; Dağl, 2007; Şentürk, 2008; Odabaş & Frat & İzmirli & Çankaya & Msrl, 2010; Çetiner & Türkmen & Bolat, 20.11.2011)

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State America

Undoubtedly, globalization has tended to turn state universities into customer-centered companies that are driven in a bureaucratic way whereby these universities are gradually forced to take more enterprising steps in any field. In other words, it seems now inevitable that state universities as higher education institutions should keep pace with the innovations in national and international educations as well as social, politic and technologic changes. Of all such innovations, universities are particularly supposed to manage and lead the innovation process in education & training, science and technology fields. In this sense, universities are required to drive "*open*" and "*distance*" education programmes, and more importantly, to be a "*pioneer*" in such applications. For state universities to drive changes in "*open*" and "*distance*" education programmes and to introduce the strides they are supposed to, universities must, by seeing the future from today, take precautions, make a number of realistic plans and then put them into practice in a short while. Otherwise, it seems inevitable that state universities will become an "*ordinary body*" in education service.

## **Author details**

Ali Rza Erdem *Pamukkale University, Education Faculty, Knkl Campus, Denizli, Turkey*

## **5. References**

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20 Distance Education

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**Author details**

Ali Rza Erdem

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Mutlu, M. E. & Öztürk, M. C. & Özöğüt, Ö. & Ylmaz, R. & Çetinöz, R. E-Learning in open education, 2-5 September 2003, 20. National Informatics Congress, 11.09.2006, Available from: http://www.bilgi.aof.edu.tr/yayinlar/2003/Acikogretimde%20e-Ogrenme.pdf Odabaş, H. F. & Frat, M. & İzmirli, S. & Çankaya, S. & Msrlk, Z. A. (2010) Being academician in globalizing world, *Anadolu University Journal of Social Sciences,* Vol.10,

Önder, H. (2003) The use of computer on distance education and expert systems, *The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – TOJET*, Vol.2, No.3, pp. 142-146, ISSN: 1303-

Önür, N. Structural obstacles, in periof of being an information society, to distance education facilitates, Symposium Open and Distance Education, 23-25 May 2002,

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*Technology,* Vol.1, No.2, pp. 21-29, ISBN 978-1-62100-621-3

No.1, pp. 105–132, ISSN 1303-0485

237, ISBN 975-591-216-9, Ankara

edu.tr/EMilli\_kuresellesme.htm

New York, United State America

No.3, pp. 127-142, ISBN 978-975-06-0446-1

ISSN 1303-0485

6521

*Research,* Vol.2, No.6, pp. 12–33, ISSN 1302-597X

*Practice,* Vol.2, No.1, pp. 132–154, ISSN 1303-0485

9781870941808 London, United Kingdom

*Gazi Education Faculty,* Vol.26, No.3, pp. 113-132, ISSN-1301-9058

*Sciences: Theory & Practice*, Vol.2, No.1, pp. 93–104, ISSN 1303-0485

*Sciences: Theory & Practice,* Vol.2, No.1, pp. 155–168, ISSN 1303-0485

Ylmaz, K. & Horzum, B. (2005) Globalization, information technologies and university, *İnönü University Journal of Education Faculty,* Vol.6, No.10, pp. 103-121, ISSN 1300-2899

**Chapter 2**

© 2012 Biao, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Open and Distance Learning:**

**Achievements and Challenges**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Idowu Biao

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/48080

**1. Introduction**

development.

members of society.

**in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa**

Africa became independent during the first decade of the second half of the 20thcentury as most countries making it up established their own governments and opened diplomatic missions in foreign lands for the first time, in the 1960s. With independence arose fundamental preoccupations and primary concerns; these preoccupations and concerns were those addressing issues of the development of the newly independent nations and the search for appropriate instruments that were to be used in bringing about this

Aside the UNESCO generated series of workshops of the early 1960s, encouraging investment in education (Thompson, 1981), a number of pertinent literatures made public in the 1960s did much to reinforce the belief in the reliability and efficiency of education as potential instrument for the quick development of Africa; these literatures include the writings of Blaug (1966) and Anderson (1966) which threw up the acquisition of literacy as a process to be embarked on, by all that seek development and literacy skill as a veritable tool for social development and societal advancement; specifically, these literatures submitted that any human society that may attain at least 40% literacy rate, would have succeeded in raising the productivity of new literates living within the society; they also posited that, in addition to raising the productivity of new literates, this feat would have equally raised the productivity of those working in association with the new literates as a consequence of the spillover benefits of literacy; additionally, the acquisition of 40% literacy rate by a society has been said to be capable of bringing about the expediting of the flow of general knowledge (relating to best practices in health, nutrition and information seeking) among

## **Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa**

Idowu Biao

26 Distance Education

ISBN:<PHONE_NUMBER>-32-3, Ankara, Turkey

Vol.1, No.1, pp. 85-106, ISSN 1306-0651

*Sciences*, Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 197-211, ISSN: 1302-1265

Ylmaz, K. & Horzum, B. (2005) Globalization, information technologies and university, *İnönü University Journal of Education Faculty,* Vol.6, No.10, pp. 103-121, ISSN 1300-2899 YÖK (2007) *Turkey's higher education strategy,* Board of Higher Education Publications, No.1,

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Zengingönül, O. (2005) What is globalization? Can we escape? Can we use?, *Journal of Siyasa*,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/48080

## **1. Introduction**

Africa became independent during the first decade of the second half of the 20thcentury as most countries making it up established their own governments and opened diplomatic missions in foreign lands for the first time, in the 1960s. With independence arose fundamental preoccupations and primary concerns; these preoccupations and concerns were those addressing issues of the development of the newly independent nations and the search for appropriate instruments that were to be used in bringing about this development.

Aside the UNESCO generated series of workshops of the early 1960s, encouraging investment in education (Thompson, 1981), a number of pertinent literatures made public in the 1960s did much to reinforce the belief in the reliability and efficiency of education as potential instrument for the quick development of Africa; these literatures include the writings of Blaug (1966) and Anderson (1966) which threw up the acquisition of literacy as a process to be embarked on, by all that seek development and literacy skill as a veritable tool for social development and societal advancement; specifically, these literatures submitted that any human society that may attain at least 40% literacy rate, would have succeeded in raising the productivity of new literates living within the society; they also posited that, in addition to raising the productivity of new literates, this feat would have equally raised the productivity of those working in association with the new literates as a consequence of the spillover benefits of literacy; additionally, the acquisition of 40% literacy rate by a society has been said to be capable of bringing about the expediting of the flow of general knowledge (relating to best practices in health, nutrition and information seeking) among members of society.

© 2012 Biao, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

As a result of these factors, the new nations of Africa opted to expand both the educational structures and personnel inherited from colonisation with the view to ushering in, development similar to that enjoyed by their respective metropoles. Consequently, between 1960 and 1983, the number of primary schools quadrupled and the number of primary school pupils quintupled; the number of secondary schools tripled and the number of secondary school teachers rose two folds; teacher training schools multiplied four folds and the number of teachers teaching in them rose three folds; the number of universities doubled itself and the number of lecturers equally rose significantly in Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 1988:12).

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 29

In addition to increasing the national literacy rate, Nigeria's Universal Primary Education that was launched in 1975 did much to reconcile two perceptions concerning literacy and development that prevailed prior to this period in the country; for many years, the view was held in Northern Nigeria that the promotion of adult education programmes with minimal promotion of formal youth schooling was adequate for any social development. On the other hand, much of Southern Nigeria expended much effort in advancing youth formal

While the Federal Government of Nigeria deployed enormous human, material and financial resources towards the establishment of thousands of formal primary schools, recruitment of teachers and distribution of learning resources, it also encouraged its constituent parts (the States) to advance the cause of adult education within their areas of jurisdiction. This strategy culminated into the establishment of the first Agency for Mass Education in Kano State in 1985 and in the establishment of the National Commission for Literacy, Adult and Mass Education in 1991 (NMEC, 2004; FGN, 1974) . The pursuit of literacy education having been prosecuted from many fronts, impressive results were

As it is to be expected, all these initiatives have produced over time, huge populations of

As mentioned earlier, teacher education enrolment equally grew exponentially and so did enrolment in secondary and tertiary levels of education (World Bank, 1988). However, an analysis of the rates of expansion across levels of education, suggests that the higher the

This chapter discusses the impact of a pattern of educational expansion such as this, on the development of open and distance learning in Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, the chapter discusses the findings relating to the performance of a novel and high profile open and distance learning programme currently running in Africa with the view to drawing valuable

In addition to the historical performance of formal education, a number of other social and economic factors account for the growth of open and distance learning in Africa. A clarification of the concept "Open and Distance Learning" shall here precede the discussion of those numerous factors that fuel the growth of this budding sub-educational system.

Open and distance learning was first known as "Distance Learning" before it became "Open and Distance Learning"; indeed, the concept "Distance Learning" emerged from the idea of

*rose from 36 per cent to 75 per cent over this period (World Bank, 1988:12).*

level of education, the lower was the rate of expansion recorded during this period.

*Primary school enrollments increased the most in absolute terms, growing from approximately 11.9 million pupils in 1960 to 51.3 million pupils in 1983. The gross primary school enrollment ratio*

schooling to the detriment of adult education for a long time.

yielded as illiteracy was seriously dented after a while.

lessons for the future of ODL on the continent.

**3. Conceptual issues in open and distance learning**

**2. Review of the literature**

literate and schooled persons; in the words of World Bank,

In addition to these major and ground breaking preparations for development, additional initiatives aimed at increasing literacy, numeracy and livelihood activities in Africa were initiated throughout the continent during the 1960s through to the 1980s; for example, Tanzania embraced the concept of "Ujamaa" in 1961, the details of which were contained in a document released in 1967 that has come to be known as the "Arusha Declaration"; among other policies, the Ujamaa advanced the implementation of free and compulsory education, one objective of which was the raising of the national average of literacy rate; consequently, primary school enrolment was raised from 25% (with 16% females) in 1960 to 72% (with 85% females) in 1985; additionally, the adult literacy rose from 17% in 1960 to 63% by 1975 (Wikipedia, 2011).

In 1972, Benin introduced the concept of "Ecole Nouvelle" (New School) and in 1974, it established the "Direction de l'Alphabetisation du Benin" (Directorate of Literacy Education of Benin); one of the many objectives of these two institutions was the raising of literacy rate in both national and French languages; as a result of this policy, literacy rate in the country rose from about 50 per cent in 1960 to about 85 per cent in 2008 (Nardulli, Peyton and Bajjalieh, 2010; Biao, 1995; Direction Nationale de Statistique, 1992); all these efforts came to add to the fact that Benin has since 1960, been posting the highest yearly school enrolment in Francophone Africa (Hough, 1989) and to the fact that Benin has traditionally supplied Francophone Africa with not only teachers and lecturers, but also high caliber international functionaries (Biao, 1995).

Senegal also introduced in 1980 its own concept of "Ecole Nouvelle" whereby primary school education is linked to the needs of the community while at the same time, serving as instrument for the amelioration of literacy rate across the community (Adick, 1998) .

In 1974, the Government of Lesotho established the Lesotho Distance Teaching Centre (LDTC) with the view to equipping adults and youths with literacy, numeracy and income generation skills; by 2007, more than 200,000 learners have benefitted from the programmes offered by the centre (Garg and Lephoto, 2009). In addition, a free education scheme was introduced in the country by 2000 ( Avenstrup, 2004); this scheme has now produced about a quarter of a million primary school graduates.

Kenya, Uganda and Malawi equally launched their Free Primary Education projects in 2003, 1997 and 1994 respectively with resounding success and with the view to increasing national literacy rate averages and reducing poverty (Avenstrup, 2004).

In addition to increasing the national literacy rate, Nigeria's Universal Primary Education that was launched in 1975 did much to reconcile two perceptions concerning literacy and development that prevailed prior to this period in the country; for many years, the view was held in Northern Nigeria that the promotion of adult education programmes with minimal promotion of formal youth schooling was adequate for any social development. On the other hand, much of Southern Nigeria expended much effort in advancing youth formal schooling to the detriment of adult education for a long time.

While the Federal Government of Nigeria deployed enormous human, material and financial resources towards the establishment of thousands of formal primary schools, recruitment of teachers and distribution of learning resources, it also encouraged its constituent parts (the States) to advance the cause of adult education within their areas of jurisdiction. This strategy culminated into the establishment of the first Agency for Mass Education in Kano State in 1985 and in the establishment of the National Commission for Literacy, Adult and Mass Education in 1991 (NMEC, 2004; FGN, 1974) . The pursuit of literacy education having been prosecuted from many fronts, impressive results were yielded as illiteracy was seriously dented after a while.

As it is to be expected, all these initiatives have produced over time, huge populations of literate and schooled persons; in the words of World Bank,

*Primary school enrollments increased the most in absolute terms, growing from approximately 11.9 million pupils in 1960 to 51.3 million pupils in 1983. The gross primary school enrollment ratio rose from 36 per cent to 75 per cent over this period (World Bank, 1988:12).*

As mentioned earlier, teacher education enrolment equally grew exponentially and so did enrolment in secondary and tertiary levels of education (World Bank, 1988). However, an analysis of the rates of expansion across levels of education, suggests that the higher the level of education, the lower was the rate of expansion recorded during this period.

This chapter discusses the impact of a pattern of educational expansion such as this, on the development of open and distance learning in Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, the chapter discusses the findings relating to the performance of a novel and high profile open and distance learning programme currently running in Africa with the view to drawing valuable lessons for the future of ODL on the continent.

## **2. Review of the literature**

28 Distance Education

(World Bank, 1988:12).

(Wikipedia, 2011).

functionaries (Biao, 1995).

a quarter of a million primary school graduates.

literacy rate averages and reducing poverty (Avenstrup, 2004).

As a result of these factors, the new nations of Africa opted to expand both the educational structures and personnel inherited from colonisation with the view to ushering in, development similar to that enjoyed by their respective metropoles. Consequently, between 1960 and 1983, the number of primary schools quadrupled and the number of primary school pupils quintupled; the number of secondary schools tripled and the number of secondary school teachers rose two folds; teacher training schools multiplied four folds and the number of teachers teaching in them rose three folds; the number of universities doubled itself and the number of lecturers equally rose significantly in Sub-Saharan Africa

In addition to these major and ground breaking preparations for development, additional initiatives aimed at increasing literacy, numeracy and livelihood activities in Africa were initiated throughout the continent during the 1960s through to the 1980s; for example, Tanzania embraced the concept of "Ujamaa" in 1961, the details of which were contained in a document released in 1967 that has come to be known as the "Arusha Declaration"; among other policies, the Ujamaa advanced the implementation of free and compulsory education, one objective of which was the raising of the national average of literacy rate; consequently, primary school enrolment was raised from 25% (with 16% females) in 1960 to 72% (with 85% females) in 1985; additionally, the adult literacy rose from 17% in 1960 to 63% by 1975

In 1972, Benin introduced the concept of "Ecole Nouvelle" (New School) and in 1974, it established the "Direction de l'Alphabetisation du Benin" (Directorate of Literacy Education of Benin); one of the many objectives of these two institutions was the raising of literacy rate in both national and French languages; as a result of this policy, literacy rate in the country rose from about 50 per cent in 1960 to about 85 per cent in 2008 (Nardulli, Peyton and Bajjalieh, 2010; Biao, 1995; Direction Nationale de Statistique, 1992); all these efforts came to add to the fact that Benin has since 1960, been posting the highest yearly school enrolment in Francophone Africa (Hough, 1989) and to the fact that Benin has traditionally supplied Francophone Africa with not only teachers and lecturers, but also high caliber international

Senegal also introduced in 1980 its own concept of "Ecole Nouvelle" whereby primary school education is linked to the needs of the community while at the same time, serving as

In 1974, the Government of Lesotho established the Lesotho Distance Teaching Centre (LDTC) with the view to equipping adults and youths with literacy, numeracy and income generation skills; by 2007, more than 200,000 learners have benefitted from the programmes offered by the centre (Garg and Lephoto, 2009). In addition, a free education scheme was introduced in the country by 2000 ( Avenstrup, 2004); this scheme has now produced about

Kenya, Uganda and Malawi equally launched their Free Primary Education projects in 2003, 1997 and 1994 respectively with resounding success and with the view to increasing national

instrument for the amelioration of literacy rate across the community (Adick, 1998) .

In addition to the historical performance of formal education, a number of other social and economic factors account for the growth of open and distance learning in Africa. A clarification of the concept "Open and Distance Learning" shall here precede the discussion of those numerous factors that fuel the growth of this budding sub-educational system.

### **3. Conceptual issues in open and distance learning**

Open and distance learning was first known as "Distance Learning" before it became "Open and Distance Learning"; indeed, the concept "Distance Learning" emerged from the idea of "Distance Education" which came from "Correspondence Education" which itself arose from "Non-formal Education".

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 31

*whereas correspondence education relies on paper and the written or print materials and it employs the post or surface transportation as its means of communication, distance education, its successor, employs in addition to print and surface transportation, many more diverse and*

Distance education is a process whereby an individual or institution packages information in a learnable way with the view to helping another individual or group of individuals to learn at a distance. In line with the general aim of education, distance education employs all available media, methods and techniques to enable learners access needed information at a distance; distance education equally assists the learner to apply whatever may have been

One major characteristic of distance education is that it employs a variety of media (print,

Distance Education is "a process to create and provide access to learning when the source of information and the learners are separated by time and distance, or both" (Honeyman and

Distance learning on the other hand, is a process of education which emphasises learning; it is an educational enterprise during which, a facilitator of learning who is usually separated from the learner by spatial or mental distance, gathers, collates and presents information in a learnable form to one or a group of learners who have accepted the responsibility to learn.

While in distance education, the facilitator does the most that it could to help learners learn, distance learning assumes that the responsibility to learn is the learner's; and this responsibility includes the choice and decision to enroll on a programme, the choice of media through which to learn and most importantly what to learn and how to learn it.

While most psychologists would submit that learning means acquisition of information and knowledge that lead to change in behaviour (and this is the aim of education and the objective of distance education), distance learning leaves room for the learner to impute to the information and material presented, his own understanding that may be different from the understanding the facilitator had intended; additionally, the learner is at liberty to use his understanding and the information presented in any constructive way which suits his own will, circumstances and environment without recourse to the facilitator or institution

electronic and virtual) in its quest to help the learner learn as much as possible.

*modern means of communication (Morris 2011; Jeffries 2011).*

Correspondence education is a paper and written document based process of passing information between a facilitator and a learner or group of learners with the view to

facilitating learning.

**3.3. Distance education**

learnt.

Miller, 1993:68)

**3.4. Distance learning**

that originated the learning material.

Tracing our steps back to the basics therefore, we recollect that the emergence of open and distance learning was motivated by inability of numerous qualified candidates to access tertiary education in regular or formal tertiary education institutions; the search for educational opportunities by those candidates locked out of formal education institutions was eventually met with a positive response within the non-formal education environment.

### **3.1. Non-formal education**

Non-formal education is a planned educational activity that takes place outside the formal school system; while its outcome may lead to results and products similar to those produced by the formal school system, the environment within which it takes place and its processes are different from those obtained within the formal school system. It is a system of education within which the rigid safeguards (teacher or institution-controlled time-tabling, student discipline, teacher-controlled curriculum, etc.) of formal education are either made flexible or eliminated.

For example, learning meeting periods are jointly arrived at through discussions involving learners and facilitators; also the motivation techniques (giving of gifts, promises of future rewards, etc.) that would usually work among formal education students would not ordinarily be effective within non-formal education environment as each non-formal education learner is driven by his own peculiar intrinsic motivation.

Having reviewed the submissions of a number of authors, including Merriam and Caffarella (1999), Merriam and Brokett (1997), Watkins and Wright (1991) and Combs (1972), Gibson (2008) concludes that non-formal education is planned education that takes place outside the formal school and which may or may not lead to credit earning.

Although, not all non-formal education programmes, do qualify as distance learning programme, yet, it was within an environment such as the one afore described, that the first distance education programme was conceived; that first distance education programme was known as "Correspondence Education".

#### **3.2. Correspondence education**

The humble beginning of correspondence education must be traced back to 1840 when Isaac Pitman began to teach shorthand by post (Morris, 2011; Rowntree, 1992). This was the first ever recorded successful national attempt at providing education at a distance anywhere in the world; for many years, Pitman used the post to reach his many learners who equally got back to him through the same medium.

After this initial experience the practice of correspondence education spread like wild fire throughout the world and very soon, all kinds of subjects and topics were taught through correspondence education.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 31

Correspondence education is a paper and written document based process of passing information between a facilitator and a learner or group of learners with the view to facilitating learning.

*whereas correspondence education relies on paper and the written or print materials and it employs the post or surface transportation as its means of communication, distance education, its successor, employs in addition to print and surface transportation, many more diverse and modern means of communication (Morris 2011; Jeffries 2011).*

## **3.3. Distance education**

30 Distance Education

from "Non-formal Education".

**3.1. Non-formal education**

flexible or eliminated.

"Distance Education" which came from "Correspondence Education" which itself arose

Tracing our steps back to the basics therefore, we recollect that the emergence of open and distance learning was motivated by inability of numerous qualified candidates to access tertiary education in regular or formal tertiary education institutions; the search for educational opportunities by those candidates locked out of formal education institutions was eventually met with a positive response within the non-formal education environment.

Non-formal education is a planned educational activity that takes place outside the formal school system; while its outcome may lead to results and products similar to those produced by the formal school system, the environment within which it takes place and its processes are different from those obtained within the formal school system. It is a system of education within which the rigid safeguards (teacher or institution-controlled time-tabling, student discipline, teacher-controlled curriculum, etc.) of formal education are either made

For example, learning meeting periods are jointly arrived at through discussions involving learners and facilitators; also the motivation techniques (giving of gifts, promises of future rewards, etc.) that would usually work among formal education students would not ordinarily be effective within non-formal education environment as each non-formal

Having reviewed the submissions of a number of authors, including Merriam and Caffarella (1999), Merriam and Brokett (1997), Watkins and Wright (1991) and Combs (1972), Gibson (2008) concludes that non-formal education is planned education that takes place outside the

Although, not all non-formal education programmes, do qualify as distance learning programme, yet, it was within an environment such as the one afore described, that the first distance education programme was conceived; that first distance education programme was

The humble beginning of correspondence education must be traced back to 1840 when Isaac Pitman began to teach shorthand by post (Morris, 2011; Rowntree, 1992). This was the first ever recorded successful national attempt at providing education at a distance anywhere in the world; for many years, Pitman used the post to reach his many learners who equally got

After this initial experience the practice of correspondence education spread like wild fire throughout the world and very soon, all kinds of subjects and topics were taught through

education learner is driven by his own peculiar intrinsic motivation.

formal school and which may or may not lead to credit earning.

known as "Correspondence Education".

back to him through the same medium.

correspondence education.

**3.2. Correspondence education**

Distance education is a process whereby an individual or institution packages information in a learnable way with the view to helping another individual or group of individuals to learn at a distance. In line with the general aim of education, distance education employs all available media, methods and techniques to enable learners access needed information at a distance; distance education equally assists the learner to apply whatever may have been learnt.

One major characteristic of distance education is that it employs a variety of media (print, electronic and virtual) in its quest to help the learner learn as much as possible.

Distance Education is "a process to create and provide access to learning when the source of information and the learners are separated by time and distance, or both" (Honeyman and Miller, 1993:68)

#### **3.4. Distance learning**

Distance learning on the other hand, is a process of education which emphasises learning; it is an educational enterprise during which, a facilitator of learning who is usually separated from the learner by spatial or mental distance, gathers, collates and presents information in a learnable form to one or a group of learners who have accepted the responsibility to learn.

While in distance education, the facilitator does the most that it could to help learners learn, distance learning assumes that the responsibility to learn is the learner's; and this responsibility includes the choice and decision to enroll on a programme, the choice of media through which to learn and most importantly what to learn and how to learn it.

While most psychologists would submit that learning means acquisition of information and knowledge that lead to change in behaviour (and this is the aim of education and the objective of distance education), distance learning leaves room for the learner to impute to the information and material presented, his own understanding that may be different from the understanding the facilitator had intended; additionally, the learner is at liberty to use his understanding and the information presented in any constructive way which suits his own will, circumstances and environment without recourse to the facilitator or institution that originated the learning material.

In this regard, distance learning operates within the strictest principles of distance education but with the largest tolerance for interpretations and application of learning outcomes; this is transformative learning; distance learning therefore more than distance education promotes transformative learning.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 33

*..arrangements to enable people to learn at the time, place and space which satisfy their circumstances and requirements. The emphasis is on opening up opportunities by overcoming barriers that result from geographical isolation, personal work commitments or conventional course structures which have often prevented people from gaining access to the training they*

*..a wide range of learning opportunities that both aim to assist learners in gaining access to knowledge and skills they would otherwise be denied and to give learners the optimum degree of*

**3.6. Hiccups in the development of formal education and the growth of Open**

In historical terms, we must start off with the view that the concept and philosophy of distance education are not alien to the African. As suggested by Kabwasa and Kaunda (1973), the talking drum has always represented both the medium and African consciousness of distance education; through vast plains, across a great many rivers and lagoons and across many hills and mountains, the talking drum has been used to convey messages and information of both simple and immeasurable value; the literate in the language of the talking drum has usually learnt his or her lesson and has become wiser for

Kabwasa and Kaunda (1973) confirmed this submission when they asked their pointed

However, if this introduction were accepted as an appropriate historical interjection, it is to be recollected at this juncture, that the focus of the current write-up is modern correspondence and distance education and not ancient concepts of distance education.

Consequently, the story of African open and distance learning must be discussed here, with two eras in mind, namely, the pre-independence era and the post-independence era. The pre-independence era refers to the colonial period and it is here situated between 1884, when Europe began its meetings that eventually culminated in the partitioning and sharing

*Is long-distance transmission of knowledge a new phenomenon in Africa? Certainly not. For long before radio or television were introduced in the continent during the colonial era, the 'homo Africanus' relied on his instrument par excellence-the drum- in order to communicate through distant space with his fellow man……. In a way, therefore, the 'talking drum' was a precursor of the modern correspondence education in so far as it linked the distant learner to his*

geographical location. The concept of open learning then entered the educational diction and the prefix "Open" was added to "Distance Learning" to signify that apart from being learning managed from a distance, it is equally "Open Learning" wherein "Open Learning"

is understood to be,

And to be:

it.

*need (Rowntree, 1992).*

**and Distance Learning in Africa**

question and answered same thus:

*teacher or knowledge-holder (Kabwasa and Kaunda, 1973:3)*

*control over their own learning (Dixon, 1987)*

Arseneault in her 1998 study cited in Cranton (2000:190) suggests that an individual may embark on transformative learning through a process of "disorientation, self-examination, critical assessment, exploration of options, engaging in discourse and planning a course of action". In her own postulation, Gibson (2008:270) proposes "problem-posing education, critical reflection, dialogue, contextualisation and politicising of experiences and the taking of action" as the path to transformative learning. She then concludes that transformative learning may be stimulated at a distance through,

*educational materials regardless of medium of delivery, be it print, radio, audiocassettes, videotapes or television, [that] embrace Holmberg's guided didactic conversation and through this "conversation" pose questions, guide critical reflection, in the true sense of the word. Furthermore, the learner can be also guided toward reflections on and in the context in which she/he lives and works--the context that may be oppressive, stifling individual and social growth (Gibson, 2008: 271).*

#### **3.5. Open and distance learning**

Distance learning needs not be open at all (Rowntree, 1992:30). This suggests that there exists a difference between "Open Learning" and "Distance Learning"; for many decades, the term "Distance Learning" has been used to describe learning organised, dispensed and acquired from a distance; the prefix "Open" became attached to Distance Learning towards the end of the 20th century as a result of three significant developments, namely, criticisms against the formal school system, GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) and Globalisation.

A number of criticisms have been leveled against the formal school system; first it is remarked that, apart from being costly to erect and maintain, the formal school system is not elastic and pliant enough to accommodate as many as would need education; additionally, it records a lot of wastage through a high percentage of failure of its products at private and public examinations (Garg and Lepotho, 2009; Biao, 1992; Combs, 1985); second, although the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947, to regulate international interaction as it concerns specific issues and items, it was in 1994 that it was agreed that education should become an international saleable commodity; this agreement had profound positive effect on the development of Open and Distance Learning (Preece and Biao, 2011); third, the phenomenon of globalisation which suddenly turned the world into a global village, did much to encourage educational interaction among societies that hitherto would not have dreamt of educational collaboration as a result of the great geographical distance separating them.

As a result of these major social developments therefore, learning opportunities opened up to many inhabitants of the earth like it never did before and irrespective of their Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 33

geographical location. The concept of open learning then entered the educational diction and the prefix "Open" was added to "Distance Learning" to signify that apart from being learning managed from a distance, it is equally "Open Learning" wherein "Open Learning" is understood to be,

*..arrangements to enable people to learn at the time, place and space which satisfy their circumstances and requirements. The emphasis is on opening up opportunities by overcoming barriers that result from geographical isolation, personal work commitments or conventional course structures which have often prevented people from gaining access to the training they need (Rowntree, 1992).*

And to be:

32 Distance Education

promotes transformative learning.

*(Gibson, 2008: 271).*

**3.5. Open and distance learning**

geographical distance separating them.

learning may be stimulated at a distance through,

In this regard, distance learning operates within the strictest principles of distance education but with the largest tolerance for interpretations and application of learning outcomes; this is transformative learning; distance learning therefore more than distance education

Arseneault in her 1998 study cited in Cranton (2000:190) suggests that an individual may embark on transformative learning through a process of "disorientation, self-examination, critical assessment, exploration of options, engaging in discourse and planning a course of action". In her own postulation, Gibson (2008:270) proposes "problem-posing education, critical reflection, dialogue, contextualisation and politicising of experiences and the taking of action" as the path to transformative learning. She then concludes that transformative

*educational materials regardless of medium of delivery, be it print, radio, audiocassettes, videotapes or television, [that] embrace Holmberg's guided didactic conversation and through this "conversation" pose questions, guide critical reflection, in the true sense of the word. Furthermore, the learner can be also guided toward reflections on and in the context in which she/he lives and works--the context that may be oppressive, stifling individual and social growth*

Distance learning needs not be open at all (Rowntree, 1992:30). This suggests that there exists a difference between "Open Learning" and "Distance Learning"; for many decades, the term "Distance Learning" has been used to describe learning organised, dispensed and acquired from a distance; the prefix "Open" became attached to Distance Learning towards the end of the 20th century as a result of three significant developments, namely, criticisms against the formal school system, GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) and Globalisation.

A number of criticisms have been leveled against the formal school system; first it is remarked that, apart from being costly to erect and maintain, the formal school system is not elastic and pliant enough to accommodate as many as would need education; additionally, it records a lot of wastage through a high percentage of failure of its products at private and public examinations (Garg and Lepotho, 2009; Biao, 1992; Combs, 1985); second, although the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947, to regulate international interaction as it concerns specific issues and items, it was in 1994 that it was agreed that education should become an international saleable commodity; this agreement had profound positive effect on the development of Open and Distance Learning (Preece and Biao, 2011); third, the phenomenon of globalisation which suddenly turned the world into a global village, did much to encourage educational interaction among societies that hitherto would not have dreamt of educational collaboration as a result of the great

As a result of these major social developments therefore, learning opportunities opened up to many inhabitants of the earth like it never did before and irrespective of their *..a wide range of learning opportunities that both aim to assist learners in gaining access to knowledge and skills they would otherwise be denied and to give learners the optimum degree of control over their own learning (Dixon, 1987)*

## **3.6. Hiccups in the development of formal education and the growth of Open and Distance Learning in Africa**

In historical terms, we must start off with the view that the concept and philosophy of distance education are not alien to the African. As suggested by Kabwasa and Kaunda (1973), the talking drum has always represented both the medium and African consciousness of distance education; through vast plains, across a great many rivers and lagoons and across many hills and mountains, the talking drum has been used to convey messages and information of both simple and immeasurable value; the literate in the language of the talking drum has usually learnt his or her lesson and has become wiser for it.

Kabwasa and Kaunda (1973) confirmed this submission when they asked their pointed question and answered same thus:

*Is long-distance transmission of knowledge a new phenomenon in Africa? Certainly not. For long before radio or television were introduced in the continent during the colonial era, the 'homo Africanus' relied on his instrument par excellence-the drum- in order to communicate through distant space with his fellow man……. In a way, therefore, the 'talking drum' was a precursor of the modern correspondence education in so far as it linked the distant learner to his teacher or knowledge-holder (Kabwasa and Kaunda, 1973:3)*

However, if this introduction were accepted as an appropriate historical interjection, it is to be recollected at this juncture, that the focus of the current write-up is modern correspondence and distance education and not ancient concepts of distance education.

Consequently, the story of African open and distance learning must be discussed here, with two eras in mind, namely, the pre-independence era and the post-independence era. The pre-independence era refers to the colonial period and it is here situated between 1884, when Europe began its meetings that eventually culminated in the partitioning and sharing

of Africa (Robiquet, 1897; Halsall, 1998) as a cake would have been shared, and 1960, the beginning of massive decolonisation of Africa.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 35

the university enjoy international recognition and the university runs an open learning programme in addition to distance education as students who do not possess a university entrance matric can register for the University of South Africa's access programme. By July 2011, University of South Africa was ranked 9th out of 100 African universities and 1221st out

Clearly, the University of South Africa rules over the African open and distance learning space. However, while South Africa remains to date the unequalled leader in the field of open and distance learning in Africa, the regions in the east, west and centre of Sub-Saharan

A stroke of economic meltdown hit the world in the 1980s which scuttled at least temporarily, the ambitious project of developing enviable formal school systems in various African countries (World Bank, 1988). As a result of the slowing down in impetus of formal education growth, a system of adult remedial education began to develop in major cities of African nations at about the same time (Mpofu and Amin, 2004; Biao, 1992); this system of education is made up of learning meetings organised in the evenings and weekends that aim at helping learners acquire knowledge, skills, certificates and diplomas which they were not able to obtain through the formal school system; apart from being cheaper to maintain than formal schools, the services of these remedial education centres came at relatively low cost to learners. Most of the adult remedial education classes ran high school (secondary school) level learning programmes and are by that token institutions that prepared

Over the years, the products of these adult remedial education centres, joined the regular high school graduates to queue for admission into African universities; these universities have consistently not been able to provide space for most of the qualified candidates as a result of the availability of only limited placements within their premises. Tilak (2009) submits that only between 6 and 7% of those qualified to obtain tertiary education do get

As a result of this shortage of places in African universities, many qualified candidates turned their search for tertiary educational opportunities towards other educational structures including open and distance learning institutions. This then, marked the

One most significant early achievement recorded in the realm of open and distance learning after independence, was the establishment in 1962 of the "Centre d'Enseignement Superieur" in Brazzaville, Congo. This was a Correspondence College with its peculiarities. First, it was a college designed to serve a French speaking audience; secondly, the qualifications it granted were specifically tailored towards up-grading basic skills and preparing recipients for job; thirdly, in addition to serving candidates in search of tertiary institution qualifications, its main target audience is made up of rural populace and

beginning of the demand for distance education in post-independence Africa.

of 10,000 universities in the world (Wikipedia, 2011; Webometrics, 2011).

*3.6.2. Open and Distance Learning during the post-independence era*

Africa also have their own pale ODL stories of success to tell.

numerous candidates for university or tertiary education.

placement in African universities.

Two landmarks were recorded during the pre-independence era and these include the establishment on African soil of clearing houses for European Correspondence Colleges and the establishment of the University of South Africa (UNISA) as the first African Distance Education institution in 1946. The post-independence era, after recording a major achievement soon after independence, produced rather later, towards the end of the 20th century, a number of weak ODL structures which nevertheless are gradually strengthening their roots.

#### *3.6.1. Open and Distance Learning during the pre-independence era*

During the colonial period, a few Africans enrolled as learners with overseas correspondence colleges; through most of the colonial period these learners received their course packages and returned assignments and correspondences overseas, through the post office. However, at the approach of independence, a number of these overseas correspondence colleges began to establish clearing houses in African countries with the view to both reducing the cost of postal correspondence to learners and accessing a larger market of correspondence education clients at independence.

Alongside this humble beginning of open and distance learning in Africa, came in 1946, the establishment of the University of South Africa (UNISA) as the first and foremost Open and Distance Learning institution in Africa (Wikipedia, 2011). Initially, UNISA combined the promotion of its own courses with those of some overseas correspondence colleges (Wikipedia, 2011); in other words, while it was possible to enroll for and obtain UNISA degrees and diplomas, opportunities were equally given to candidates to obtain degrees and diplomas of a few overseas correspondence colleges through UNISA.

This phenomenon carries both a historical connotation and practical significance; UNISA itself started in 1873, not only as mother institution to most other South African universities but as a clearing house for overseas universities such as Oxford and Cambridge universities (Wikipedia, 2011).

*Founded in 1873 as the University of the Cape of Good Hope, the University of South Africa spent most of its early history as an examining agency for Oxford and Cambridge universities and as an incubator from which most other universities in South Africa are descended. In 1946, it was given a new role as a distance education university and today it offers certificate, diploma and degree courses up to doctoral level (Wikipedia, 2011).*

As time went on however, the new ODL institution grew in autonomy and it launched itself into the African open and distance learning orbit with all the sophistication and resilience it could muster to claim the first position in a developing sub-educational sector of Africa.

Today, UNISA caters for about 300,000 learners spread throughout the world with a personnel strength of 4,000 academic and administrative staff. The certificates delivered by the university enjoy international recognition and the university runs an open learning programme in addition to distance education as students who do not possess a university entrance matric can register for the University of South Africa's access programme. By July 2011, University of South Africa was ranked 9th out of 100 African universities and 1221st out of 10,000 universities in the world (Wikipedia, 2011; Webometrics, 2011).

Clearly, the University of South Africa rules over the African open and distance learning space. However, while South Africa remains to date the unequalled leader in the field of open and distance learning in Africa, the regions in the east, west and centre of Sub-Saharan Africa also have their own pale ODL stories of success to tell.

#### *3.6.2. Open and Distance Learning during the post-independence era*

34 Distance Education

their roots.

(Wikipedia, 2011).

beginning of massive decolonisation of Africa.

of Africa (Robiquet, 1897; Halsall, 1998) as a cake would have been shared, and 1960, the

Two landmarks were recorded during the pre-independence era and these include the establishment on African soil of clearing houses for European Correspondence Colleges and the establishment of the University of South Africa (UNISA) as the first African Distance Education institution in 1946. The post-independence era, after recording a major achievement soon after independence, produced rather later, towards the end of the 20th century, a number of weak ODL structures which nevertheless are gradually strengthening

During the colonial period, a few Africans enrolled as learners with overseas correspondence colleges; through most of the colonial period these learners received their course packages and returned assignments and correspondences overseas, through the post office. However, at the approach of independence, a number of these overseas correspondence colleges began to establish clearing houses in African countries with the view to both reducing the cost of postal correspondence to learners and accessing a larger

Alongside this humble beginning of open and distance learning in Africa, came in 1946, the establishment of the University of South Africa (UNISA) as the first and foremost Open and Distance Learning institution in Africa (Wikipedia, 2011). Initially, UNISA combined the promotion of its own courses with those of some overseas correspondence colleges (Wikipedia, 2011); in other words, while it was possible to enroll for and obtain UNISA degrees and diplomas, opportunities were equally given to candidates to obtain degrees and

This phenomenon carries both a historical connotation and practical significance; UNISA itself started in 1873, not only as mother institution to most other South African universities but as a clearing house for overseas universities such as Oxford and Cambridge universities

*Founded in 1873 as the University of the Cape of Good Hope, the University of South Africa spent most of its early history as an examining agency for Oxford and Cambridge universities and as an incubator from which most other universities in South Africa are descended. In 1946, it was given a new role as a distance education university and today it offers certificate, diploma*

As time went on however, the new ODL institution grew in autonomy and it launched itself into the African open and distance learning orbit with all the sophistication and resilience it could muster to claim the first position in a developing sub-educational sector of Africa.

Today, UNISA caters for about 300,000 learners spread throughout the world with a personnel strength of 4,000 academic and administrative staff. The certificates delivered by

*3.6.1. Open and Distance Learning during the pre-independence era*

market of correspondence education clients at independence.

diplomas of a few overseas correspondence colleges through UNISA.

*and degree courses up to doctoral level (Wikipedia, 2011).*

A stroke of economic meltdown hit the world in the 1980s which scuttled at least temporarily, the ambitious project of developing enviable formal school systems in various African countries (World Bank, 1988). As a result of the slowing down in impetus of formal education growth, a system of adult remedial education began to develop in major cities of African nations at about the same time (Mpofu and Amin, 2004; Biao, 1992); this system of education is made up of learning meetings organised in the evenings and weekends that aim at helping learners acquire knowledge, skills, certificates and diplomas which they were not able to obtain through the formal school system; apart from being cheaper to maintain than formal schools, the services of these remedial education centres came at relatively low cost to learners. Most of the adult remedial education classes ran high school (secondary school) level learning programmes and are by that token institutions that prepared numerous candidates for university or tertiary education.

Over the years, the products of these adult remedial education centres, joined the regular high school graduates to queue for admission into African universities; these universities have consistently not been able to provide space for most of the qualified candidates as a result of the availability of only limited placements within their premises. Tilak (2009) submits that only between 6 and 7% of those qualified to obtain tertiary education do get placement in African universities.

As a result of this shortage of places in African universities, many qualified candidates turned their search for tertiary educational opportunities towards other educational structures including open and distance learning institutions. This then, marked the beginning of the demand for distance education in post-independence Africa.

One most significant early achievement recorded in the realm of open and distance learning after independence, was the establishment in 1962 of the "Centre d'Enseignement Superieur" in Brazzaville, Congo. This was a Correspondence College with its peculiarities. First, it was a college designed to serve a French speaking audience; secondly, the qualifications it granted were specifically tailored towards up-grading basic skills and preparing recipients for job; thirdly, in addition to serving candidates in search of tertiary institution qualifications, its main target audience is made up of rural populace and

extension workers--subsistence farmers, village women and development leaders-- (Dodds, 1973).

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 37

The Institute of Adult Education and Distance Learning of Makerere University, Uganda was established by Act of Parliament no. 12 of 1975 (www.iae.ac.tz/profile). As an organ with the mission of promoting adult education, the institute has been technically in existence since 1960, first as an extra-mural studies arm of the Makerere University College and secondly as Department of Adult Education attached to the University of Dar-es-salaam

Upon becoming Institute of Adult Education and Distance Learning (IAEDL) in 1975, this ODL outfit has toed the path of all other developing African ODL outfits by providing teacher education, literacy education and some amount of technical education; in this sense, it was not a significant enough open and distance learning outfit to be highlighted but for

A staff of Makerere University, Paul Birevu Muyinda began a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) study programme in 2005 during which an e-learning system that aims to increase interaction between facilitators and their distance learning students was developed; the initial testing of the invention christened Mobile Learning Model (M0LODUM) confirmed it as a groundbreaking innovation (Kisambira, 2008) and this event brought that one ODL

The advent of M0LODUM is important to both IAEDL and African ODL family because the invention has the potentials to increase the population of Open and Distance Learning clients on the continent and the quality of learning offered by the ODL route. Confirming

*The Department of Distance Learning at Makerere University has deployed an amazing mobiletelephone-based application to aid research supervision by students who learn and study long distance. Not only have they addressed a teething issue of limited collaboration between the distance learner and the supervisor; the department is also taking learning to a place it has never*

Nigeria is the most populous black nation on earth; it equally posts one of the highest annual population growth rate in the world (National Population Commission, 2006); as a result of the combination of these factors with other socio-economic and environmental factors, the population of the country grew exponentially and all social amenities, including educational facilities, were stretched to a breaking point within the first two decades of independence.

For example, while at the close of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s, about 25% success was regularly registered at the West African School Certificate Examinations, Nigerian universities showed a glaring lack of capacity to absorb even such a low number of qualified candidates (Biao, 1992; Okebukola, 2004); by the close of the 20th century, Nigeria could absorb only 15 per cent of the about 1.5 million youths that regularly qualify to benefit

From the 1970s therefore, the need to seek other routes to higher education acquisition had become an issue in Nigeria; an aborted attempt was made to provide Nigeria with an Open

between 1963 and 1974 (www.iae.ac.tz/profile).

one event that occurred between 2005 and 2011.

*been before (Kisambira, 2008).*

from tertiary education (Ambe-Uva, 2007).

outfit on the continent to limelight and to a status of importance.

the potential advantages of this invention, Kisambira submitted as follows:

However, beginning from the end of the 20th century, this college has begun to take on English-speaking populations of Africa; for example, it is currently operating in Kenya, Ghana and among English-speaking people of Cameroun.

After this significant early achievement, a number of open and distance learning institutions have come on stream among which only a few are major players within the ODL field; the institutions discussed here are those that are headed by an ODL specialist and/or staffed by an ODL-trained personnel to the tune of at least 15%; through sheer hard work and promotion of innovation, one or two ODL outfits have made it unto the list of the ODL institutions discussed here.

In East Africa, we may speak of only the ODL project, located at the University of Tanzania and that situated within Makerere University, Uganda; in Central Africa, no credible ODL project exists; in West Africa, Nigeria established in April 2001 an institution known as the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN); in Southern Africa, UNISA braises the trail; but the Botswana's, Lesotho's, Swaziland's, Namibia's and Zimbabwe's open and distance learning outfits, are other credible ODL projects that must be mentioned in that part of the continent.

More than a century ago, the geo-political entity known today as Tanzania had had to be governed by Germans, the French and the British at different periods in history; by the time Tanzania attained political independence in the 1960s, it had a chequered history indeed; the mainland having had a different colonial experience from the off-shore Zanzibar. Yet, at independence, national leaders decided to pool the two bits of the country together and marched with determination to make a success of the union (Mmari, 1999). Education was identified as an instrument for national development and integration; it was therefore vigorously promoted both at the community development level and at the formal school system level; while community development was promoted at the grassroots level, the formal schools, made up of primary, secondary and tertiary institutions, trained the low, middle and high level manpower that was to see to the development of the country.

The University of Tanzania which was the only university during the first years of independence to serve the country had capacity to admit only 30% of qualified candidates; this wastage was quickly noticed by the authorities and by 1988 the country set into motion the process of establishing an Open University whose objective was to provide increased access to educational opportunities to Tanzanians; by 1994, the Open University of Tanzania admitted 766 students as its first batch of open learning students. Between 1994 and 1998 the advent of the Open University increased access to higher education in the country by about 25% (Mmari, 1999).

During the second decade of the 21st century the university has been coping as well as it could with the global recession while at the same time fine tuning its strategies for better performance as soon as the difficult times were over.

The Institute of Adult Education and Distance Learning of Makerere University, Uganda was established by Act of Parliament no. 12 of 1975 (www.iae.ac.tz/profile). As an organ with the mission of promoting adult education, the institute has been technically in existence since 1960, first as an extra-mural studies arm of the Makerere University College and secondly as Department of Adult Education attached to the University of Dar-es-salaam between 1963 and 1974 (www.iae.ac.tz/profile).

36 Distance Education

institutions discussed here.

1973).

continent.

25% (Mmari, 1999).

performance as soon as the difficult times were over.

extension workers--subsistence farmers, village women and development leaders-- (Dodds,

However, beginning from the end of the 20th century, this college has begun to take on English-speaking populations of Africa; for example, it is currently operating in Kenya,

After this significant early achievement, a number of open and distance learning institutions have come on stream among which only a few are major players within the ODL field; the institutions discussed here are those that are headed by an ODL specialist and/or staffed by an ODL-trained personnel to the tune of at least 15%; through sheer hard work and promotion of innovation, one or two ODL outfits have made it unto the list of the ODL

In East Africa, we may speak of only the ODL project, located at the University of Tanzania and that situated within Makerere University, Uganda; in Central Africa, no credible ODL project exists; in West Africa, Nigeria established in April 2001 an institution known as the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN); in Southern Africa, UNISA braises the trail; but the Botswana's, Lesotho's, Swaziland's, Namibia's and Zimbabwe's open and distance learning outfits, are other credible ODL projects that must be mentioned in that part of the

More than a century ago, the geo-political entity known today as Tanzania had had to be governed by Germans, the French and the British at different periods in history; by the time Tanzania attained political independence in the 1960s, it had a chequered history indeed; the mainland having had a different colonial experience from the off-shore Zanzibar. Yet, at independence, national leaders decided to pool the two bits of the country together and marched with determination to make a success of the union (Mmari, 1999). Education was identified as an instrument for national development and integration; it was therefore vigorously promoted both at the community development level and at the formal school system level; while community development was promoted at the grassroots level, the formal schools, made up of primary, secondary and tertiary institutions, trained the low,

middle and high level manpower that was to see to the development of the country.

The University of Tanzania which was the only university during the first years of independence to serve the country had capacity to admit only 30% of qualified candidates; this wastage was quickly noticed by the authorities and by 1988 the country set into motion the process of establishing an Open University whose objective was to provide increased access to educational opportunities to Tanzanians; by 1994, the Open University of Tanzania admitted 766 students as its first batch of open learning students. Between 1994 and 1998 the advent of the Open University increased access to higher education in the country by about

During the second decade of the 21st century the university has been coping as well as it could with the global recession while at the same time fine tuning its strategies for better

Ghana and among English-speaking people of Cameroun.

Upon becoming Institute of Adult Education and Distance Learning (IAEDL) in 1975, this ODL outfit has toed the path of all other developing African ODL outfits by providing teacher education, literacy education and some amount of technical education; in this sense, it was not a significant enough open and distance learning outfit to be highlighted but for one event that occurred between 2005 and 2011.

A staff of Makerere University, Paul Birevu Muyinda began a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) study programme in 2005 during which an e-learning system that aims to increase interaction between facilitators and their distance learning students was developed; the initial testing of the invention christened Mobile Learning Model (M0LODUM) confirmed it as a groundbreaking innovation (Kisambira, 2008) and this event brought that one ODL outfit on the continent to limelight and to a status of importance.

The advent of M0LODUM is important to both IAEDL and African ODL family because the invention has the potentials to increase the population of Open and Distance Learning clients on the continent and the quality of learning offered by the ODL route. Confirming the potential advantages of this invention, Kisambira submitted as follows:

*The Department of Distance Learning at Makerere University has deployed an amazing mobiletelephone-based application to aid research supervision by students who learn and study long distance. Not only have they addressed a teething issue of limited collaboration between the distance learner and the supervisor; the department is also taking learning to a place it has never been before (Kisambira, 2008).*

Nigeria is the most populous black nation on earth; it equally posts one of the highest annual population growth rate in the world (National Population Commission, 2006); as a result of the combination of these factors with other socio-economic and environmental factors, the population of the country grew exponentially and all social amenities, including educational facilities, were stretched to a breaking point within the first two decades of independence.

For example, while at the close of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s, about 25% success was regularly registered at the West African School Certificate Examinations, Nigerian universities showed a glaring lack of capacity to absorb even such a low number of qualified candidates (Biao, 1992; Okebukola, 2004); by the close of the 20th century, Nigeria could absorb only 15 per cent of the about 1.5 million youths that regularly qualify to benefit from tertiary education (Ambe-Uva, 2007).

From the 1970s therefore, the need to seek other routes to higher education acquisition had become an issue in Nigeria; an aborted attempt was made to provide Nigeria with an Open

University in 1983; the plan eventually materialised only in 2001 with the establishment of 4 centres in Lagos, Adamawa, Borno and Kano States. Fifty learning programmes were rolled out and 32,400 pioneer learners were registered (National Open University of Nigeria, 2009). The National Open University of Nigeria is "Nigeria's leading-and only specialist-provider of open and distance learning at tertiary level" (National Open University of Nigeria, 2009).

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 39

teacher education, Bachelors in Education, Commerce, Law and the Sciences are taught and plans are at foot to introduce courses in Bachelor of Technology; the centres offering inservice training for teachers attract the highest number of learners that range between 1,000

Zimbabwe Open University had its hey days between 1993 and 1999. Its humble beginning is to be traced to the establishment of the Centre for Distance Education within the University of Zimbabwe in 1993; it then became University of Zimbabwe College for Distance Education in 1997 before becoming the Zimbabwe Open University through a 1998

Between 1993 and 1999, the Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) made giant steps within the realm of open and distance learning as it not only attracted good heads in ODL around Africa, but also attracted international funding which enabled it develop materials, strategies and technologies that portrayed it as a truly promising African ODL outfit; to its credit, the solid ODL network established throughout all the provinces of the country must be highlighted. During its hey days, every aspiring learner residing in any part of Zimbabwe felt the presence and the intensity of the activities of ZOU through its provincial coordinates. However, it must be acknowledged that beginning from the year 2000, the political and economic reforms in that country have come to nearly completely erase the

For example, less than 8 per cent of the staff in Zimbabwe's conventional universities currently hold a Doctorate degree, a situation that temporarily led to the suspension of classes at the University of Zimbabwe during the first decade of the 21st century (Wikipedia, 2011; Nyaruwata, 2011); the few ODL specialists that served as backbone to the initial impressive achievements recorded in ZOU have been forced to relocate away from Zimbabwe and the gradual development of the soft ODL infrastructure (regular supply of electrical energy, availability of ever improving Information Communication Technologies, etc..) that held out such a great promise had equally been terminated; so have the development-oriented learning programmes introduced by the university diminished in quality and quantity. Yet, there are high hopes that, from the ashes of the initial toils and achievements of this promising ODL University, will rise again a great African ODL outfit at

Current observation suggests that the demand for open and distance learning will keep augmenting in Africa. What then are those other factors that continue to fuel ODL demand on the continent? Apart from the inability of conventional institutions to cater for the educational needs of teeming populations desirous to acquire education, a whole set of other factors account and will continue to account for the development of ODL in Africa.

For example, during the periods of struggle for independence in Africa, it was discovered by the elites that elementary and secondary education levels were not enough to effectively challenge colonial administration; a first university degree at least built greater confidence and elicited greater respect from the colonisers; consequently, a number of Africans who were not able to travel overseas for higher education, seized the opportunities offered by

and 2,000 (Dodds et al, 1999).

the end of the reforms.

Act of Parliament (Nyaruwata, 2011).

beautiful work accomplished during the initial years of ZOU.

The Distance Education Association of Southern Africa (DEASA) comprises Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia; other DEASA countries include Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mauritius, the Seychelles, Madagascar, the Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa (DEASA, 2010).

Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia shared the common destiny of resisting apartheid; consequently, they naturally found themselves collaborating on many other fronts for the sake of collective survival in the face of the monster that apartheid was; one of the fronts where they collaborated was education. Dodds (1973) submits that initially, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland ran a common university known as the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland (UBLS) between 1964 and 1975. University of Namibia was originally modelled after the Afrikaner tradition with little contact with the outside world. While Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland ran a joint institution, the Distance Learning developed through the joint institution was committed to promoting community development.

When the joint institution got dissolved and each country set up its own university, higher education distance learning was developed in each of the countries. Botswana launched its Diploma in Theology in 1979 but could not make a success of it; it launched its distance education Certificate in Adult Education in 1982 and was able to run it till the end of the 1990s with about 27 students usually on the programme (Dodds et al, 1999). Beyond the 1990s, the Certificate in Adult Education has been upgraded to the Diploma in Adult Education by distance education and this Diploma programme is going on up to date, understandably with its problems of low enrolment, greatly reduced government support and low patronage by non-governmental organizations. However, within the first decade of the 21st century, Botswana has managed to equip about 9,000 primary school teachers with a Diploma in Primary Education through distance learning (Kamau, 2009).

The National University of Lesotho (NUL) currently runs Diploma and Bachelor programmes in Adult Education and Education by distance learning mode; these programmes were put up a few years ago and the Diploma in Adult Education and Bachelor in Education programmes have particularly attracted impressive patronage. Swaziland established its Institute of Distance Education (IDE) in the last decade of the 20th century to offer courses in Diploma in Law, in Commerce and B. A. in Humanities and B.Ed in Adult Education. The population on the various courses range between 30 and 100 learners. With courses in Law attracting the highest number of enrolees (Dodds et al, 1999).

Namibia went into independence with one university which was already equipped with a Department of Distance Education; this university's department, in addition to three other public institutions offer tertiary level distance education; many courses such as in-service teacher education, Bachelors in Education, Commerce, Law and the Sciences are taught and plans are at foot to introduce courses in Bachelor of Technology; the centres offering inservice training for teachers attract the highest number of learners that range between 1,000 and 2,000 (Dodds et al, 1999).

38 Distance Education

development.

University in 1983; the plan eventually materialised only in 2001 with the establishment of 4 centres in Lagos, Adamawa, Borno and Kano States. Fifty learning programmes were rolled out and 32,400 pioneer learners were registered (National Open University of Nigeria, 2009). The National Open University of Nigeria is "Nigeria's leading-and only specialist-provider of open and distance learning at tertiary level" (National Open University of Nigeria, 2009). The Distance Education Association of Southern Africa (DEASA) comprises Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia; other DEASA countries include Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mauritius, the Seychelles, Madagascar, the

Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia shared the common destiny of resisting apartheid; consequently, they naturally found themselves collaborating on many other fronts for the sake of collective survival in the face of the monster that apartheid was; one of the fronts where they collaborated was education. Dodds (1973) submits that initially, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland ran a common university known as the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland (UBLS) between 1964 and 1975. University of Namibia was originally modelled after the Afrikaner tradition with little contact with the outside world. While Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland ran a joint institution, the Distance Learning developed through the joint institution was committed to promoting community

When the joint institution got dissolved and each country set up its own university, higher education distance learning was developed in each of the countries. Botswana launched its Diploma in Theology in 1979 but could not make a success of it; it launched its distance education Certificate in Adult Education in 1982 and was able to run it till the end of the 1990s with about 27 students usually on the programme (Dodds et al, 1999). Beyond the 1990s, the Certificate in Adult Education has been upgraded to the Diploma in Adult Education by distance education and this Diploma programme is going on up to date, understandably with its problems of low enrolment, greatly reduced government support and low patronage by non-governmental organizations. However, within the first decade of the 21st century, Botswana has managed to equip about 9,000 primary school teachers with a

The National University of Lesotho (NUL) currently runs Diploma and Bachelor programmes in Adult Education and Education by distance learning mode; these programmes were put up a few years ago and the Diploma in Adult Education and Bachelor in Education programmes have particularly attracted impressive patronage. Swaziland established its Institute of Distance Education (IDE) in the last decade of the 20th century to offer courses in Diploma in Law, in Commerce and B. A. in Humanities and B.Ed in Adult Education. The population on the various courses range between 30 and 100 learners. With

Namibia went into independence with one university which was already equipped with a Department of Distance Education; this university's department, in addition to three other public institutions offer tertiary level distance education; many courses such as in-service

Diploma in Primary Education through distance learning (Kamau, 2009).

courses in Law attracting the highest number of enrolees (Dodds et al, 1999).

Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa (DEASA, 2010).

Zimbabwe Open University had its hey days between 1993 and 1999. Its humble beginning is to be traced to the establishment of the Centre for Distance Education within the University of Zimbabwe in 1993; it then became University of Zimbabwe College for Distance Education in 1997 before becoming the Zimbabwe Open University through a 1998 Act of Parliament (Nyaruwata, 2011).

Between 1993 and 1999, the Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) made giant steps within the realm of open and distance learning as it not only attracted good heads in ODL around Africa, but also attracted international funding which enabled it develop materials, strategies and technologies that portrayed it as a truly promising African ODL outfit; to its credit, the solid ODL network established throughout all the provinces of the country must be highlighted. During its hey days, every aspiring learner residing in any part of Zimbabwe felt the presence and the intensity of the activities of ZOU through its provincial coordinates. However, it must be acknowledged that beginning from the year 2000, the political and economic reforms in that country have come to nearly completely erase the beautiful work accomplished during the initial years of ZOU.

For example, less than 8 per cent of the staff in Zimbabwe's conventional universities currently hold a Doctorate degree, a situation that temporarily led to the suspension of classes at the University of Zimbabwe during the first decade of the 21st century (Wikipedia, 2011; Nyaruwata, 2011); the few ODL specialists that served as backbone to the initial impressive achievements recorded in ZOU have been forced to relocate away from Zimbabwe and the gradual development of the soft ODL infrastructure (regular supply of electrical energy, availability of ever improving Information Communication Technologies, etc..) that held out such a great promise had equally been terminated; so have the development-oriented learning programmes introduced by the university diminished in quality and quantity. Yet, there are high hopes that, from the ashes of the initial toils and achievements of this promising ODL University, will rise again a great African ODL outfit at the end of the reforms.

Current observation suggests that the demand for open and distance learning will keep augmenting in Africa. What then are those other factors that continue to fuel ODL demand on the continent? Apart from the inability of conventional institutions to cater for the educational needs of teeming populations desirous to acquire education, a whole set of other factors account and will continue to account for the development of ODL in Africa.

For example, during the periods of struggle for independence in Africa, it was discovered by the elites that elementary and secondary education levels were not enough to effectively challenge colonial administration; a first university degree at least built greater confidence and elicited greater respect from the colonisers; consequently, a number of Africans who were not able to travel overseas for higher education, seized the opportunities offered by

ODL institutions to read for Bachelor and higher degrees while continuing their liberation movement activities.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 41

The East African Community (EAC) has bought into SADC's Vision 2030; therefore in addition to developing agriculture through the Strengthening of Trade in Agricultural Inputs in Africa (STAR) Project and through Integrated Regional Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan on Trans-boundary Human and Animal Diseases, and to poverty alleviation programmes run within member states, it is collaborating with SADC on many

Central Africa has equally bought into SADC's Vision 2030 and many countries in that bloc are involved in collaborative activities with SADC. ECOWAS rolled out in 2009, a five-point development plan it intends to attain by 2020; issues focused upon, include governance, the infrastructure, the private sector, women, children and youths and the utilization of the environment; in the main, the community wishes to run an ever-increasingly accountable government, an infrastructure able to support a 21st century economy and regional development; ECOWAS Vision equally seeks to operate a viable private sector, empower women, children and youths and encourage a sustainable use of the environment

These various vision statments are of course consistent with the expectations of African populations; however, for their actualisation, almost all African nations' populations need to be literate and about 40% of those populations need to acquire higher education; the literacisation of the populations would enable as many people as possible understand the contents of the Vision documents while the high level manpower is needed for the successful implementation of the Visions; since no true development may take place without the participation of the people for whom the said development is designed, it is suspected that all current vision statements in Africa, which are so inspired by modern style of living,

At present, only about 6% of the relevant Sub-Saharan African population has access to higher education as stated earlier; therefore, in order to increase the chance of success of the various vision statements on the continent, work is to be done to increase both literacy rate

Without our realising it, open and distance learning institutions, have been supplementing the conventional supply of higher education with the view to increasing the high level manpower that will eventually contribute to the actualisation of the continental vision statements. However, as could be seen a great effort is still needed to raise tertiary school

Globalisation is another factor fuelling demand for open and distance learning on the continent. While Shiva (1997) in Arku and Arku (2011) advances three historical sources (European colonialism, the imposition of western development models and free trade) of globalisation, Saul (2004) also in Arku and Arku (2011) suggests that the true harbinger of globalisation is the economic crisis of the 1980s that forced industrialised countries' companies to look for cheap labour elsewhere as a result of the unfavourable restrictions

may remain dead letters without appreciable improvement in people's education.

fronts (EAC, 2011).

(ECOWAS 2009).

and access to higher education in Africa.

enrolment from 6 to 40%.

brought on them at home.

During this same periods too, many Africans got incarcerated for their political views and actions as a strategy for breaking their resolve to fight for liberation; while in prisons across the continent, many of these confined liberation fighters conceived of learning and improvement in educational attainment as a continuation of the struggle and a preparation for a more sustained struggle after their eventual release; consequently, with the consent and help of prison authorities, they, too, learnt and acquired degrees and diplomas through ODL institutions that existed mainly outside the shores of Africa.

During the post-independence era, the fear of job loss, personal ambition, search for skilled manpower for the implementation of complex regional developmental agendas and globalisation are some of the factors that have fuelled expansion of the ODL sector.

By the 1980s, as a result of the economic recession at the time, Africa had started experiencing both significant unemployment problem and job losses; one strategy used by employers during that period to reduce work force was to set aside a time lag during which the work force in sections of enterprises or government organisations was directed to obtain higher relevant qualifications or be laid off; many found ODL institutions helpful in warding off the threat of job loss not only in the ability of these institutions to enable them acquire relevant qualifications that ultimately kept them on their jobs but in helping them keep their jobs while studying.

A number of individuals have always existed who have had the personal ambition of acquiring particular types of knowledge, skills and/or attitude; a number of reasons may account for such an ambition; the desire to learn may be for the purpose of practising a hobby or for preparing for a change of job at a later date; indeed, the learning may be for the purpose of upgrading skills on the current job for the purpose of retaining it. In other words, the reasons for learning could be both intrinsic and externally and socially driven.

Additionally, since becoming independent, African countries have sought to fast track their development through putting up gigantic developmental plans whose implementation can be facilitated by only the availability of not only a high population of literate citizens but by the availability within their borders of an appreciable population of citizens holding tertiary education qualifications (Biao, 2010).

For example, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the East African and the Central African Organisation, all have developed visions aimed at actualising major development plans within the first three decades of the 21st century.

SADC aims to improve agriculture and agro-processing activities through substantial investment in irrigation infrastructure, through the development of innovative market linkages and through the development of preferential procurement mechanisms; it plans to reduce unemployment within the borders of member states to between 10 and 6% by 2030; SADC equally plans to embark on the development of light industries and to link all member state capitals by highway, rail road and waterway (SADC, 2011).

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 41

40 Distance Education

movement activities.

education qualifications (Biao, 2010).

within the first three decades of the 21st century.

ODL institutions to read for Bachelor and higher degrees while continuing their liberation

During this same periods too, many Africans got incarcerated for their political views and actions as a strategy for breaking their resolve to fight for liberation; while in prisons across the continent, many of these confined liberation fighters conceived of learning and improvement in educational attainment as a continuation of the struggle and a preparation for a more sustained struggle after their eventual release; consequently, with the consent and help of prison authorities, they, too, learnt and acquired degrees and diplomas through

During the post-independence era, the fear of job loss, personal ambition, search for skilled manpower for the implementation of complex regional developmental agendas and

By the 1980s, as a result of the economic recession at the time, Africa had started experiencing both significant unemployment problem and job losses; one strategy used by employers during that period to reduce work force was to set aside a time lag during which the work force in sections of enterprises or government organisations was directed to obtain higher relevant qualifications or be laid off; many found ODL institutions helpful in warding off the threat of job loss not only in the ability of these institutions to enable them acquire relevant qualifications that ultimately kept them on their jobs but in helping them keep their jobs while studying.

A number of individuals have always existed who have had the personal ambition of acquiring particular types of knowledge, skills and/or attitude; a number of reasons may account for such an ambition; the desire to learn may be for the purpose of practising a hobby or for preparing for a change of job at a later date; indeed, the learning may be for the purpose of upgrading skills on the current job for the purpose of retaining it. In other words, the reasons for learning could be both intrinsic and externally and socially driven.

Additionally, since becoming independent, African countries have sought to fast track their development through putting up gigantic developmental plans whose implementation can be facilitated by only the availability of not only a high population of literate citizens but by the availability within their borders of an appreciable population of citizens holding tertiary

For example, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the East African and the Central African Organisation, all have developed visions aimed at actualising major development plans

SADC aims to improve agriculture and agro-processing activities through substantial investment in irrigation infrastructure, through the development of innovative market linkages and through the development of preferential procurement mechanisms; it plans to reduce unemployment within the borders of member states to between 10 and 6% by 2030; SADC equally plans to embark on the development of light industries and to link all

member state capitals by highway, rail road and waterway (SADC, 2011).

globalisation are some of the factors that have fuelled expansion of the ODL sector.

ODL institutions that existed mainly outside the shores of Africa.

The East African Community (EAC) has bought into SADC's Vision 2030; therefore in addition to developing agriculture through the Strengthening of Trade in Agricultural Inputs in Africa (STAR) Project and through Integrated Regional Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan on Trans-boundary Human and Animal Diseases, and to poverty alleviation programmes run within member states, it is collaborating with SADC on many fronts (EAC, 2011).

Central Africa has equally bought into SADC's Vision 2030 and many countries in that bloc are involved in collaborative activities with SADC. ECOWAS rolled out in 2009, a five-point development plan it intends to attain by 2020; issues focused upon, include governance, the infrastructure, the private sector, women, children and youths and the utilization of the environment; in the main, the community wishes to run an ever-increasingly accountable government, an infrastructure able to support a 21st century economy and regional development; ECOWAS Vision equally seeks to operate a viable private sector, empower women, children and youths and encourage a sustainable use of the environment (ECOWAS 2009).