such a human attribute as a leader can inspire his team members to work in harmony toward achieving a common goal. The leader needs to have skills such as problem-solving, active listening, conflict negotiation, excellent communication, and other abilities and skills. University graduates start developing leadership skills while getting involved in course projects and extracurricular activities such as volunteering outreach (Dimension 2).

The CPFF framework with all its four dimensions and sub-dimensions is shown in Fig. 1.

# **6 Implementation of the CPFF**

To prepare for its use and implementation by the various service departments at Dubai Men's Campus and HCT system-wide, the research team sponsored two capstone projects of graduating students in the Computer Information Science (CIS) department where two teams of students gathered the functional and non-functional requirements, performed the analysis of the requirements and designed a solution, and then implemented the solution in the form of a mobile app for Android devices (see Fig. 2). The main objective of the mobile app was to raise awareness about the CPFF framework. Users of this app can self-assess their knowledge and skills on the four dimensions of the CPFF and receive assessment results and recommendations to work on their areas that need further development. The user of the app receives a certification of completion upon taking the interventions and completing a post assessment. Figure 2 depicts screenshots of the some of the developed GUIs for the app, and a sample of questions on how to assess the knowledge dimension.

# **7 Conclusion**

In conclusion, this paper presented an innovative framework that is based on four main dimensions. All these dimensions are important for individuals and organizations to address the urgent issues of hiring, skill gaps and mismatches, reskilling and upskilling, and career path planning and development, especially in post COVID-19 era. The CPFF is expected to play a key role in support of individuals seeking jobs and looking for a successful and sustainable professional career and profile. Moreover, this framework is expected to help support service departments at educational institutions such as Career and Counseling in providing informed support to students and alumni in finding answers to their questions, and properly guiding them in how to be ready for the job market and work environment disruptions.

# **References**

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# **The Practices of Digital Citizenship Among Undergraduates at Sultan Qaboos University in Oman During COVID-19**

## **Mouza Alsaadi, Nabhan Alharassi, Jamal Alsalmi, and Salim Alkindi**

**Abstract** Digital citizenship (DC) has been an essential subject in educational research for the last few years. This study aimed at discovering the degree to which Omani undergraduate students practiced digital citizenship during the COVID-19 pandemic. The participants were 262 undergraduate students (116 males and 164 females) who took an online university elective course at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in Spring of 2021. The study adopted a quantitative approach to data collection to investigate students' digital citizenship practices. An online situational judgment test was developed and conducted to address six dimensions of digital citizenship: digital identity, digital civic engagement, digital ethics, digital literacy, digital safety, and global digital communication. The findings show that the level of practicing digital citizenship dimensions ranged from intermediate to low. Additionally, the results show that the least practiced dimensions are digital civic engagement and digital identity. Further, the results indicated some gender differences in students' practices of digital citizenship. Considering the results, more efforts are required from stakeholders to enhance the level of DC among undergraduates. The findings of the study are considered good indicators to be taken when designing and evaluating curricula at higher education institutions.

**Keywords** Digital citizenship · Higher education · Situational judgment tests · Undergraduates

M. Alsaadi (B)

N. Alharassi · S. Alkindi Information Studies Department, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

J. Alsalmi Library of Nizwa University, Nizwa University, Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman

S. Alkindi Information Studies Department, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Information Studies Department, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
# **1 Introduction**

Considering the tremendous transformation that COVID-19 has made in all aspects of life, digital citizenship practices have become a priority in daily life for most citizens around the globe who have Internet access. Throughout the coronavirus pandemic, people of different ages have been required to develop and use digital literacy practices to learn, stay informed, and connect with family, friends, and communities [10]. People have been forced to communicate and perform most of their life commitments online. This significant lifestyle shift has alerted governments to the necessity of empowering their citizens with the required digital competencies that enable them to communicate safely and effectively in the virtual world.

According to UNESCO [27], the COVID-19 lockdown obliged students of all levels in many parts of the world to utilize the Internet and digital tools as an essential part to continue their education remotely. Using social media and educational platforms was not optional; on the contrary, it became compulsory to proceed with the formal learning process in many countries. This experience revealed many issues related to students' responsible use of the Internet. Some of these issues were concerned with the lack of digital literacy, and some were related to digital ethics like copywriting and safety. This big shift forced educational authorities and other governmental institutions to take the responsibility for ensuring that students are fully aware of the appropriate norms and responsible behavior needed while using technology and participating in digital life. Curran and Ribble [13] emphasized the critical role those educational institutions play in empowering their students with the required digital competencies to participate effectively in their societies and the entire digital community. Although the topic of digital citizenship (DC) had been discussed years before the pandemic, COVID-19 has raised awareness of this issue among educators and decision makers.

According to the Council of Europe [12], digital citizenship refers to "the ability to engage positively, critically and competently in the digital environment, drawing on the skills of effective communication and creation, to practice forms of social participation that are respectful of human rights and dignity through the responsible use of technology." Alternatively, a digital citizen is someone who, through the development of a broad range of competencies, can "actively, positively, and responsibly engage in both on and offline communities, whether local, national, or global" [25]. According to Fingal [16], the International Society for Technology in Education identifies five main competencies of digital citizenship that students need to acquire to become digital citizens. Students must be inclusive, informed, balanced, engaged, and alert when using the Internet. Given these five competencies, educators need to be aware that their students.

Digital citizenship is recognized to be among the most researched topics in contemporary studies. Over the past decade, a large volume of literature has been published regarding DC in education [12, 22, 24]. These assorted studies cover all levels of education, starting from pre-school to the tertiary level. Many of these studies focus on k-12 students, curricula, and schoolteachers; however, the attention to DC in higher education is very new and limited, as Ahlquist [3] claimed. Moreover, the number of peer-reviewed studies regarding DC in higher education is also inadequate. In the Higher Education (HE) scope, several studies identify and measure undergraduate students' perception and awareness of DC such as Abdulqawi [1], Alsamadi [7], Kara [18], Erdem and Kocyigit [15], Alrashed [6], and Naji [23].

As the concept of DC varies from one scholar to another, different tools and instruments have been used to measure DC among undergraduates. Since Mark Ribble is considered the pioneer in constructing the concept and components of DC, it is not surprising to find that most studies and scholars stand on the work of Ribble's nine elements and adopt his framework of DC to build up their studies' tools [17, 22]. However, Ribble's framework of DC was proposed to students in the k-12 levels and not to university students. Therefore, there have been many attempts to develop new tools and scales to measure DC in the higher educational scope. These attempts appear in the work of Kim and Choi [20], Choi et al. [11], and Mahdi [21].

Overall, although there is a consensus among researchers that DC is important at all education levels, there is limited research exploring digital citizenship practices among university students. Besides, it appears from the previous review of the literature on DC in the HE domain that most of the studies focus on undergraduate students' understanding and perception of DC. However, the actual practices of DC have not been given much attention in research.

# **2 Research Problem**

In Oman, developing citizenship stands as one of the main targets of Oman's national strategic plan, known as Vision 2040. Moreover, preparing the 'good citizen' is among the primary goals of Oman's educational system [14]. Regarding DC, this concept started to emerge in the Omani context within the last five years of the previous decade. The topic of DC received attention from the Omani government due to the increased rate of incidents related to cybersecurity, security breaches, and cybercrimes. Accordingly, national campaigns were launched to promote citizens' and residents' awareness of digital safety and personal digital data protections. In addition, educational institutions launched similar campaigns for students and training courses for teachers. Although the main concern was digital safety, students at the school level gained more focus on these efforts. In the same vein, research regarding the perception of DC among students and teachers at the school level gained more attention compared with higher education levels. The available literature reveals that there is a lack of studies investigating DC practices among students in higher education institutions in Oman.

In March 2020, because of COVID-19, the ministry of education in Oman announced the end of the school year for students from grades 1 to 12. On the other hand, higher education institutions continued their academic year and shifted to online distance learning. Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) administration decided that all courses would be delivered to students online. Students were compelled to use virtual platforms and communicate with their teachers and perform all study requirements online. This big shift has undoubtedly affected the way students communicate and interact within the virtual community. This study investigates the practices of digital citizenship among undergraduate students at Sultan Qaboos University during COVID-19. This paper seeks to address the following research questions:

# **3 Methodology**

This study adopted a quantitative approach to data collection by using a situational judgment test (SJT) to measure students' levels of practicing digital citizenship. This type of method has the advantage of surveying many respondents. SQU students represent the research population. Established in 1986, SQU is the biggest national governmental university in Oman. It has nine colleges (four humanities and five sciences) and the Center for Preparatory Studies [26].

The study sample covered 320 undergraduate students who took an online university elective course (COMP1002: Our World in 4IR Era) at SQU in the Spring 2021 semester. The content of the elective course is related to digital transformation in the world and how it affects human life. Students from all colleges can register for this course. This was among the rationales for selecting this specific course to represent the study sample. The link of the SJT was sent to four sections of students during their online class on the Google Meet chat box. Out of 320 undergraduates who registered for the elective course, only 262 respondents were received (116 males and 146 females). Table 1 shows the distribution of the study sample by gender and field of study.

# *3.1 Research Instrument*

An online developed situational judgment test (SJT) was conducted to address distinct aspects of digital citizenship: digital identity, digital civic engagement, digital ethics, digital literacy, digital safety, and global digital communication. Twenty-six situations or scenarios representing the components of digital citizenship were presented to which the student responded according to a four-point scale. These situations were developed after reviewing educational literature related to digital citizenship in the context of higher education [11, 20, 23]. The test items were modified to suit the context of Oman. For each situation, a set of four options were presented to the students, who then chose the one which best reflected their behavior. Table 2 shows examples of two scenarios given to the students:

# *3.2 Validity and Reliability of the Pilot Sample*

**Face Validity**: The research instrument was validated by 13 experts from the Department of Psychology and Measurement, the Department of Information Studies, and other experts in information technology from outside the university. They were asked to provide their comments, modification, and suggestions on the given scenarios and situations in terms of their clarity, suitability, the given grades for each option, and any suggestions that they deemed appropriate in terms of addition or deletion. Out of 30 items, four items were deleted.

**Structural Validity**: The structural validity of the scale constructs was measured by calculating the correlation coefficient between the mean values of the items with the mean values of the dimension to which it belongs. All values were above 0.41, which indicates a good correlation. Additionally, the Pearson correlation coefficient between the mean value and the mean value of the six dimensions of the scale was calculated. All results were significant at 0.01 and ranged from 0.46 to 0.73. The research instrument was administered to 60 students to check the reliability of the

**Table 2** Examples of two situations given to students in the study instrument

questionnaire. Then, the internal consistency was calculated using the Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient, and the result was 0.73. This value indicated that this questionnaire was consistent and reliable to collect the needed data for this research.

# **4 Results and Discussion**

# *4.1 Data Analysis*

Data were checked for equality of variance, normality of distribution, and appropriateness to perform parametric tests. Figure 1 illustrates the statistical methods used to address each study question.

# *4.2 Level Categories*

To identify the digital citizenship practices estimation-level categories, Table 3 shows these categories.

**Fig. 1** The statistical methods used to answer the research questions

# *4.3 Question 1 Results*

What is the level of practicing digital citizenship among Sultan Qaboos University undergraduates? To answer this question, mean values and standard deviations have been calculated for all students' responses. Table 4 shows these results.

The results in Table 4 show that the total mean of practicing DC is 2.71, which is categorized as the intermediate level. The results also show that the mean values

**Table 4** The level of practicing DC among SQU undergraduates

**Table 5** Independent sample t-test results due to gender variable

of DC's six dimensions range from intermediate to low levels (2.17 to 3.07). These results are in line with the results of Ke and Xu [19] and Al-Zahrani [9]. These results indicate that the practicing of digital citizenship among undergraduates is acceptable; however, it does not reach the advanced level. This result can be explained due to the weaknesses of the digital competencies related to practicing DC. It also indicates a gap in the perception of the digital citizenship concept. Students and universities tend to focus on technical skills only, rather than focusing on the practice of DC in classrooms. However, mastering technical skills is not necessarily sufficient to comprehend DC and enhance the level of practicing it [4]. Additionally, previous literature has revealed that university students' perception of digital citizenship was moderate [7].

It is also apparent from Table 4 that the dimensions of global digital communication and digital literacy received the highest mean values, which are 3.07 and 3.06. This result indicates that the students are aware of the global digital society and the trending issues that dominate the virtual world. Being part of the digital society forces the members to be aware of international events and react to global trends, especially those that are concerned with social issues and disasters. In contrast, the dimensions of digital civic engagement and digital identity were the lowest, with mean values of 2.17 and 2.54, respectively. Students tend to avoid participating in political and civic issues. This result is supported by the findings of Kara [18], who indicated that students do not participate in online political activities due to discomfort, fear of future consequences, and pressure from society. Another explanation for this result is that the culture of universities' policy regulations hinders students from participating in political issues [2].

# *4.4 Question 2 Results*

Are there any statistically significant differences in the dimensions of digital citizenship practices due to student gender (male, female), the field of study (social sciences/applied science), and the year of study (1st year, 2nd year, 3rd year, 4th year, and more)?

#### **4.4.1 Gender**

The results in Table 5 demonstrate that there are statistically significant differences in practicing DC among Sultan Qaboos University undergraduates related to the gender variable. According to the total mean, females accomplished a better level of practicing DC compared to males. To be specific, the results also show that females got higher mean values than males in the following dimensions: digital identity, digital civic engagement, digital safety, and digital global communication. The same findings regarding gender differences are supported by Al-Omari [5], though they contradict the results of Alsamadi [7] and Alsulaihat and Al-Sarhan [8] which showed no significant differences between males and females. These contradictory results may be because females are more careful during online interactions regarding digital safety. This could further be related to the culture of the society where females should be more alert and careful when using social media and the Internet. Moreover, because of the COVID-19 lockdown, females usually spent more time on social media platforms. This allowed them to be aware of global and local issues that reach trends in social media and gave them the chance to communicate and engage more effectively.

#### **4.4.2 Field of Study**

As the data in Table 6 show, there are no significant differences due to the field of study variable regarding students' level of practicing digital citizenship on the total mean. As students in both fields do not receive any courses related to digital citizenship, it is expected that no significant differences in the total scale would be observed. The only exception, as can be seen from the table, is for the dimension of digital ethics, where results indicated that students in applied science colleges have a better level of practicing digital ethics compared with students in social sciences colleges. These differences can be explained by the fact that students in applied science colleges are more exposed to using digital programs and issues related to copywriters and digital data protection.

**Table 6** Independent sample t-test results due to *field of study* variable

### **4.4.3 Study Year**

One-way ANOVA tests were conducted to examine the impact of the year of study on students' practices of digital citizenship. The data in Table 7 shows that there are no significant differences due to the year of study variable regarding students' level of practicing digital citizenship. This result can be explained by the fact that students in both fields do not receive any courses related to digital citizenship. Most programs and courses are directed at enhancing students' competencies and skills in using computers and technological tools. However, digital citizenship, as Buchholz et al. [10] argue, requires more than technical knowledge. A digital citizen must confront complex ideas about how identities are constructed, and how dialogue is held online as citizens work toward equity and change. Moreover, it is important that during the development of study plans, the content of the curriculum be supportive of empowering students with digital citizenship competencies that qualify them to practice their roles as citizens in the digital society.

**Table 7** One-way ANOVA results due to the year of study variable

# **5 Conclusion**

Although the talk about DC in education has proceeded with COVID-19, this pandemic has accelerated the importance of acquiring and practicing digital citizenship dimensions among students. This paper sheds light on the practices of digital citizenship among undergraduates of Sultan Qaboos University in the Sultanate of Oman during COVID-19. In this study, a situational judgment test was developed to investigate six dimensions of digital citizenship practices: digital identity, digital civic participation, digital information literacy, digital ethics, digital safety, and digital global communication. The results revealed that the level of practicing DC is at the intermediate level. However, there are some dimensions, digital identity, and digital civic engagement that need to be developed. Students need to be more engaged in social issues and more exposed to global matters during their study years. It is important to ensure that the students practice digital citizenship, not just be aware of it or just acquire technical skills. It is also recommended that teachers and academics be trained to become aware of this concept and how to employ it through classroom activities. Moreover, the content of the curriculum and the extra-curricular activities at the university need to be supportive of DC throughout the study years. Accordingly, the current study suggests an urgent necessity to include the dimensions of DC within the university's programs and the content of its courses. It is also important to note that we cannot generalize the current results of the study to other institutions of higher education in Oman as the learning environments and the quality of curricula may differ from one institution to another. Finally, more studies using different qualitative approaches are needed to investigate the practices of digital citizenship practices among teachers and academics in both private and public higher education institutions. Lastly, this study suggests a content analysis study to assess the availability of DC dimensions in a sample of higher education curricula.

**Funding** This paper is part of funded research by The Ministry of Higher Education in Oman, grant number RF/MOHERI/GRG/ICT/20/009.

# **References**

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# **Learning Chemistry at the University of Sharjah: Before, During, and After the COVID-19 Pandemic**

## **Abdel-Nasser Kawde, Abdelaziz Elgamouz, and Ihsan Shehadi**

**Abstract** This study attempts to analyze the students' satisfaction with learning chemistry before, during, and after the COVID-19 pandemic at the University of Sharjah. Microsoft Forms were used to build the questionnaire and collect the data. The widely used online class applications are Blackboard Ultra, Microsoft Teams, Zoom, and WhatsApp Group features. Students had printed textbooks, e-books, and lecture notes posted under Blackboard contents as learning media. The Chemistry laboratories were carried out in a hybrid mode during the pandemic; 30% of the experiments were conducted face-to-face inside the University in an alternate mode, while the remaining 70% were conducted virtually using home-developed videos, McGraw Hill simulation, or Journal of Visual Experiments platforms. Most students experienced challenges implementing the online learning process, so they prefer the usual traditional learning methods. In addition, the assessment of the educational program learning outcomes (PLO) was measured over the last three academic years, 2019, 2020, and 2021. Results of such an assessment indicated that there is a decline in the skill outcomes B, C, and E during the COVID-19 era. The study recommends the adoption of Flex-Hybrid Classrooms, using interactive online class applications like face-to-face learning, as hybrid learning can contribute positively to the quality assurance process of the instructional methodologies. Chemistry Laboratories must be conducted in person to enhance the technical and hands-on experience skills of students. All classes, regardless of delivery mode, should be recorded, as they can contribute positively to the quality assurance process of the instructional methodologies and material deliveries.

**Keywords** Learning chemistry · COVID-19 · Hybrid · Virtual · Flex-Hybrid

A.-N. Kawde (B) · A. Elgamouz · I. Shehadi

Pure and Applied Chemistry Research Group, Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, University of Sharjah, P. O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
# **1 Introduction**

As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease that causes infected people to experience mild to moderate respiratory illness. The virus originated in Wuhan, the capital city of China's central province, and started to spread exponentially all over the globe, leading to what the World Health Organization declared a pandemic [1–5]. Sending billions of people into lockdown, the virus leads to countless deaths, and presidents have declared their countries in a state of emergency, accordingly. The WHO further announced that no special treatment is required for people infected with the virus, as their immune system is sufficient to help them recover. However, people diagnosed with chronic or long-term illnesses such as aging, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, chronic respiratory disease, and cancer are at risk of developing severe sickness or even dying [6–8].

Higher education institutions worldwide, including the University of Sharjah, tried experimenting with distance learning using electronic means since traditional methods went against preventative measures [9–11]. Due to the severity of the effects of COVID-19 and the lack of knowledge about the disease, a major disruption in the education system resulted [12, 13]. Integrating chemistry education into the digital realm, with the help of electronic devices and special-sized software, resulted in self-build problem-based learning methods that proved to be interactive and effective [14, 15].

Another source of disruption in the education system was digital exclusion before the pandemic, where factors such as income, technology-usage skills, and the digitalutilization gap were contributors to the cause [16]. Before the pandemic, traditional chalk-and-talk methods of classroom interaction were the norm, with the laboratory and theory classroom layouts suitable for their cause. Using e-learning platforms was limited or optional. However, due to the unpremeditated situation of the COVID-19 pandemic, a mandatory transition to completely virtual learning techniques was perceived [17]. This transition led to the development of an effective distance learning approach by offering an improved learning management system (LMS). This will enable the implementation of a future blended classroom approach, using both the traditional and virtual means of learning [18]. The LMS software provides a tactical approach leading to managing and delivering online learning content more effectively.

Although several involved stakeholders, such as governmental authorities, students, parents, staff, and faculty were concerned whether the transition to virtual learning after a long time of traditional learning would produce desired results, the higher education sector was provided an opportunity for innovation during the testing times of the online learning approach. New challenges were anticipated from implementing the transition on a wider scale.

The public domain interrogated institutions about the quality of distance learning and teaching. This study aims to present further understanding of learning chemistry before, during the lockdown, and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, associated challenges and COVID-19-induced opportunities will be discussed. In addition, the impact of the implementation of new methodologies on the PLO achievements is assessed using the capstone instruments and grade analysis over the past three years.

# **2 Research Methodology**

We acquired a descriptive quantitative method using a questionnaire to assess the effectiveness of learning chemistry at the University of Sharjah. It includes questions on demographic variables (sex, level of education, digital means, and the Internet) and questions on the education method that students prefer to implement after the coronavirus lockdown. The students' perceptions of learning chemistry at the University of Sharjah were assessed on a five-step Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

The data was collected through an online survey using the Microsoft Office Forms tool conducted over 20 days (about 3 weeks) from February 17, 2022. It was conducted anonymously; no personal information has been identified.

The PLO assessments are conducted using Exit exams, Senior research courses, Industrial Training courses, exit surveys, and total grade analysis for students over the pre-, during, and post-COVID-19 era.

# **3 Results and Discussion**

The demographic information included students' gender and year of study. About 71% female and 29% male students participated in this study. However, students were from all years of study: 74% of them were 1st-year students, where 14% were 2nd, 8% were 3rd, and only 4% were 4th-year Senior Students (Fig. 1).

Among the participants, 42% were from the College of Engineering, 33% from the College of Sciences, and 27% from the College of Medical Sciences. Thus, as

**Fig. 1** Survey answers: Gender (**a**) and year of study of the participating students (**b**)

shown in Fig. 2, almost 40% of the participating students have an Engineering Major, 16% with majors in the Medical Sciences, and only 14% with a Chemistry major.

In response to the question Which chemistry courses are you taking? Fig. 3 shows that 66% of the participating students are taking General Chemistry 1, 11% are taking General Chemistry 2, 14% are taking General Chemistry for Medical Sciences, and 9% are taking other Chemistry Courses.

In response to the course mode of delivery and learning platform, 77% of the participants are taking Chemistry Courses online, 9% were hybrid, 8% in-person face-to-face, and only 6% were taking courses in blended mode. Figure 4 shows that the main LMS was BBU with 99% of the participants, and only 1% were taking courses via MS Teams.

**Fig. 2** Survey answers: College (**a**) and major of the participating students (**b**)

**Fig. 3** Survey answers: The chemistry courses of the participating students

**Fig. 4** Survey answers: The course mode of delivery (**a**) and learning platform of the participating students (**b**)

**Fig. 5** Survey answers: The transition to virtual learning of the students who participated

In response to a question about how easy the transition was from the traditional face-to-face mode to a virtual learning environment, 42% found it challenging, 32% found it easy, very challenging for 15% of the participants, and very easy for 11% of them (Fig. 5).

On the other hand, in the response to how comfortable the e-learning tools used were, Fig. 6 shows that 30% of the participating students are very comfortable, 34% are somewhat comfortable, and only 6% are very uncomfortable.

Figure 7 shows that only 20% found the interaction with their instructors not easy or extremely not easy, whereas more than 50% found it extremely easy or easy. However, the interaction with classmates was extremely not easy for 14%, and 15% found it extremely easy.

Results of the response to the preferred learning mode of the participants during and post the pandemic are presented in Fig. 8. It is clear that even during the pandemic, more than 50 percent of the participating students prefer either traditional face-toface learning or a hybrid-flexible learning mode. While, post-pandemic, 51% of the participants prefer traditional face-to-face learning, 33% prefer hybrid-flexible learning mode, which brings the total to 84% of students who prefer to come back to campus classes.

**Fig. 6** Survey answers: The comfort of the participating students with e-learning tools used at the University of Sharjah

**Fig. 7** Survey answers: The feasibility of interaction of the participating students with instructor (**a**) and classmates (**b**)

**Fig. 8** Survey answers: The preferred learning mode of the participating students during (**a**) and post the pandemic (**b**)

In a response to the question "What would you say about your own experience in online/hybrid education in the courses you have taken?", 70 responses were obtained from which the following was quoted:

"Flexible time management and increased my awareness on time management."

"Extremely very bad experience, one of the worst experiences I have been through."

"It is easy and saves a lot of time."

"It was great for me since I live in Ras al Khaimah, online classes helped me mentally since I don't need to worry about going to Sharjah every day and I feel like it helped me with my grades last semester."

"I feel that the online education is better because whenever I want to study or if I didn't understand something I can watch the records easily."

"It is exceedingly difficult to adjust to. My marks get affected by it in a negative way."

"I graduated high school with amazing grades and almost had bright plans but, I do not know if it is my stupidity of not adapting and accepting the drastic new change or the fact that I genuinely enjoy studying with my classmates around me and the professor/Doctor in front of me supporting me. Either way, I am trying hard in all my courses, but it has been a real struggle... And I am just on a tight rope."

"The only advantage is that the lectures are recorded."

"Although most people will not share the same opinion as me, I found online education to be extremely convenient. Not having to commute saves me lots of time that I can reinvest into studying and maintaining a healthy sleep schedule. Since my lectures are completely online and my labs on campus, I have no complaints regarding the mode of education."

"The first semester was hard since it was fully online, but the second semester was better because it was hybrid."

"I found it rather easy to adapt to online/hybrid learning."

"Successful and convenient."

"Not that good experience, and hard to stay focused."

"I get really distracted in most of my online classes."

"It's okay but I would have preferred to get the full university experience and be able to attend lectures in class where there would be more of a relationship between the professor and the students."

In a response to the question, the question "What are the disadvantages of online/hybrid education that affect the learning of the chemistry courses?", 68 responses were obtained from which the following was quoted:

"Feeling bored sometimes because there is no eye contact between the doctor and the student."

"Not being able to try the experiments in labs, and not understanding the concepts well."

"Less lab sessions make it more difficult to develop practical application skills."

"I don't comprehend as much information online as I do when I'm in a classroom."

"In hybrid learning, the instructor would pay more attention to the students in class rather than those online."

After the surveys were analyzed, independent instruments are used to measure the influence of the change in the instructional methodologies on the educational learning outcomes for the chemistry program. Five assessment instruments are adopted, and the findings are shown in Figs 9, 10.

It is evident from Figs. 9 and 10 that there is a decline in the overall performance when it comes to the skills PLOs (A, C, E, I, G, and F). Such decline is expected as the hands-on skills were not nurtured during the COVID-19 era.

**Fig. 9** The overall average over three years for the PLOs' % achievements

**Fig. 10** Analytics of PEO from 2019 to 2021 from course grades analysis

# **4 Conclusion**

As the perceptions and attitudes of students toward online learning are a critical factor and an essential element in the success of this kind of education and cannot be disregarded or ignored, the results of this research have clearly shown that most students at the University of Sharjah have a positive perception of online learning during the confinement period.

E-learning has surely offered an effective non-disruptive learning approach, and paved the way for the future of learning methods in a blended classroom approach. It has also improved the software of available learning management systems for the

**Scheme 1** A schematic diagram for evolution of learning chemistry from conventional to online to flex-hybrid classroom format

delivery and management of learning content online. At the University of Sharjah, e-learning has enhanced the classrooms' infrastructures, as well. However, online learning during the COVID-19 era has a negative impact on the skills' learning outcomes. Hence, in all cases, the laboratories must have onsite sessions and distance learning might be avoided.

Scheme 1 is a proposed diagram for the evolution of learning chemistry from conventional to online to flex-hybrid classroom format. Online and distance chemistry education show positive features for students, giving them flexibility, independence, physical safety, and a growing virtual educational community. The results of this study show a positive result for a curricular implication of online teaching approaches for a sample of students studying chemistry in the college of sciences. For future implications, the online approach would provide students with the flexibility of referring to recorded sessions, encourage flexible communication between students and instructors, and develop broader virtual educational communities for students to build stronger relations with their fellow colleagues.

The university experience is much more than just learning various subjects, and further studies must include the instructors' perceptions of the chemistry department for online learning.

# **5 Recommendations**

From this study, the following recommendations are to be drawn:

• Different class modes (face-to-face, hybrid, and online) should be recorded as recordings can contribute positively to the quality assurance process of the instructional methodologies and material deliveries.

# **6 Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs)**

**Acknowledgements** The authors acknowledge the support received from the University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.

# **References**

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# **Adapting to the New Normal: Asynchronous Learning as a Promising Solution for Post-Covid-19 Challenges in Jordanian Universities - A Case Study of the American University of Madaba (AUM)**

# **Hanan Madanat, Majid Tarawnah, and Afag Khzouz**

**Abstract** In the post Covid-19 time, educational trends have changed aiming at meeting the rising challenges which have a crucial impact on the learning environment. Asynchronous learning has become an alternative approach to traditional approaches. Investigating the challenges and opportunities has become a central topic of major concern. To this end, a two-fold approach, namely, an interview and a questionnaire, was utilized. In particular, the two surveys used included: an openended survey in which 30 faculty members answered the barriers and opportunities that they face. Whereas the second survey was built upon the responses of the first survey using the Likert scale. The participants were 72 from different faculties at the American University of Madaba (AUM) in Jordan. Statistical analyses were used to find answers to the questions of the study. The findings of the analysis of the three major themes reported the following results: first, asynchronous learning is flexible and allows the ability to both teachers and students to move in their teaching and learning process at their own pace. Second, asynchronous learning is an affordable and practical teaching modality. Third, the inability to adapt to asynchronous learning and the need for specialized training seem to top the challenges AUM's instructors encounter.

**Keywords** Blended/asynchronous learning · Opportunities · Challenges

# **1 Introduction**

The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic has affected all levels of society and imposed unprecedented measures worldwide. The educational system has not been an exception in this regard. The pandemic has widely disrupted the educational sector and caused radical changes that caused triggering innovative approaches, methods, and

American University of Madaba, Madaba, Jordan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
H. Madanat (B) · M. Tarawnah · A. Khzouz

<sup>©</sup> The Author(s) 2023

H. M. K. Al Naimiy et al. (eds.), *Future Trends in Education Post COVID-19*, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1927-7\_24

modalities of teaching and learning. The drive behind such a move was to ensure the continuity of the educational process for students after the closure of schools and universities in Jordan as per the defense law as protective and preventive procedures. At the same time, applying such new modalities was an opportunity to test new teaching and learning patterns that were not applied within the educational system before, especially in Jordan.

In light of this assertion, the abrupt onset of the Covid-19 pandemic has necessitated universities to provide students with effective and supportive approaches for online teaching and learning that facilitate high-quality learning outcomes [1]. This indicates that there is an urgent requirement for the digital readiness of teachers and students all over the world [2].

The imperative to move to online learning caused by the recent Covid-19 pandemic [3, 4] has added to the stresses and workloads experienced by university faculty and staff [5]. Online modalities encompassing both blended and asynchronous models became a de facto. During this transformation, the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (MoHE) in Jordan made strenuous efforts to minimize the negative impact on students, and not allow them to be affected by this closure. To this end, online learning has been integrated into the plans of the MoHE and Ministry of Planning and Information Technology in 2002 [6].

# *1.1 The Impact of Covid-19 Pandemic on Education*

The impact of the widespread use of Covid-19 was immense. All members of the educational process, namely, institutions, educators, and students were affected to varying degrees. Students were forced to stay at home and learn remotely instead of the interactive classroom meetings on campuses. At the institutional level, decision makers adopted blended, synchronous, and asynchronous modes as de facto teaching modes. Teachers were under surmountable pressure and played various roles to facilitate students learning and make it more enjoyable and attainable in the face of this radical change. In a nutshell, Covid-19 spreads online learning culture across the worldwide learning environment.

# *1.2 Online Learning Post Covid-19*

The educational environment is embracing multiple innovative tools; using technology through blended learning is one of those tools. This advanced instructive approach has been encompassed rapidly yet it goes through a process. Commencing blended learning (combination of face-to-face and online teaching and learning) is considered part of the pioneering initiatives in the educational sector but its acceptance and approval, especially in the developing world face challenges to be an effective instructional tool in the learning and teaching process ibid.

The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research has launched a roadmap to return to higher education institutions for the academic year (2021/2022), which includes all public and private higher education institutions for all degrees and levels of learning. In recent months, the MoHE issued regulations, criteria, and bylaws endorsed by a royal decree to empower and give legal cover to the application of these modalities, i.e. (Blended, Asynchronous) modalities.

# *1.3 Study Significance*

The significance of the current study can be understood considering the following points: first, this study is important as it provides a clear understanding of the challenges and opportunities that can be concluded via the application of blended/asynchronous learning in the post Covid-19 period. The study serves as an attempt to bridge the gap in research concerning the description and the utilization of asynchronous learning in the higher education system that is established as a parallel educational system to the blended and face-to-face systems at the Jordanian universities in general and AUM. These modalities' descriptive nature serves as a starting point toward forming a systematic procedure that can be used as guidelines for all people of concern including decision makers, educators, and students.

Moreover, the novelty of this study stems from the fact that it is the first one, to the best of the knowledge of the researchers, that addresses this subject matter in such depth and scrutiny. As such, the study tries to delimit the use of asynchronous learning modes in attaining quality education.

# *1.4 Objectives of the Study*

The study was conducted to achieve the following objectives:

# *1.5 Study Questions*

1. What are the perspectives of AUM's instructors about asynchronous learning post Covid-19?

# **2 Literature Review**

This review presents research about the change in learning modes caused by the pandemic and the transfer from having only traditional face-to-face learning into a blended mode (combination of Face-to-Face plus online) [7–9]. Additionally, this study presents literature that examines the potential benefits and obstacles of utilizing various modes of instruction, particularly the blended learning model, in the post-Covid-19 era.

Technology has had a firm role in the education sector in the last decade. It has been noted that the success of e-and blended learning is highly dependent on experience in the internet and computer applications [10]. Rigorous discovery of such competences can finally lead to a confirmation of high possibilities of establishing blended learning. Research agrees that the success of e-learning and blended learning can depend on students as well as teachers gaining confidence and capability to participate in blended learning [11].

Research shows that 75% of students and 72% of teachers were lacking in skills to utilize ICT-based learning components due to insufficient skills and experience in computer and internet applications and this may lead to failure in e-learning and blended learning [12].

Research also shows that blended learning has been affected by factors such as family, work, and insufficient time to study, which was assured by research results that indicated learners learning without peers and teachers face-to-face interaction is not as effective as face-to-face, and it also impedes learners' process of learning.

Some researchers noted that the absence of learner interaction causes failure and cyber-truancy leading to the lack of learner connectedness. It was also noted that blended learning and the e-learning horizon negatively impacted the learners' social connections and friendship status as the lively, truthful, and emotional becomes less and event absent in such context and may lead to failure in students' social intelligence.

Some research results show that poor/excellent quality technology has a significant impact on the learners' and teachers' satisfaction regarding the blended learning context and environment. In their research, Goyal and Tambe observed that learners expressed a positive attitude towards Moodle as a blended learning platform for enhancing their learning experience.

Bourne et al. [13] examined paradigms used in online learning in general and asynchronous learning networks. The challenges and the benefits of ALN were also investigated. The study was based on a case study about the creation of an online course. The projections for online education and the challenges that face the ALN field were also investigated through scrutiny.

Jorgensen [14] investigated the challenges and benefits of Asynchronous Learning Networks. The drive behind conducting the study was the changing educational modalities because of the impact of several factors, namely, the cost, Covid-19 pandemic, and the emerging technological advances in educational paradigms. Furthermore, the study addressed the question of whether asynchronous computermediated learning is an effective replacement for face-to-face collaboration and if student learning is compromised with this mode of instruction. The study concluded with highlights on the cost of instituting online courses and how these courses can be used to improve the collaborative learning environment and classroom community.

Graham et al. [15] examined the benefits and challenges of blended learning. The scarcity of related studies was the catalyst for conducting this study. The researchers utilized exploratory research from a graduate-level course to ascertain the basic crosscultural issues which were relevant. The findings of the analysis came to confirm the benefits as touted in the literature.

Ellis and Hafner [16] explored the effectiveness of building a framework to support project-based collaborative learning experiences in an Asynchronous Learning Network. In addition, the paper aimed at providing a system-based framework for designing, implementing, and evaluating project-based collaborative learning experiences to be delivered via an Asynchronous Learning Network. Furthermore, the project's analysis highlighted the benefits of both collaborative and project-based learning and provided a thorough examination of the challenges of applying to the project.

Larbi-Siaw and Owusu-Agyeman [17] investigated the students' satisfaction in an asynchronous learning environment. The researchers utilized seven key considerations including types of interaction among students and students and teachers. Additionally, group cohesion and timely participation, knowledge of Internet usage, and satisfaction were also investigated. To this end, structured questionnaires from 500 students who took courses in an asynchronous learning environment were used to collect the data. The results of the study showed that all the variables served as robust antecedents of students' satisfaction in an asynchronous learning environment.

In a recent study, Ó Ceallaigh [18] explored the roles of teachers and educators in an Asynchronous Learning Environment. The study intended to fill the gap resulting from the paucity of research regarding how teachers and educators handled teaching in asynchronous mode. This paper reports on a mixed methods study that explores how TEs are best supported to facilitate teaching presence in an asynchronous learning environment. The data was gathered and analyzed through the administration of an online questionnaire, as well as individual semi-structured internviews and focus group interviews. The analysis results indicated significant challenges related to planning for the asynchronous learning environment. In addition, the results showed that there is an improvement in students' engagement and interaction in such learning mode.

# **3 Methodology**

The research at hand utilized two approaches, namely, an open-ended survey in which 30 faculty members answered the barriers and opportunities that they face. Whereas the second survey was built upon the responses of the first survey using the Likert scale. The participants were 72 from different faculties at the American University of Madaba (AUM) in Jordan. Statistical analyses were used to find answers to the questions of the study. The data was analyzed qualitatively and quantitively by conducting SPSS analysis of the survey and a qualitative analysis of the interviewees.

# **4 Results and Discussion**

In a survey for the faculty members at the American University of Madaba, 102 faculty members were asked to correspond to this Survey that comprised three parts.

# *4.1 Flexibility*

In the analysis, 66.7% of the participants agreed that asynchronous learning is flexible and allowed the ability to both teachers and students to move in their teaching and learning process at their own pace (speed). This result agrees with the conclusion of Larbi-Siaw and Owusu-Agyeman [17], who reflected that students showed satisfaction toward applying blended/asynchronous learning. Furthermore, the analysis assured the findings reached by Ellis and Hafner [16], who explored the effectiveness of building a framework to support project-based collaborative learning experiences in an Asynchronous Learning Network in that in the e-learning era, asynchronous adds the quality of having the ability to move easily according to teachers and learners' conveniences, the fact which has been approved by more than half of the sample. Moreover, the analysis illustrated that 52.9% of the sample agreed that this self-learning modality provides the learners with a wide variety of digital tools that support this learning style even though, 32.4% shows no position in this regard, and they were neutral in their answers. Furthermore, the results elucidate that 67.1% agreed on the fact that learning gives students the opportunity to learn at their convenience and their own time, the asynchronous learning gives students the opportunity to learn at their own convenience plus their own time. Additionally, in this analysis, it is evident that a substantial proportion of the faculty members (62.00%) highly agreed that asynchronous learning gives students a greater sense of freedom and allows them to develop a sense of responsibility toward their learning assuring that this modality is of great benefit for autonomous learning allowing them to expand and magnify their knowledge based on their will. These results echo the results of Piccoli et al. and Goyal and Tambe.

**Table 1** Summary of results related to the flexibility

Finally, the analysis indicated that asynchronous learning gives the opportunity to faculty members to invest much time in between semesters preparing for their courses; this quality was approved by 48.6% of the participants who also assured that asynchronous classes are properly prepared, and this exposed their students to a secure, rich, and diverse learning environment (Table 1).

# *4.2 Practicality and Affordability*

The findings of the analysis of the data seem to agree with the findings of Hadad [11], Larbi-Siaw and Owusu-Agyeman [17], Goyal and Tambe, in that asynchronous learning is believed by 80% of the sample to allow for greater opportunities for students who may have other obligations and who might not be able to attend a traditional class and offers a wide range of the online resources. More than half of the faculty members were happy to receive training sessions on the asynchronous mode of teaching and 34% were satisfied with introducing this mode of teaching before implementing it. However, only 37% of the sample thinks that Asynchronous learning provides equal opportunities for all students [11].

Consistent with the argument posited by Meyer and Paewai, 73% of the participants recognized asynchronous learning as a feasible substitute to conventional instruction during times of crisis. While 58% believe it allows for institutional savings, 45% say it saves time. 75% say that asynchronous learning allows storing lessons that are delivered live to be used as review materials and 66% believe that this could be helpful in improving accessibility for differently-abled students ibid (Table 2).

**Table 2** Summary of results related to the practicality and affordability

# *4.3 Challenges*

The analysis of the survey on the challenges that faculty members encounter comprised 17 questions. The questions were centered on specific sub-themes, namely, adaptation to asynchronous learning, lack of direct communication and interaction with students which allows for more isolation for students, lack of discipline, and technical problems.

As for the adaptation to asynchronous learning, in an asynchronous learning environment, around 60% of the instructors at AUM are found unable to adapt to these new learning styles. This result was similarly reported by Shraim and Khalifa, 2020, who justified that the main drive behind the lack of adaptation was because students have been accustomed to traditional learning modalities. To add, around 50% of the AUM instructors reported that such a mode of learning requires specific technical skills which enable them to handle the teaching process ibid. Most of the instructors 80% indicated that they need to have more time for preparation which is not available because of the extra workload and more start-up time needed to fully prepare courses (videos or online materials), especially before the semester start. This time is even found to be doubled because there is an increased need for organizational skills. This includes the time and the skills needed for redesigning the whole course to effectively flow in the new mode of teaching [14].

The second sub-theme addressed the lack of direct communication and interaction with students. Around 70% of the respondents revealed that in the asynchronous learning environment, they find it difficult to communicate their thoughts, ideas, and values to their students. They believe that asynchronous learning curbs fruitful interaction between learners themselves and learners and instructors. This reality is linked to the contention that asynchronous learning allows for more isolation for students. Around 60% of the instructors indicated that asynchronous learning does not enable instant feedback to students.

The third sub-theme was centered around the lack of discipline. Most of the instructors, 85%, reported that lack of discipline is one of the symptoms of asynchronous learning. Around 45% of the instructors reflected that in asynchronous learning mode, students develop undesirable learning habits such as procrastination, dropping out, and unauthorized absence.

**Table 3** Summary of results related to challenges

Finally, the technical problems were reported to be the least impactful of all challenges. A minority of instructors (30%) indicated that such issues may affect the learning process negatively. Additionally, around 35% of the instructors reflected that such technical issues can be frustrating and expensive (Table 3).

# **5 Conclusion**

The study investigated the perspectives of AUM faculty members about the application of blended/asynchronous following the outbreak of Covid-19. Three main subthemes emerged, namely, flexibility, affordability and practicality, and challenges. The study concludes with the following implications, first, at the institutional level, laws should be enacted to empower the application of blended/asynchronous learning modalities. Second, Higher Education Institutions should provide a reliable infrastructure for such modalities. Third, educators must embrace these modalities as a tool for transition into flipped learning. Fourth, educators should look at the existing challenges as opportunities that can be catalysts for achieving positive transitional changes in the learning process. The study concludes with a recommendation for conducting a large-scale study on the impact of Covid-19 on the teaching modalities in educational institutions in Jordan.

# **References**

1. Fabriz, S., Mendzheritskaya, J., & Stehle, S. (2021). Impact of synchronous and asynchronous settings of online teaching and learning in higher education on students' learning experience during COVID-19. *Frontiers in Psychology, 12*.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# **An Exploration of Direct Instruction: Why Teaching Matters**

**Nicole Shammas**

**Abstract** Why Teaching Matters is a question at the heart of all instruction. While the answer seems obvious, actual teacher-led teaching, or direct instruction, has taken backstage in the last decade to a more constructivist approach where studentcentered; project-based learning, and inquiry inform students learning. This paper argues that alongside this student-centered approach, there is a need, depending on the context, for a teacher-led, direct instruction approach. Studies show that direct instruction is indeed a robust pedagogy leading to student attainment in both shortterm retention and long-term proficiency. The author invites readers to consider direct instruction as a potent teaching and learning model, replacing the dichotomy of teacher-centered versus student-centered with a collaboration between the two. This paper presents findings from a study by the researcher illustrating teachers and learners' perspectives on Direct Instruction. Findings indicate a preference from the learners for this approach and a flexibility among teachers to adopt the methodology most appropriate for their context. This paper contributes to knowledge by filling a gap in the field on the perspectives of learners and teachers on Direct Instruction and by bringing to the forefront an alternative discussion around teaching pedagogy.

**Keywords** Teacher-centered · Student-centered · General Studies · Higher Education Teaching Pedagogy Curriculum research

# **1 Introduction**

# *1.1 Understanding Direct and Indirect Instruction*

To begin this paper, it is first important to explore the history and establish key definitions around what direct and indirect Instruction are. These terms are interchangeable with teacher-centered (direct instruction) and student-centered approach

N. Shammas (B)

Dubai Women's Campus, Higher Colleges of Technology, Dubai, United Arab Emirates e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
H. M. K. Al Naimiy et al. (eds.), *Future Trends in Education Post COVID-19*, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1927-7\_25

towards education (indirect instruction). Direct Instruction refers to "any academic instruction that is led by the teacher" (Rosenshine, [46], p. 1). Indirect instruction refers to a student-led and student-centered learning process [20].

Prior to the 1960s and 1970s, the traditional teacher may have used the infamous 'chalk and talk' approach where learners are typically passive and the teacher is seen as the font of all knowledge [7]. The move toward indirect instruction, or a more student-centered classroom, was born from several influences outlined below.

#### **1.1.1 New Understandings Around Learning Theory**

Primarily, John Dewey (American Philosopher, 1859–1952) challenged traditional notions of the role of the teacher and learner and brought to light ideas of students as participatory active learners, where the curriculum should reflect students' real-life needs. Dewey's philosophy is encapsulated in this quote: "the child becomes the sun about which the appliances of education revolve; he is the center about which they are organized" [9, p. 51]. Through Dewey's lens, a child-centered education involves viewing the student as a whole person, with cultural and familial considerations, whose basic needs such as the physiological need to be met for them to succeed academically [22]. Dewey's philosophies have withstood the test of time and have left an indelible imprint on the fabric of educational theory [55]. Dewey's approach falls under constructivist theory which has had much sway in shaping educational philosophy. In its simplified definition, constructivism argues that learning happens as students construct meaning and that they are the architects of their own learning [10].

A further branch of constructivism is social constructivism famously associated with Vygotsky (Soviet Psychologist, 1896–1934), who emphasizes the need for social interaction to facilitate learning [33]. Vygotsky's theories transfer to today's classrooms in several activities, namely the widespread use of group work, projectbased learning, and the need to scaffold or stage learning working within the 'zone of proximal development' [30].

#### **1.1.2 Learning Style Theory**

Alongside our deepening pedagogical understanding of educational philosophy and reform, another shift took place that did much to bolster the argument for indirect instruction: that of learning styles theory. While the jury is still out on the credibility of learning style theory; in its heyday, it was embraced in academic circles and an educational game changer in propelling student-centered learning into the spotlight. The reason for this is that the main tenet of learning style theory is that we all learn differently, therefore, if we accept that as true, then the next logical conclusion is that we must teach differently to try to accommodate these different needs. Teachers around the globe soon began to ask the question: How can our teaching styles match students' learning styles? What ensued was the questionable practice of adapting teaching styles to suit student learning preferences, citing increased motivation and attainment as a result [51]. It was widely believed, and still for some, that learning style theory: "can impact a student's ability to learn and comprehend. Therefore, knowledge of different learning styles is essential for teachers" [29, p. 1].

From the learning styles, movement classroom practice began to endorse more student-centered classroom techniques. For example, showing films to support visual learners, incorporating reflection activities for reflective thinkers, and group work for those learners who learn through interpersonal relationships [54]. Current literature suggests that the foundations of learning style theory are thin and asks us to question their adoption in the classroom [15]. The implications for this paper are that theories instrumental in advancing Indirect student-centered learning are not always on firm footing, thus inviting a re-examination of Direct Instruction.

#### **1.1.3 Sage on the Stage Versus Guide on the Side**

Another key influence that exemplifies this dichotomy between direct and indirect instruction is most fittingly illustrated by King [24] in her metaphors of 'Sage on the Stage' versus 'Guide on the Side'. In this analogy, King equates the stage on the stage to a teacher who imparts knowledge to her learners through a traditional model of transmitting the information. She reiterates that "such a view is outdated and will not be effective for the twenty-first century" [p. 30]. The guide on the side model is where learning is contracted as learners assimilate and make sense of latest information. This leans on information processing theory where students reconstruct information in meaningful ways. These terms sage on the stage and guide on the side are much used in education, with educators often aspiring to be the guide on the side [36].

# *1.2 Evidence to Support Indirect Instruction*

This view that indirect instruction is the gold standard in teaching is further buttressed by substantial empirical evidence. School-based research presents numerous studies in defense of indirect instruction. A 2014 study by Friedlaender et al. [14] argues the success of student-centered learning across high schools in California when compared to traditional teaching. A similar study in New England argues that indirect instruction leads to higher engagement and deeper learning [43]. Researchers in Higher Education sing from the same song sheet in their unanimous praise of Indirect Instruction, for example in Europe:

It [Indirect Instruction] has become the key principle underlying the intended reforms enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in European HE [26, p. 69].

This thread is woven throughout global research, with academics purporting the efficacy of a student-centered classroom alongside positive student feedback [53].

To compare the two approaches of direct and indirect instruction, the core attributes of each pedagogy are summarized by Sawant and Rizvi [48] as follows:

#### Teacher-Centered/Direct Instruction

#### Student-Centered/Indirect Instruction

Compare phrases from the table above such as 'students are passive recipients' to describe direct instruction to 'students construct knowledge' to describe indirect instruction, and the narrative beginning to emerge here is one where teacher-centered is often viewed as inferior in some ways. Clearly, student-centered is the preferred approach, the perceived academically sound approach, and simply 'the best way' [21]. It is now time to turn our attention to the 'sage on the stage', to ascertain whether this bad press is warranted or not.

# *1.3 Evidence to Support Direct Instruction*

In 2015, the BBC launched an 'edutainment' series 'Chinese School: Are Our Kids Tough Enough?' The purpose was to gauge the impact of Chinese teachers on the attainment of British students. These Chinese teachers adopted a traditional teacherled approach and results showed students scored 10% higher over a 4-week period when compared to classes without Chinese teachers [56]. While lacking academic rigor, this increase in attainment speaks volumes in support of Direct Instruction.

In a study of literature over the last 50 years examining the effectiveness of direct instruction, Stockard et al. [52] analyze 328 studies to determine conclusive findings. Their examination crosses over subject-specific and general attainment and the affective domain and perceptions of learning. Results across the board were consistently positive demonstrating the value of this approach. They close by saying: Certainly, our nation's children deserve both effective and efficient instruction. As one of the anonymous reviewers of our article put it, "Researchers and practitioners cannot afford to ignore the effectiveness research on DI" [p. 503].

Earlier research by Lockery and Maggs [31] reports the overwhelming success of direct instruction with over a decade of research to support their findings. The researchers examined the use of direct instruction across a range of subjects from mathematics to language and across a range of subjects from special needs to mainstream to gifted.

These results are not surprising when you consider that the pedagogical foundations of direct instruction are good classroom practice based on carefully sequencing tasks, guided instruction, proficiency checks, and modeling; peppered with student activities [32]. In this model, responsibility is transferred to the learners strategically, but only *after* the material is presented. Guided instruction is an exemplary practice that is not only key to understanding the power of direct instruction, but which also elevates it from its traditional view where students are perceived as being 'told'. The diminishing role of the teacher in student-centered instruction has led to hesitancy among educators to take center stage again as and when needed. However, guided instruction provides a bridge between the two. Students are still afforded considerable time to practice and experiment with new concepts, however, first, they are taught, they are presented with information, where the teacher personally invests in carrying these concepts to the learners in ways as varied as storytelling, lectures, or question and answer sessions [6]. Adding to our knowledge base on guided instruction is the backing of neuroscience and the development of cognitive support pedagogy which cites sequencing, chunking, mass practice, and modeling as key classroom practices for optimal learning [35]. These strategies serve to address the limitations of working memory, therefore, supporting the brain to process and retain learning [46]. It is also worth noting here that while there is much empirical evidence to support guided instruction in the classroom, there is little to support minimally guided instruction, and of that much to suggest that it only serves to widen the achievement gap between low and high achieving students [27].

Despite these glowing testimonials, direct instruction continues to invoke the ire of those in support of indirect instruction [25]. This is more of a philosophical divide with a discrepancy between evidence-based practice and the philosophical adoption of inquiry-based learning. Indeed, the diatribe against direct instruction can at times be unsatisfyingly punitive. Described as a 'harsh, inflexible, and depersonalizing approach' (Jalongo, 1999, as cited in Hempenstall [17] p. 13). Further, "teachers are driven to meet accountability standards and often sacrifice the needs of the students" [5, p. 50]. Finally, Kassem [23] claims a Direct Instruction approach may "prevent students' educational growth because …teachers do most of the work" (p. 134). There appears in the literature a naïve construct of what Direct Instruction/teacher-centered translates to in the classroom, often described as authorization and controlling, as Emaliana [11] describes it:

all questions which are raised by students, if any, are answered directly by teachers without students' involvement. In designing the class activities, teachers control every single learning experience (p. 60).

These are not isolated critiques of Direct Instruction, and despite evidence pointing to its efficacy: "its popularity and subsequent implementation have not enjoyed such support" [32, p. 143].

Like all other teaching modes, direct instruction, when done well, is engaging, memorable, effective, and provides many opportunities for practice. To dismiss it in favor of indirect instruction is a loss to educational practice; the message here is to consider how these two approaches can work alongside each other.

As the interview findings in this study demonstrate, teachers who choose, at times, to adopt a teacher-led classroom approach, do so with consideration of the learners and imagination in the planning.

# *1.4 Summary*

The literature provides evidence in support of *both* direct and indirect instruction as valuable tools in a teacher's repertoire. Both approaches have a strong foothold in educational theory, and both have empirical evidence to support their efficacy. Despite this, direct instruction is often seen as the lesser of the two, as it is the least adopted and has received unwarranted criticism. To dig deeper into this phenomenon, the researcher conducted her own study outlined in the following section.

# **2 Research Study**

This research study is an exploration, triggered by reading about the impact and renaissance of Direct Instruction. The author's interest was piqued by this reading and a natural curiosity arose about its place and effectiveness in the author's context. As she began to experiment with a more teacher-led classroom approach, she found informal student feedback to be positive, thus initiating the need for a more formal study. This is a small-scale, mixed methods study with participants enlisted from the author's place of work, the research aimed to answer two questions. Data was collected through interviews with faculty members and a student survey.

# **3 Findings**

# *3.1 Faculty Interviews*

While the literature points to evidence in support of direct instruction, the literature also indicates a reluctance on the part of teachers to adopt this approach [17] (Vitale and Kaniuka, 2009). This reluctance is born from several factors, citing a key argument that direct instruction impedes higher order thinking based on rote learning and memorizing facts [12]. While this argument has been debunked, supported by evidence from neuroscience (Willingham, 2009) this negative perception still seems to linger. One purpose of the interviews was to establish faculty perceptions of direct and indirect instruction to see if these concurred with the literature, or not.

**Key Themes** Three themes emerged as significant that address the question: *What are faculty pedagogical beliefs toward Direct and Indirect Instruction?*

These themes will be examined in the discussion section.

# *3.2 Student Survey's Findings*

Alongside the interviews, further inquiry was undertaken by surveying students to gauge their learning preferences; be it direct or indirect instruction. Convenience sampling was employed as the students were in the researcher's class at the time of the research. With any dual role, there is always the potential for conflict of interest [39], however, the researcher's primary role here was one of the classroom teachers. To address ethical concerns, there was a clear distinction between the teaching and the research; simply put, class time was for teaching, and time out of class was allocated for research. Research participation was completed voluntarily, and students were assured there was no grade allocation, thus minimizing conflict of interest. Informed consent was applied, as those who volunteered to be part of the research were told clearly, both verbally and in writing, what was expected of them, confidentiality was assured, and the right to withdraw at any stage was given. 24 students volunteered out of a class of 40. All students were Emirati females, ranging from Year 1 to Year 4 in their degree programs in an English medium tertiary institution.

The survey comprised of fourteen questions, eight closed quantitative, and four open-ended qualitative. The survey was conducted online using Microsoft forms. Questions were validated and informed by theory, adapted from the work of Murphy et al., *Teacher-Centered versus Student-Centered Teaching* [37]. Survey questions aimed to address the question: How do students perceive the efficacy of Direct and Indirect Instruction? Four open-ended questions were included in the survey to elicit the students' deeper perspectives on Direct and Indirect instruction.

The literature is not as clear-cut with student perceptions of direct learning as those of teaching faculty, with studies providing evidence for the efficacy of both. Context is a significant consideration here, with ability, cultural considerations, and motivation; to name a few, all playing a part in students' preferred learning styles.

# *3.3 Quantitative Questions*

Questions Two and Three directly distinguish student preferences between learning best independently and learning best through teacher explanation (Fig. 1).

Twenty-two out of twenty-three responses selected five stars for question two indicating a strong agreement to learning best through teacher explanation. In contrast, two out of twenty-three responses selected five stars for question three, with the majority placed at two or three stars. Responses to question six, illustrated in Fig. 2, further validate the responses to questions two and three, with seventeen out of twenty-three participants 'strongly agreeing' that the teacher talking and explaining the lesson is a preferred teaching and learning style.

To confirm the answers above and to avoid any bias toward direct instruction, questions four and five gave alternate options as learning preferences (Figs. 3 and 4). Note, the question stems remain consistent throughout the instrument, as both good practice and to avoid any bias.

Questions four and five determine student perceptions toward both group work and independent work illustrated in figures three and four. Fifty-four percent of students indicate that group work is a teaching method they prefer with strong agreement or agreement. Seventy-three percent of students indicate that flipped/independent work is a teaching method they prefer with strong agreement or agreement. Figure five below visually illustrates students' *comparative*, preferred learning styles (Fig. 5).

**Fig. 1** Comparison direct and indirect instruction

**Fig. 2** Teacher talking as a preferred teaching method

**Fig. 3** Group project work as a preferred teaching method

# **4 Discussion**

The following section highlights and explores salient points from the findings which address the research questions and contribute knowledge to the field**.**

**Fig. 4** Independent work as a preferred teaching method

**Fig. 5** Students preferred learning styles

# *4.1 Faculty Interviews*

From the faculty interviews, the first point of discussion is that it was apparent from the linguistic and non-linguistic clues that there was no inherent bias or strong preference for either Direct or Indirect Instruction. Responses were insightful, and considered, without any negative associations affixed to Direct Instruction. A general theme of openness to its use in the classroom when contextually appropriate permeated the interviews. This is interesting and diverges from the literature which indicates a more negative perception of direct instruction among teachers [49]. One explanation to account for this is that these teachers are all highly educated, well-read, and regularly engaged in high-quality professional development. Consequently, classroom practice is impacted as this knowledge and skill development go hand in hand with openness, and a desire to learn and explore [16]. This is the foundation of effective education as it addresses student learning:

For teachers and school and district leaders to be as effective as possible, they continually expand their knowledge and skills to implement the best educational practices [34, p. 3].

Secondly, flexibility was a key characteristic that stood out in these teachers as they spoke of switching between direct and indirect Instruction regularly; as and when needed. One variable to be considered here that may account for this flexibility is the impact of COVID-19 on teaching which may lead to a more teacher-led/direct instruction approach [40]. Additionally, these teachers are all experienced, averaging 20-plus years in each profession, and as Berliner [4] reasons, experienced teachers often demonstrate more flexibility than those new to the profession.

Participant One: *It depends on the type of students I am working with. My approach [now] is a lot more teacher-centered because the students, um, you know, are very needy. They need a lot of help. So, there are students who have just finished high school and, um, they are new, it's the first semester at college. They do not have good study skills. They do not understand the micro steps required to keep up with a course. If I were working with more advanced-level students who were self-motivated and responsible and had good study skills, I would not need to do so much, helping, reminding, and supporting.*

Participant Two: *Uh, I do both. And, uh, or, I mean, I'd prefer to get beyond reductions and binaries and see things in terms of, uh, continuums and contextual. I would say that I am somewhere in the middle, I do believe in the need for explicit instruction. That is a part of human learning, not just something associated with the classroom, but for any kind of learning. So, I mean, somebody might characterize me as teacher-centered points in the lesson when it is necessary to give students the information; most important is whether it is comprehensible to learners? Is it meaningful to I mean, an effective story could keep people spellbound for an extended period and would, you know, be transformational in terms of learning.*

Participant Three: *Prior to COVID, a lot more student-centered, a lot more letting them do a lot more talking, but I had noticed that during the COVID time, we've, we tended to, uh, because of the limited, uh, access and the limited sort of ability for the students to do things, even though we use Nearpod and dilute and all sorts of other things. I would say I've, I have changed my sort of approach, not voluntarily, but just pure necessity too, to make sure that the students get enough content, and they understand what is going on. So, I have tended to do a little bit more, uh, teacher-led.*

Participant Four: It *depends on the individual and their level of understanding. Do they need to go back and look at the material again? Because you assume you cannot assume that we are all on the same page, even if they have done the flipped work, because their, their perception, their mindset, we know we are all different for me, it is both. For me, it must be both. And I like to have a mixture.*

A third key finding is that participants demonstrated a philosophy of teacher care, of putting the needs of the student first, this notion of feeling cared for by the teacher, is what Noddings says is key to academic success and is conveyed "by providing carefully for the steady growth of the children in their [teachers] charge" [, p. 676]. What the comments above illustrate is a dedication and commitment to the 'steady growth' of the students under the guidance of these teachers. This is particularly apparent in participant three who acknowledges that his preference is for a studentled classroom as it is the way he was taught and his general modus operandi, however, he recognizes that there is a place in the classroom for more Direct Instruction, or as he refers to it 'lecturing.'38

*As a young child, I grew up in the times when I was at school, a teacher-led approach was out the window. It was all student-led. It was all, you know, um, collaborative activities where we were allowed to do to be more, have more control over our learning and that kind of stuff. So, from an exceedingly early age, I have been in that kind of mode. I think you do need to lecture every now and then, there, there is a place for lecturing.*

# *4.2 Summary: Faculty Interviews*

To summarize, the interviews provide evidence to show that teachers in the author's institution carry no reluctance toward direct instruction and all transfer it to their classroom practice to different extents. This is contrary to literature and shows both professionalism and the wisdom that comes through decades of experience. Teachers also convey an enormous sense of care toward their students, making consistent concerted efforts to provide them with classroom experiences that are meaningful to them and to ensure learning happens. Finally, a recurring theme is flexibility, which may come from experience and that these teachers are all expatriates, teaching outside their home country. The expatriate experience has often been noted as being one to facilitate more creativity and flexibility when compared to the non-expatriate working experience [13].

# *4.3 Student Surveys*

The survey begins by asking students how they believe they learn best. The answers to questions three and six corroborate the findings from question two and provide further evidence to suggest these students respond well to teacher explanations. One reason for this may be that teacher-centered is a style these students are accustomed to, coming mostly from government high schools where free and independent thought often takes the second stage to rote learning and memorization [41].

The findings from questions four and five reveal two things. Firstly, they confirm the findings from questions two, three, and six above, that the teacher explaining, and 'teaching' is a preferred learning style. Secondly, they also validate that while 'teacher explanation' is *preferred*, there is also substantial support for group work and independent work, i.e., student-centered Indirect Instruction approach. The lean toward direct instruction is albeit greater, however, there is evidence to suggest these students learn well from *both* approaches and this balance needs to be considered.

In terms of preferred learning styles, it is interesting to note here that 'group project work', which we can infer translates to Indirect Instruction, scores the lowest, and 'teacher explanation' scores the highest. This is interesting on several levels and can be explained through a cultural lens. Relevant to this discussion is Hofstede's cultural dimension theory [18] of which the United Arab Emirates scores highly at 90 in Power Distance. Hofstede's application of Power Distance describes the "extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally" (p. 45).

What this suggests is that power, from those in authority, such as teachers, is seen in the United Arab Emirates as hierarchical. A student-centered approach, however, views teacher authority as more democratic and equal and may not resonate with deep-seated cultural norms. Interestingly, a student's response as to why she preferred the teacher explanation for learning was: the *teacher knows best.*

However, contrary to this, one might expect group work to be ranked highly, as seen in Hofsteden's cultural trajectory, individualism scores low at 25 as the United Arab Emirates is designated to be a more collectivist culture (ibid). This collectivism is evidenced frequently in family and societal norms but does not transfer as strongly to the researcher's classroom dynamic. One logical explanation for this may be that this research was conducted during the pandemic when classes were online and group work was notoriously difficult [8]. It is also important to keep in mind that these findings do not indicate a general aversion to group work, they merely indicate that in order of preference, group work does not score as highly as, for example, teacher-led or working with a partner.

The survey closes with four open-ended questions to elicit participants' perspectives. Question 13 asks about group work: *Does working together in your group help you learn? Why or why not?* Results corroborate the findings illustrated above. Out of 23 responses, five participants indicated they did not like group project work, and four students were neutral. Those who did not like the group explained it was because students did not share the work equally. Fourteen out of twenty participants report group work as effective citing reasons such as being able to help each other. To explain these findings, it may be useful to refer to the role of guided instruction. These findings suggest that while group work may be perceived as satisfactory *practice*, the place of teacher lead is still seen as highly valuable in terms of introducing and presenting material, this concurs with the work of Bentham [2].

Questions ten and eleven dig deeper to elicit participants' responses around the role of the teacher and corroborate the findings from questions 2, 3, and 6 above by asking:

*Q. 10: Does the teacher explaining the lesson to you help you learn? Why or why not?*

*Q. 11: What do teachers do to help you understand? What do teachers do that makes it difficult for you to understand? What is it about your best teacher explanations that help you learn?*

All 23 participants responded consistently positively to question ten: *Does the teacher explaining the lesson to you help you learn? Why or why not?* This indicates that the teacher explaining the lesson was viewed as helpful to learning. The reasons given include:

When asked to explain what it is that teachers do in the classroom to support learning, the keyword of 'explanation' emerges:

A study by Andergassen [1] supports these participants' views in arguing that clear teacher instruction and repetition are key to learning. In fact, the spiral curriculum's basis stems from repetition, to facilitate deepening learning from each cycle of repetition [50].

# *4.4 Summary: Surveys*

The responses to the survey questions indicate that these learners overall prefer a more teacher-led, direct instruction classroom approach. These findings are robust as triangulation was used to compare results across questions. This may be due to cultural factors as noted above through the work of Hofstede [19] and through societal factors when considering previous learning experiences from more teacherled style government schools [3]. However, it does not mean that these participants do not also respond well to student-centered, at times, there is certainly no aversion to this approach. However, this survey analyzed preferences which clearly reveal these students learn more from a more teacher-led approach. Another explanation from these results may be found in the timing of this study which was conducted during the pandemic when all classes were online, and therefore, the need for teacher support was greater [42].

# *4.5 Recommendations*

The results of this research study reveal positive perceptions from both faculty and students around direct instruction. To validate this study's findings, a direct instruction model is recommended in the classroom with a pre- and post-intervention and control group research design to measure the impact of direct instruction more accurately. Direct instruction would be guided by theory following the recommended stages below [45]:

To address the limitations mentioned below, it is recommended a further study incorporates more participants and is conducted across institutions to elicit a range of responses.

# *4.6 Limitations*

**A: Sample size**. The author acknowledges that one limitation of this study, is the number of interviews at four, this may be deemed less than needed for saturation [44]. However, the literature is divided on this, with no consensus on firm numbers, and a recognition that small sample sizes are the norm in qualitative research as the aim is for depth rather than breadth [47]. In a busy institute, relying on faculty goodwill to donate their time, this is the response rate the author received; however, as responses are consistent, there are some clear generalizations to be made here.

**B: Timing**. This study was conducted during the pandemic when all classes were online. Teaching and learning experiences were different than 'the norm' and for some, more challenging with added stresses. This may factor into the credibility of the responses. This timeliness may also be considered a strength, however, as the reality of teaching online and lockdowns may become the new normal [28].

**C**: This research study was conducted at one Higher Educational institution which may not be representative of HE in the UAE.

# **5 Conclusion**

This paper has sought to bring to the forefront of academic discussion the merits of direct instruction; an oft-seen lesser cousin to indirect instruction. It has illuminated findings from the literature to show both empirical evidence in support of this approach, and a hesitancy among academics to afford it the gravitas or classroom attention it deserves. Perhaps shaped by enduring perceptions of a didactic model of tired teachers delivering content without consideration of their learners. A new vision of direct instruction has now emerged with guided instruction evidenced as a proficiency practice and which works *in tandem* with indirect instruction to provide an optimal learning experience.

This paper's title: An Exploration of Direct Instructions: Why Teaching Matters invites academics, teacher practitioners, and researchers to revisit the role that direct instruction plays in education. Importantly, this approach is not viewed in the light of being a replacement for or substitute for indirect instructions, which have proven effectiveness. The teaching methodology is not a winner takes all competition, these approaches are not opposites, and this idea that in learning:

One position must be correct and prevail, while the other must be flawed and thus vanquished (Hannafin and Land, 2000, p. 22) is unreasonable, pedagogically unsound, limiting, and importantly it robs us of the tools at our disposal. Our job as educators is to make sense of these approaches, learn how to successfully transfer their ideals into classroom practice, and to determine in which context they are most beneficial. This is how we wield our authority and direct our knowledge, because; in simple terms: teaching matters.

# **References**

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

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# **Online Effectiveness of Hybrid Blended and Flipped Learning Approaches During COVID-19 Virus in Libya**

**Rashad Brydan and Fawzi Ikraiam**

**Abstract** The aim of this paper is to provide an insight into hybrid online teaching and flipped learning during COVID-19 pandemic in Libya in pursuit of improving Libyan university students' knowledge and skills as an alternative instrument to continue their studies. However, this brought about some challenges, for both lecturers and students, while teaching undergraduate courses using hybrid blended online lecturing in the context of flipped learning in different subjects and university programs. Using questionnaires and focused group data analyses helped the authors to discover the opportunities ahead to promote further development of online teaching and flipped learning in Libya. The result proved the need for information and communication technology (ICT) skills for students and staff members, considering the hybrid blended online teaching and flipped learning experience and involvement. This was achieved according to four indicators: students' learning experience, students' academic performance, students' final achievements and educators' observations. In conclusion, the study proposes a new online teaching model, called Learn, Believe and Achieve. More studies are still needed to help improving this new teaching methodology in Libya.

**Keywords** Online teaching effectiveness · ICT integration · Hybrid blended and flipped learning · Online instructions · COVID-19

R. Brydan

F. Ikraiam (B) Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Omar Al-Mukhtar University, El-Bieda, Libya e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA

Management Department, Faculty of Economics and Political Science, Derna University, Derna, Libya

# **1 Introduction**

Since the first appearance of COVID-19 pandemic different Libyan higher education institutions such as Omar Al-Mukhtar University and Derna University offered varying online courses to undergraduate students. The first online experience was developed at Omar Al-Mukhtar University during the winter of 2020 at the Faculty of Tourism and Archaeology. The primary aim for this new technique was to satisfy general elective requirements of Libyan distance learning scheme. This study was initiated by raising questions about the outcomes of this new online teaching methodology. Questions such as: How would students' performance be? Would students gain information? How about using this method for exams and assignments? Would students' grades be higher or lower? How would Libyan students feel about the online flipped learning style? [1]. Although recent developments in information technology (IT) have produced much promise on the use of information technology (IT) for online learning, it is not entirely clear whether IT will be successful in education. There are persuasive arguments on both sides. Some advocate for the role of IT in education present particularly satisfactory progress, while others still doubt the full functionality of the role of IT in this regard against online education technologies. Libyan university lecturers are under increased pressure to deliver to their students and other constituencies expanded services and greater value with reduced physical presence of students at university campuses.

Therefore, as these technologies are advancing in the higher education sector and developing rapidly, Libyan university academics are confronting significant responsibilities to learn and acquiring them. This enables them to exhibit educational resources in a well-dressed and modern aspects [2]. Furthermore, the rapidly increased usage of latest information and communication technology (ICT) presented alternative prospects for university lecturers to attract and stimulate their undergraduate students, despite their backgrounds, to take advantage of these possibilities. These new higher education online technologies could be utilized in implementing new online teaching and flipped learning models may increase students' enthusiasm and self-independency thus increasing their awareness and progress. As examples of these models, hybrid online teaching and flipped learning are new tools to be used in educational platforms [3]. The flipped learning model (FLM) and the availability of modern technologies changed Libyan instructors' normal teaching tasks and turned upside down their university working day to be more student centered. This offered them more management of the teaching resources and easier online face-to-face meetings with their students [3]. This hybrid online teaching and flipped learning instrument is 100% dependent on using IT availability to change the delivery of educational instructions to individual learning at home instead of the classroom group teaching. This will assist university lecturers to expand individual direct teaching for their students [4]. The additional saved time may be wisely spent by students to collaborate with other students, think profoundly about the subject matters, learn new skills, and obtain advice on their progress. Besides this essential observation, this saved time may be used by instructors to tutor and motivate their students and challenge them with extra activities. Consequently, online teaching and flipped learning model will appeal to lecturers, researchers, and educators as well as funders round the world to support and encourage such shifts and transformations [5].

# *1.1 Study Motivation*

This century has by now realized enormous advancements and improvements in different technologies in many fields of education, one of which is hybrid online teaching and flipped learning methodologies. Thus, some of Omar Al-Mukhtar University and Derna University students are encouraged to use the available up to date electronic devices and related collaborative activities to enhance their academic achievement. Educators and academics did attempt to explore how to practically integrate these modern technologies in the educational teaching, learning and research processes [6]. Also this may cause including a variety of exercises to help Libyan university students to examine their own behavior, recognize new fields for advancement and acquire new respects of learning.

# *1.2 Research Hypothesis or Problems*

This study is concerned principally with providing an insight into hybrid online teaching and flipped learning during COVID-19 pandemic in Libya that are required for Libyan students for completing their studies and self- improvement. To also assure their academic accomplishment and education outcomes to acquire the needed market skills needed after graduation. Nevertheless, to improve the Libyan higher education quality, there is a considerable requirement for concrete teaching plans and methodologies by joining theory and practical skills of online learning in welldefined strategy. Therefore, this study was developed at quantitative and qualitative levels considering the academics and authors' previous experience. This work aims to answer to these research questions:

**RQ1**: How effective is the hybrid online teaching and flipped learning methodology for Libyan university students?

**RQ2**: What is the nature of this modern technology challenges that were faced by Libyan undergraduate students?

**RQ3**: What are the online teaching risk management skills to help Libyan teachers in better handling unexpected sorts of risks?

# *1.3 Study Aims and Objectives*

The main objectives of this paper are to provide an insight into hybrid online teaching and flipped learning during COVID-19 pandemic in Libya, in overall performance, comparing traditional teaching performances to online ones and to improve Libyan university student's final achievement. Therefore, this study is aiming to:

# **2 Methodology**

This research process started by forming two groups (control and experimental) to establish and find relationships between study variables for 80 Libyan university students. The differences between the two groups were methodological and technological learning skills. The control groups (20 male and 20 female students) received traditional classes with no use of technological sources, while the experimental groups (20 male and 20 female students) received an innovative methodology by means of flipped learning using online hybrid teaching. However, the traditional approach was configured as a collective variable, while the technological practice/approach was considered as an independent variable. This descriptive consideration was applied for 80 students in Economics studies in the first year of studies at the university. In this group of selected students, 50% were boys and 50% were girls. Their average age was 18 years. The students were divided into four study groups, where two of them were controlled in nature and the other two were of an experimental nature and treatment allocation designed on a random base. Only post-test was adopted (see Table 1). Moreover, no pretest was undertaken to discover the groups' beginning level. These groups were reliable for the comparison process as they were at the same level. Therefore, the students had no previous knowledge or experience about the preservation of Economics Studies.

As mentioned before, an applied qualitative approach was employed in the study to collect, analyze, and evaluate the necessary data. This approach was the dominant method in this study to examine the nature of university hybrid online teaching and flipped learning model by asking students in the treatment group fundamental open questions concerning the benefits and challenges of the online teaching method. Therefore, the authors believe that this research is important because of:

**Table 1** Design distribution of study

# *2.1 Studies Related to Flipped Classes*

Recently, and in many higher educational institutions, online teaching and flipped classroom models have become common teaching tools. The influence of this new lecturing scheme has been investigated in many studies. As an example, a previous Arabic study considered the flipped classroom model effect on listening comprehension of Egyptian university students [7]. The study assumed one-group pre-post-test design. A pretest on listening comprehension was employed prior to the experiment. Then the post-test was applied. The obtained results showed that the flipped learning model had a considerable effect on listening comprehension. Considering the flexibility of e-learning and to estimate health care students' perception regarding its implementation, a study at King Khalid University was performed for 4 months, from April 2020 to July 2020. This study suggested that efficiency of e-learning was influenced by various existing elements. The research instrument used contained a selfdesigned, qualitative questionnaire where three domains need to be confirmed using the field pretest method. This was administered among students using social media platforms. Among 254 respondents 59.8% were males and the rest were females. 96.5% of respondents were staying with their families. 10.2% reported medically compulsory quarantine for one or more family members. 59.8% reported that the online classes began too early. 63.4% of the respondents stated that they had no prior experience. The main obstacles to the students were weak network links (32.3%), unawareness about online platforms (29.9%) and poor audio/video qualities (26.3%). Also, there were also several factors that affected the full outcome of e-learning such psychological tension, quarantine requirements and family living conditions. The study concluded that health care students are still skeptical due to the absence of clinical training. This may cause them not to adopt e-learning completely. To collect the data, an English flipped learning writing test along with a questionnaire were used. As stated earlier, the experimental group was lectured through flipped classroom approach. On the other hand, the traditional teaching method was used with the control group. Both groups were post-tested. The results of the post-test showed that the experimental group achieved better results than the control group. Furthermore, the questionnaire results were in favor of the online teaching and flipped learning scheme. This can be accredited to using digital distance learning and could be applied in similar fashion to Libyan students to make the transition from teacher-centered classroom to student-centered teaching methodology [8].

# *2.2 Online Teaching and Flipped Learning Problem Statement*

At the start of trying this new digital technology method, it was obvious that Libyan students do not have the opportunity to attempt and test the skills learned or to participate in professional use of IT techniques outside of the classroom due to the insufficient communicative abilities. Previous studies examined the variant influence of studying in a Flipped Classroom (FC) environment when compared to a Blended Learning (BL), a Traditional Learning (TL) or an e-learning (EL) scenarios on learning performance, self- effectiveness confidences, students' motivation, and model flexibility, it was found that FC mode is an encouraging approach of improving students' learning performance. Two instructional components were employed in both online and face-to-face modes. These were lectures and guiding questions. The mode of these elements varied in both blended settings (BL and FC). These studies showed that learning accomplishment was better in the FC setting when compared to other learning conditions. The learning performance, when compared to the EL model, of BL students' mode was higher. Furthermore, the study concluded that studying in the FC model had a positive effect on self- effectiveness attitudes and essential motivation. However, this was not noticed on the observed flexibility. The results also suggested that the flipped classroom may stimulate students' inspiration. However, some difficulties were associated with the FC, the students' inadequate preparation for this model. Consequently, students must be trained to employ FC methods with sufficient e-learning means, as well as it is essential to consider the study load for the students as well as providing in-class activities [9, 10]. Moreover, and due to the absence of significant interaction because of applying traditional teaching schemes in most institutions of higher education, the same case is repeating itself, which may be one of the causes behind this. Other studies showed that lecturers employ traditional teaching approaches since they consider these modes more practical and constructive for the students [11]. This may also be because lecturers find these schemes easier to use and do not demand much effort. Due also to the influence of their own experience as students, other lecturers use traditional teaching, repeating their former instructors' role. Besides, most teachers are affected by following beliefs that conventional classroom methods, in which teachers are at the center of control in their classes and have full command over students' interaction since they are the only resource of skills and information, are the methodology to follow.

# *2.3 Online Teaching and Flipped Learning Characteristics and Benefits*

There are various characteristics and benefits brought about using digital distance learning in Libya as it is convenient for university students since this approach has definite effects. This approach can concentrate on all categories of students [11]. As the academic year evolves, better performance and creative input from students are the expected results of such implantation [12]. Increasing students' engagement time inside classrooms, receiving instant response as well as encouraging the spirit of teamwork are some advantages of using this model. FL may be also regarded as a suitable model for individualizing learning approaches. However, up to now there are no obvious thorough ICT policies in most Libyan universities as well as the application of ICT is still extremely limited in these universities. These factors and others render the integration of ICT in the educational sector which continues to be a considerable challenge for method of evaluation (MOE). Therefore, there is a necessity to implement MOE in an objective and strategic manner by applying and ICT in well-set plans that could be measured, followed, and enhanced continuously [13]. As numerous studies suggest, students' motivation and accomplishment are realized in many manners by applying ICT effectively. However, this still requires more research and studies especially in the Libyan higher education institutions to explore distance students' accomplishment [7, 14].

# *2.4 Distance Learning Motor Skills Model*

This distance learning motor skills model is about attaining various skills due to practicing and experiencing the most frequently cited FL standards. The model proposes that FL effectiveness may be expanded in view of students' feedback. This feedback may be observed as lecturers take corrective measures in cases such as: when students are deliberating too long by interfering, asking irrelevant questions, or losing their interest. This Model engages students by maintaining their self-possession and excitement at a satisfactory level. Once students understand the FL model, it would aid them in developing new skills. Skills such as knowing that the FL will help students to analytically evaluate the efficiency of their employability skills at every level, describing the categorized structure of motor skills and explaining how this suggests the possibility of decomposing complex employability skills into their element parts as well as comprehending the role of the assumed online teaching and FL models in achieving remarkable progresses on students' education.

# *2.5 Preparation for Online Distance Learning*

To substitute the role in the classroom from teacher-centered to student-centered, FL mode can be regarded as a start stage. It reinforces students' interest, either direct or indirect, in addition to their engagements by applying the constructivist approach. However, to use FL standards, Libyan lecturers and educators will have to improve and master the FL appropriate directions [15]. For example, to integrate ICT in teaching and learning activities, Libyan instructors are expected to increase their knowledge of pedagogical procedures through several attributes that may include planning, applying, and evaluating these procedures. For example, generating video does not require recording the lectures inside the classroom while teaching using video cameras. Lecturers may be able to create videos through making a screen cast function by capturing the computer screen, for instance slide show of Power Points presentation, recording voices, including a small webcam of instructors' faces, using digital pen for solving problems and so on. It is found out that the appropriate average video time is about 10–15 min long [1, 4]. Traditional teaching only requires high class professional educators. However, Libyan FL educators must move beyond the traditional lecturing and training and must be determined to shift direct teaching from a group of students to individual ones. This requires how instructors learn to maximize their time with students in the classroom [16]. Additionally, to become a flipped educator and an excellent teacher with plans and practices with a wide range of effective pedagogical approaches is a challenging and demanding task. Along with the instructor's capability to predict student misconceptions, good lecturers should continuously and accurately evaluate the effectiveness of the lectures and to ensure that the educational aims are fulfilled.

Thus, skilled, and professional university teachers are facing a radical pedagogical modification of their teaching methodologies where they must plan and organize their FL classes [17] attentively and cautiously. Therefore, Libyan distance instructors should be able to modify direct instruction from the group to the individual learning environment. In addition, instructors should learn how to maximize direct teaching time between lecturers and students. Thus, flipped lecturers must regularly monitor their students' performance providing them with appropriate reaction at the exact moment and continuously rating this performance [18].

# *2.6 How Can Libyan Instructors Flip Their Classrooms?*

For Libyan lecturers and teachers who would be embarking on this change to flipped teaching approaches, these steps may be followed:

i. Lecturers should select the right technology that fits their needs to make films, edit them and share these videos with their students. This is because FL methods depend on ICT. This is also true for the students where it is essential for them to have access to a hosting service and to be able to manage all its contents where their instructors can track students' improvement. This may be achieved by a learning management system (LMS) which will streamline all the contents in one place.

# **3 Study Experimental Part (Field Study)**

For this study, as already stated, students were divided into two groups: experimental and control (see Fig. 1) to investigate the influence of distance teaching on students' achievement. Academics were questioned to evaluate the advantages and challenges of the FL Model. The result was in support of FL using ICT tools.

**Fig. 1** Flipped learning group samples. (*Source* Flipped Learning Network 2014)

# **4 Conclusion and Recommendations**

The hybrid online teaching and flipped learning method proved its effectiveness in helping Libyan students to develop their achievements by encouraging them to be more independent students, highly responsible for their own learning while improving the relationship with their teachers. Students had also positive thoughts on distance learning to enhance their competences. The students agreed that this approach of teaching would aid them in enhancing their understanding, communication skills and employability competencies. The results were useful as this new digital methodology succeeded in shifting the attention from teachers to students to improve students' accomplishment. The results of this work presented views of distance learning methodology using modern technologies and updated educational facilities. The authors have utilized, believe, and achieve (LBA) model for the best distance learning performance (see Fig. 2).

This study specifically concluded the following findings:

The authors conclude with the following recommendations:

# **References**

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# **Proactive Targeted Academic Advising Approach for Students Under Academic Probation and At-Risk Students**

### **Hussein M. Elmehdi, Almehdi M. Ibrahem, and Zaid A. Zaid**

**Abstract** Academic Advising in higher education has received considerable attention in recent years. This is mainly due to the increased focus on improving education quality, student retention and ranking. The current approach focuses on at-risk students, which includes students with a CGPA of less than 2.3. The *Academic Success Program (ASP)* is comprised of three main components, which start early in the semester where the targeted students are enrolled in zero-credit courses on the Learning Management System (LMS), i.e., Blackboard. In the first phase of the *ASP*, we targeted students who are currently under academic probation with the aim to expand the program to include students at risk (students with a CGPA of < 2.3). First, students are asked to answer an online questionnaire, which include carefully designed questions on student status, reasons for academic probation, study habits, social issues, challenges they are facing in their study programs and assistance or services they require to improve their academic standings. Next, students are invited to attend a 2-h workshop that focuses on explaining the various rules and regulations pertaining to academic probation, how to calculate GPA and CGPA along with study plan navigation assistance. The third part of the workshop is a motivational seminar aimed at encouraging and inspiring the students to seek help, talk about the challenges they face, get parents involved and key points on academic success. After the workshop, students are asked to answer an exit assessment that is constructed in the form of a quiz to gauge the gain or impact the program had on the students. The initial results are very encouraging, where 75% of the students who completed the program were able to overcome their academic probation status.

A. M. Ibrahem

## Z. A. Zaid (B) College of Law, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
H. M. Elmehdi