Broadcast TV network has covered a vast area. In 2003, the number of Chinese Community Antenna Television (CATV) subscribers exceeded 100 million. After eight years of rapid development, the number exceeded 200 million in 2011. By the end of 2016, the actual number of CATV users was 252 million, among which the number of digital TV users also reached 210 million, with a digitalization rate of 83.3%. Television has become one of the information tools with the highest household occupancy rate, and the CATV network has become the most popular multimedia in the home. However, the CATV network still uses coaxial cable to deliver TV programs to users at an analog level. The development direction of the CATV network includes the two-way broadband TV on demand (VOD), access to the Internet through CATV network for TV on demand, CATV call, etc. The ultimate development target is to make the CATV network become a broadband bidirectional multimedia communication network.

With the rapid development of new media formats such as IPTV, Internet TV and mobile TV, broadcast TV networks are facing unprecedented challenges. For example, in terms of video business architecture, flexible and convenient services of Internet video can meet the rapid changes of user needs and consumer psychology under the information development, which makes the traditional TV camp split. As the main promoter of digital TV reform in the radio and television industry, the cable network is in the situation of network segmentation and decentralization, and the national operation subject is still unformed.

In fact, the broadcast network has some inherent advantages, such as safe and reliable network transmission, stable and clear transmission quality, the exclusive copyright of some programs, and strong credibility. However, due to the lack of supervision on content, the openness of the telecommunication network and the Internet is too casual.

In a word, the signal transmission of public radio and television channels is one of the basic services of the broadcast TV network. As an important national information infrastructure, the broadcast TV network is an important national strategic resource and an important barrier against network risks. Therefore, the broadcast TV network should provide technical means for the national guidance of public opinion in cyberspace, and stabilize the sovereign equality in cyberspace. We must build, strengthen, and enhance its role in the national network security

Fig. 2.9 The architecture of sovereignty network [47]

system, strengthen the broadcast TV network based on the sovereignty network research and construction.

This book proposes and sets up the sovereignty network, a new future network architecture, from the technical level. It makes the cyber space dynamic, peaceful, multilateral co-governance, and achieve a balance between freedom and order. The sovereignty network based on MIN is the first technically viable sovereignty Internet architecture in the world. The architecture of sovereignty network is shown as Fig. 2.9. We describe its architecture, core technologies, application and diffusion, and choose the broadcast TV network as a typical application scenario to introduce.

# 2.5 The 4th Power: United States Presidential Election in 2020 and Network Sovereignty

# 2.5.1 United States Presidential Election and the Storming of the United States Capitol

The 2020 United States presidential election was the 59th quadrennial presidential election, held on November 3, 2020. All 435 seats in the House of Representatives and 33 seats in the Senate were also be elected to form the 117th United States

Fig. 2.10 2020 US elections [28]

Congress. The general election in November was also an indirect election, in which voters cast ballots for a slate of members of the Electoral College, these electors then directly elected the president and vice president. On December 14, 2020, electors voted to confirm Joe Biden as the 46th president of the United States and Kamala Harris as vice president [27] (Fig. 2.10).

Trump secured the Republican nomination without serious opposition, while Biden secured the Democratic nomination over his closest rival, Senator Bernie Sanders, in a competitive primary that featured the largest field of candidates for any political party in the modern era of American politics. Biden's running mate, Senator Harris from California, was the first African-American, first Asian-American, and third female vice presidential nominee on a major party ticket. In addition, there were some nominees representing other political parties and independent nominees. Central issues of the election included the public health and economic impacts of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic; civil unrest in reaction to the killing of George Floyd and others; the U.S. Supreme Court following the death of Ruth Bader Ginsburg and confirmation of Amy Coney Barrett; and the future of the Affordable Care Act [27].

The election saw a record number of ballots cast early and by mail due to the ongoing pandemic. As a result of the large number of mail-in ballots, some swing states saw delays in vote counting and reporting; this led to major news outlets delaying their projection. After Election Day, Trump and numerous Republicans attempted to subvert the election and overturn the results, alleging widespread voter fraud. On November 7, 2020, all major US news outlets announced that Biden and Kamala Harris had won the election, receiving the minimum 270 electoral votes needed after winning Pennsylvania's 20 Electoral College votes. On November 9, 2020, even after the major US news outlets had declared that Biden had won the election, the General Services Administration had not certified the winner and

Fig. 2.11 The storming of the United States Capitol [29]

refused to approve documents to begin the transition process. On November 23, 2020, the General Services Administration officially approved the documents for the transition process to proceed with the handover, and stated that its role was not to certify the elect, but that the real elect would be determined by the electoral process prescribed by the Constitution of the United States [27] (Fig. 2.11).

Trump said he would leave the White House if the Electoral College voted for Joe Biden. On December 14, the Electoral College voted to choose the president and vice president. The voting results confirmed Joe Biden as the 46th president of the United States and Kamala Harris as the 49th vice president of the United States. Congress was scheduled to meet in joint session on Jan. 6, 2021, to formally count the electoral college votes submitted by states, which was known as certifying the voting result of each state. Under the Constitution of the United States, the count and certification of the electoral votes by both houses of Congress was the final step in formally confirming the president's election. But the Capitol was attacked by extremists that day, rioters breached police perimeters and stormed the United States Capitol Complex.

It was the first time the U.S. Capitol had been attacked since the British invaded in 1814. A large number of demonstrators gathered outside the Capitol and carried pro-Trump flags to protest the election. The demonstration then escalated into a riot, with protesters clashing with security guards and tear gas was in the air. Some demonstrators even broke the windows of the Capitol and entered the inside of the building. Five people were killed during the riot. The counting of the electoral votes by Congress was interrupted by pro-Trump rioters storming the Capitol [30]. This riot led to the suspension of the joint session to certify the election results. After the

Fig. 2.12 Supporters of President Donald Trump climb the west wall of the U.S. Capitol on Wednesday, Jan. 6, 2021, in Washington (Jose Luis Magana/Associated Press)

joint session of the United States Congress confirmed Joe Biden and Kamala Harris in the early hours of January 7 local time, Trump immediately issued a statement promising an "orderly" transfer of power on January 20, 2021 (Fig. 2.12).

# 2.5.2 Social Media Platforms Banned Trump's Accounts

After the storming of the United States Capitol on January 6, 2021, which was carried out by a mob of supporters of President Donald Trump, many social media platforms and technology companies suspended or banned Trump's and his team's accounts from their platforms, and many business organizations cut ties with him [30]. On January 9, 2021, Fox News listed the social media platforms which has "banned" or "restricted" Trump, these platforms took different measures to block Trump's and related accounts.

According to the statistics of American media Axios, the platforms that had taken measures to ban or restrict Trump and his related accounts include Twitter, Facebook, Google, Apple, YouTube, Reddit, Instagram, Snapchat, Discord, Pinterest and other platforms [31]. Some platforms and websites had taken "Trump" as a sensitive word and removed posts as soon as they detected it. The account of Trump's teenage youngest son, Barron, was suspended after he sent a tweet "Hello Twitter" (Fig. 2.13).

Fig. 2.13 Twitter has suspended President Trump from its platform [32]

"After close review of recent Tweets from the @realDonaldTrump account and the context around them we have permanently suspended the account due to the risk of further incitement of violence," Twitter said. "In the context of horrific events this week, we made it clear on Wednesday that additional violations of the Twitter Rules would potentially result in this very course of action." [33] (Fig. 2.14).

After Twitter had banned his @realDonaldTrump account, Trump tweeted from the US president's official @Potus account suggesting he would "look at the possibilities of building out our own platform in the future" and railing against Twitter. But the tweets were removed from the platform as soon as they were posted [35] (Fig. 2.15).

"If it is clear that another account is being used for the purposes of evading a ban, it is also subject to suspension," Twitter said in a statement. "For government accounts, such as @POTUS and @WhiteHouse, we will not suspend those accounts but will take action to limit their use. However, these accounts will be transitioned over to the new administration in due course and will not be suspended by Twitter unless absolutely necessary to alleviate real-world harm." Twitter's policy would also prohibit Trump from directing a third party to operate a Twitter account on his behalf [33].

Trump supporters have been migrating to niche social media platforms such as Parler for days. Parler briefly topped the app download charts. In response, Internet giants targeted Parler. Google removed Parler from the App Store and Apple issued

an ultimatum to Parler. Amazon stopped offering Parler web services such as hosting. According to a report by Agence France Presse (AFP) on January 11, 2021, the Parler platform could not be accessed after midnight on that day, showing that it was disconnected [36].

Twitter boss Jack Dorsey has said banning US President Donald Trump was the right thing to do. He reiterated that removing the president from Twitter was made after "a clear warning" to Mr. Trump. "We made a decision with the best information we had based on threats to physical safety both on and off Twitter," Mr. Dorsey said. But he accepted that the move would have consequences for an open and free internet [37] (Fig. 2.16).

Political figures in Europe disapproved of the social media platforms' decision to block Mr. Trump's account, such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel. Steffen Seibert, Merkel's chief spokesman, said the operators of social media platforms "bear great responsibility for political communication not being poisoned by hatred, by lies and by incitement to violence", at a regular news conference in Berlin, on January 11, 2021. He said it's right not to "stand back" when such content is posted, for example by flagging it. But Seibert also said that the freedom of opinion is a fundamental right of "elementary significance." "This fundamental right can be intervened in, but according to the law and within the framework defined by legislators—not according to a decision by the management of social media platforms," he told reporters in Berlin. "Seen from this angle, the chancellor considers it problematic that the accounts of the U.S. president have now been permanently blocked" [38].

Bruno Le Maire, France's finance minister, said he was "shocked" by Twitter's decision to ban Trump, adding that "digital regulation should not be done by the digital oligarchy… (and) is a matter for the sovereign people, governments and the judiciary" [39].

Fig. 2.16 Twitter's chief said he did not celebrate or feel pride in the ban—which came after the Capitol riot [37]

Cédric O, France's digital minister, expressed similar concerns. He wondered about these social networks which "may decide to censor someone followed by 88 million people completely unilaterally". "They intervene in the public debate without any democratic supervision, without action of justice, by referring only to their general conditions of use", he estimated. "Imagine that Twitter or Facebook becomes politicized and considers that it is on this or that political side, he explains. They could change their terms of service by saying, for example, 'you are not allowed to make pro-Democrat or pro-Republicans, or pro-party or party in France. In such cases, they would censor an entire expression without any supervision since they are beyond the control of justice and the plurality of democratic expression" [40].

Thierry Breton, the European Union's commissioner for the internal market, said in a Politico opinion piece: "Just as 9/11 marked a paradigm shift for global security, 20 years later we are witnessing a before-and-after in the role of digital platforms in our democracy". Breton said the incidents in Washington revealed "the fragility of our democracies—and the threat that under-regulated tech companies can pose to their survival". He expressed serious doubts about whether social media companies alone should have the power to block accounts of a US president. "The fact that a CEO can pull the plug on (Trump's) loudspeaker without any checks and balances is perplexing," Breton wrote. "It is not only confirmation of the power of these platforms, but it also displays deep weaknesses in the way our society is organized in the digital space," he added. Breton also defended the EU's recent proposals to more closely regulate big tech, including the Digital Services Act that could see platforms face fines for failures to curb illegal content [41].

"Who decides free speech?" 20 Minuten AG said that free speech was not just a legal issue. The worry is that in the digital world, the Internet giants have the final say. Der Spiegel said the Internet giants had allowed their platforms to be abused for too long over the years, allowing false and incitement to violence to spread on their platforms in an effort to monopolize and expand, and that some politicians in power enjoyed special protections. But the fact that these billionaires from Silicon Valley can decide for themselves who will be banned and who will be allowed to speak online is frightening [36].

# 2.5.3 Regulating the Power of Social Media Platform

The fourth power, also known as the 4th power, refers to the fourth political power in addition to "executive power, legislative power, judicial power", refers to the media, the public and thereby. The 4th power theory emphasizes the freedom of speech stipulated by the press. The 4th power theory points out that "the purpose of the freedom of the press guaranteed by the constitution is to maintain the autonomy of the media, so that the media can provide information, public opinion and entertainment programs that are not controlled or influenced by the government, promote people to care about the work of the government and discuss public affairs, so as to play the function of supervising the government."

In network age, individual free speech should be under the control of national sovereignty, not determined by digital platforms. Although states have always been and will continue to play a central role in international affairs, the non-state actors such as multinational corporations are also becoming increasingly important, and some enterprises even have more powerful associative power than sovereign states. For example, the market value of Google's parent company Alphabet is equivalent to the combined GDP of Belgium and the Netherlands. Twitter, Facebook, Apple and others have access to information about hundreds of millions of netizens around the world.

Internet giants have gained a stronger position in front of the country and the public. It depends on the vast amount of data they have, the user engagement brought by their services, and the political and social power of the platforms themselves. The blocking of Trump's account by some social media in the United States is precisely the exercise of their super power [42].

Global information, communication technologies and industries are growing more rapidly than global governance and the regulatory forces of sovereign states. How to define the authority boundary and legal responsibility of the digital oligarchy has become a problem and it's difficult to reach agreement among states. The influence of related enterprises on national politics, economy, society and other aspects as well as the challenges brought by them are increasing day by day. Uncontrolled digital power has caused a certain negative impact on the traditional political life, social opinion and economic activities [42].

The legal environment in the United States is relatively friendly to digital platforms. Following the tradition of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, American politics and society are very cautious about public power interfering with the dissemination of public opinion. Section 230 of Communications Decency Act (CDA) provides immunity from liability for providers and users of an "interactive computer service" who publish information provided by third-party users. The statute in Section 230(c)(2) further provides "Good Samaritan" protection from civil liability for operators of interactive computer services in the removal or moderation of third-party material they deem obscene or offensive, even of constitutionally protected speech, as long as it is done in good faith [43]. This means that the judicial authorities cannot hold Internet companies accountable for what users say on the Internet platforms, on the other hand, users cannot hold Internet companies accountable for their posts being deleted or blocked on the Internet platforms. This regulation is designed to prevent the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) from interfering with the Internet, and also allows websites to censor content according to their own needs [44].

For more than 20 years, Section 230 has been criticized by politicians and civil rights activists as condoning cyberbullying, but many in the tech industry believe it creates the foundations of modern Internet services. While the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) has proposed legislation in 2019 to change the division of responsibility for content censorship, it has faced fierce opposition from some companies such as Facebook. On October 14, 2019, Facebook and Twitter again restricted the sharing of two scandalous reports about Hunter Biden, son of former vice president Joe Biden, citing violations of the platform's rules. This move brought the debate over whether to alter Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act to the surface again [44].

Twitter's decision to suspend of U.S. President Donald Trump's account was pushing European leaders to stress the need to regulate social media companies [45]. Thierry Breton, EU Commissioner for Internal Market, raised concerns about the "deep weaknesses in the way our society is organized in the digital space". Manfred Weber, chairman of the EPP group at the European Parliament, pointed out that "we cannot leave it to American Big Tech companies to decide what we do and do not discuss, what can and cannot be said in a democratic discourse. We need a stricter regulatory approach" [46].

Europe has taken a very different stance to regulating Big Tech than the U.S., where companies are often left to regulate themselves and typically enjoy a significant degree of legal immunity though protections like Section 230. This most recent criticism against large social media platforms could be interpreted as a warning shot [39]. The European Commission has taken a double initiative in this direction on behalf of EU member states [46]. The Digital Services Act and the Digital Markets Act are two crucial steps ahead for Europe, and they are mainly aimed at Internet giants known as "gatekeepers" rather than ordinary enterprises [44]. The Digital Services Act will regulate the business models and behaviors of Internet giants in line with European standards, stressing that Internet giants have a legal obligation to censor content, which could lead to huge fines of hundreds of millions of euros if breached. These two laws will also create a precedent for major states to establish rules for the regulation of digital enterprises, and have a strong leading significance for the formulation of legal norms in relevant fields around the world.

For some time, US Internet companies, represented by Silicon Valley giants, have been the target of EU regulatory "focus". In February 2020, the newly appointed President of the European Commission, Ursula Gertrud von der Leyen, explained the concept of "digital sovereignty", "EU must have the ability to make its own choices based on its own values and rules in the digital field". Many European media believed that the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Digital Services Act, will be a key legal tool for the current leadership of the EU to ensure digital sovereignty [44].

At the same time, EU is also striving for the construction of its own Internet infrastructure [44]. In their speeches last year, Ursula Gertrud von der Leyen, Merkel and the French President Macron all mentioned Europe's huge dependence on U.S. Internet companies such as Google, Facebook and Twitter. They announced that EU would launch the "GAIA-X" cloud computing platform as a platform to store data, based on the joint development of France and Germany.

In conclusion, Trump's accounts suspension shows that digital sovereignty should be strictly governed by national network sovereignty, and the consolidation of national network sovereignty needs to be implemented in the construction of sovereign network, so as to ensure the effective protection of network sovereignty and national security.

# References

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

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# Chapter 3 Architecture of Sovereignty Network

Although the early design concept of the Internet was decentralized, but the current control of the basic technology architecture showed a strong centralized form. Therefore, it is imperative to put forward a new network architecture to meet the demand of future network development and realize decentralized management of domain names by technical means. Sovereignty network effectively realizes multilateral co-management and co-governance of cyberspace, and terminates centralized management under the single IP identifier. At the same time, it protects the network of all countries from the risk of DNS disappearance and blinding caused by the smear of ICANN root zone or hacker attack. With the construction of the sovereignty network, the co-governance and self-management of all parties in cyberspace can be truly realized.

# 3.1 Sovereignty Network

# 3.1.1 Definition of Sovereignty Network

The sovereignty network with the new architecture, is an identity centric national network that can be used to autonomously and controllable register, generate, manage and resolute the domain name of an identity of both natural person or corporate organization.

According to international regulations, cyberspace business is governed by Radio and Television laws which are stricter than telecommunications laws of various countries. The news release of telecom network is relatively arbitrary, which results in the large number of false information in the network, indicates that telecom is not enough in content supervision. The national broadcasting network represents the voice of the national government, and the supervision of its ideological field has always been the top priority for various departments or industries. Therefore, this book chooses the broadcast television network as a typical application scenario to deploy a completely autonomously managed sovereignty network with a new identity centric architecture that is safe, reliable, manageable, autonomous and intelligent.

# 3.1.2 Functional Requirements for Sovereignty Network

To build the sovereignty network, it is necessary to ensure that users within the network can access the Internet and obtain Internet content. At the same time, to conform to the tide of the future network development, the sovereignty network should provide new functions to support the new needs of users. While ensuring to provide rich content resources, sovereignty network also needs to provide higher security level than the existing network architecture.

The functional requirements of the sovereignty network are listed as follows:

# 3.2 Existing Technologies

# 3.2.1 IPv9

Now some researchers use IPv9, namely the decimal network, to design the sovereign network. The decimal network is a modified version of the IETF proposal by Mr. Jianping Xie, director of the Shanghai General Chemical Research Institute.

The decimal network system is mainly composed of the IPv9 address protocol, IPv9 header protocol, IPv9 transition protocol, digital domain name specification and other protocols and standards. The digital domain name refers to the use of 0–9 Arabic numerals instead of traditional English letters as the name of domain name. The digital domain name, which is a part of the decimal network system, can also be used directly as the IPv9 address [1].

IPv9 protocol requires to use 0–9 Arabic numerals as the virtual IP address, and use the decimal system as the text representation method, which is easy to find the Internet users. To improve the efficiency and convenience for the use of end users, some addresses can be directly used as domain names. Since IPv9 classifies and codes the services of the original computer network, cable broadcast network and telecommunication network, IPv9 is also known as the "new generation of secure and reliable information integration protocol".

The decimal network refers to a new network using the decimal algorithm and text representation method. It connects various computers using decimal algorithm into a network, and can be intercommunicated with the existing network.

The decimal network system uses decimal, multi-protocol in the domain name system to map English, Chinese and other domain names to globally unique IP addresses. Besides, IPv9 established a distributed root domain name system, introducing the concept of country and region, so that each country has its root domain name system, in order to establish and maintain its status and image as a sovereign country on the Internet.

IPv9 increases the address length of IP from 32 and 128 bits to 2048 bits to support more address levels, more addressable nodes, and provide a simple automatic address configuration. At the same time, the 32-bit address length of IPv4 is reduced to 16 bits, which solved the cellular communication problem in mobile communications. IPv9 addresses specify 256-bit identifiers for interfaces and interface groups, and can be divided into three types. The three types of addresses are as follows:

There are five types of IPv9 addresses:

IPv9 has the following characteristics:

switching circuit. IP addresses can be used as domain names, which suit the mobile phones and family wide-band network.

In addition to the above features, IPv9 is also independent of the original IPv4 and IPv6 network, so the network security and information security can be independently controlled and managed by the new architecture. As a result of independent networking, relevant departments can develop public information services independently and flexibly according to national policies. This is conducive to the development of Chinese information retrieval in the future based on advanced application business system expansion.

In order to comply with user habits, IPv9 is compatible with both IPv4 and IPv6. On the one hand, IPv9 has realized the function of using IPv4 as a tunnel to carry data transmission between two IPv9 subnets. On the other hand, they have also realized the function of using IPv9 as a tunnel to carry data transmission between two IPv4 subnets. In this way, the interconnection between IPv9 and IPv4 is achieved.

The main advantages of IPv9 are as follows. Firstly, IPv9 has an independent intellectual property system and huge cyberspace resources. Secondly, the decimal network system can translate the original binary address directly into decimal text, which is compatible with users' daily habits. Thirdly, IPv9 comes up with a design scheme, that the domain name and IP address are integrated, as well as the identity code of people and objects is unified. That makes the telephone, mobile phone, domain name and IP address, IPTV, IP phone and so on merge into one number. In this way, the translation process between network domain name and IP address is avoided, which makes the network communication fast and direct, and improves the communication capability of existing network switching equipment. Fourthly, by using specific encryption mechanisms, IPv9 guarantees network security. Fifthly, from the standpoint of safeguarding sovereignty, IPv9 firstly proposes the concept of "sovereignty equality" of cyberspace. The proposed decimal, multi-protocol digital domain name system is compatible with English, Chinese and other domain names that are mapped to globally unique IP addresses.

Although IPv9 has many advantages, there are many criticisms about it in the industry, which are listed as follows:

#### 3.2 Existing Technologies 67

(10) There is no broadcast address in the IPv9 protocol, so the multicast address is used instead of the broadcast address. Using IPv9 to construct a sovereignty network will result in the limitation of real-time, extensibility and flexibility of data transmission.

# 3.2.2 New IP

In order to support emerging network applications, Huawei Technology Co., LTD. [2] proposed a new protocol framework called "New IP" in 2019. New IP aims to fundamentally support the variable-length, multi-semantic address in network layer and allows user to define and customize networking behavior [3].

New IP studies the following four functional requirements and four performance requirements proposed by four target scenarios of future network 5.0, including ICT infrastructure, industrial Internet, mobile carrier, and holographic communication.

The four functional requirements mainly include endogenous security, network programming and predictable performance, perception and controllable based on large connections, and ubiquitous mobility support.

Traditional security mechanisms mainly protect the system against known vulnerabilities and threats. Different from them, the goal of endogenous security mechanisms is to establish a complete set of endogenous security architecture for the future network. The system should not only guarantee the trustworthiness of communication entities and network infrastructures, but also guarantee the authenticity, suitability, privacy, integrity and confidentiality of end-to-end communication, as well as provide certain availability in case of network failure and attack.

Different applications have different requirements for network transmission quality. According to the characteristics and requirements of different applications, the future network should provide planned, predictable, customizable and differentiated access and transmission rules based on deterministic network behavior. In this way, the service quality of certainty and differentiation is guaranteed.

Perception and controllable beyond large connections refer to the overall consideration of network connections, storages and computing resources under the premise of the explosive growth of the number of communication links caused by the increase of scale and complexity of communication entities.

In the IoT era, classes of business are complex and diverse leading to mobility requirements. Mobility support is also required for some large connection services, so the future network will require efficient, high-speed, large-connection-based mobile communication schemes.

The requirements of the four performances are mainly measured in terms of bandwidth, delay and jitter, packet loss rate.

Based on inheriting existing IP capabilities, the researchers of New IP have proposed many prospective technologies for future needs. New IP aims to provide deterministic network technology and protocol with low delay, security and privacy, connection of everything [4] for the industrial Internet, which is mainly based on future intelligent machine communication. New IP promotes the continuous evolution of network protocols, and supports the technical requirements of 6G and other future businesses. At present, the main research points of New IP [2, 5] are listed as follows:

transmission and synchronization between multiple business streams. Different from the traditional IP network that can only meet user needs of topology addressing, the New IP can customize data packets according to user definable instructions to support more complex business scenarios in the future.

Although New IP meets the needs of variable-length, multi-semantic address in the network layer and provides a user-customized network as a new architecture, there are many criticisms in the industry due to privacy security, free access and other issues.

# 3.3 Architecture of Sovereignty Network

# 3.3.1 Framework

Given the above background and functional requirements, the self-designed architecture MIN (Multi-Identifier Network) [6, 7] is adopted as the main architecture of the sovereignty network. In this book, we use a broadcast television system as the application case to introduce the operational process of the sovereignty network.

There are two primary deficiencies of the existing IP architecture: (1) There is the risk of centralization because IP addresses and Domain Names are allocated and managed by a single agency. (2) The semantic overload of IP addresses reduces its scalability and mobility, which further hinders the security of the system. Global community requires a new form of co-governing network.

To solve the two primary deficiencies of the traditional network, we propose a sovereignty network based on Multi-Identifier Network (MIN) architecture. MIN decentralizes the management of post-IP identifiers by using consortium blockchain with real identity registration [8]. Moreover, MIN is a revolutionary network architecture supporting the coexistence of multiple Network Identifiers, including identity, content, service, geographic information, and IP address, etc. At the same time, MIN supports the compatibility which implies that MIN can be deployed directly over existing IP networks and will gradually replace the IP network by naturally substituting IP traffic with traffic of other identifiers. The primary identifier in MIN is identity. Each resource should be bound to an identity when being uploaded or published.

Sovereignty network uses Multi-Identifier System (MIS) as its management plane. MIS manages users and identities within its domain and balances individual privacy protection and operators' management with cryptography. MIS has a top to bottom hierarchy: the top domain were implemented by countries through consortium blockchain to achieve MIN co-governing. Each subordinate domain is managed by the corresponding country or organization to ensure systemic security and flexibility in a low-coupling way, as well as the particularity and customization among different domains. Multi-Identifier Router (MIR) is the core equipment of MIN, providing identifiers inter-translation and routing services.

In the MIN network, the function of a complete node is to participate in the in-domain user management and identifier registration on the blockchain, as well as provide services such as identifier transformation and identifier addressing; those nodes are called multi-identifier routers. Besides, there are regulatory nodes, individual users, and enterprise users in the network. The supervisor node is set up in each domain as an interface for data access between the upper and lower domains. Supervisor node takes the charge of multi-identifier, such as identity, content, service, geographic information, and IP address.

We describe the MIN network with a four-layer architecture shown in Fig. 3.1, and our work focuses on the application layer MIS and multi-identifier layer MIR.

The function of MIS is responsible for the generation and management of multiple identifiers. The identifier is sent to the supervisor node. After verification and consensus reached by the Consensus Algorithm, its attribution information and operation information will be recorded on the blockchain. Blockchain technology makes the content of the whole network unified and traceable, and prevents content from being illegally modified. The application layer is mainly managed by MIS, which divides the whole network into hierarchical domain networks from top to bottom. Its role in MIN is similar to DNS in the IP network, but DNS functions are

Fig. 3.1 The architecture of sovereignty network based on MIN

only a subset of MIS. Each node of MIS holds a complete identifier database for its domain.

The multi-identifier layer provides resolution service for identifiers, and is also responsible for packet forwarding and filtering. It supports tunnel transmission (IP-MIN-IP, MIN-IP-MIN) and mutual accessing (IP-MIN, MIN-IP) between various identifier scenarios. Each MIR maintains a library of recently used identifiers. Besides there are some technologies proposed by authors to improve the performance, such as HPT-FIB algorithm improving the efficiency of multi-identifier translation and addressing, Hyperbolic Routing model supporting addressing in large scale network, and Transmission Control scheme guaranteeing high quality service.

One of the differences between the sovereignty network and the IP network is the MIN's security mechanisms. Users register with their personal identity information, such as ID cards, mobile phone numbers, fingerprints. User registration information will be stored in blockchain nodes for subsequent user management. New users have to register with their real identities to access the sovereignty network. Then they can actively publish content in the sovereignty network. But the blockchain system will record a behavior log for each user. Besides, there are a set of security mechanisms in the sovereignty network, such as content retrieving mechanism by blockchain, identity authentication mechanism based on cryptography, the multi-identifier router with content audit procedures, cyberspace mimic defense (CMD), and distributed storage system with endogenous security to guarantee the security of data backup. The security of MIN is analyzed in the third part of the next chapter.

Based on the above architecture, we propose a multilateral co-governing sovereignty network. As a future network architecture, MIN was granted as a World Leading Internet Scientific and Technological Achievements of the 6th World Internet Conference at Wuzhen, China, in 2019. The proposed architecture has been implemented in the operators' network to test the multi-identifier management functions and VoD function of network transmission. Through the above prototype and experiments, its compatibility with the IP network and progressive deployment has been verified.

# 3.3.2 Multi-identifier System

MIS divides the whole network into hierarchical domains from top to bottom. The nodes in the top-level domain belong to the organizations of the major countries which jointly maintain a consortium blockchain. The respective regional organizations govern the other domains. Among them, the registration and management mode of identifiers and the specific implementation details can vary. This low coupling guarantees the security of the network and enables customization of each domain [8]. MIS subsystem realizes the storage and co-governance of user information and identification through blockchain technology. Main modules of MIS are listed as follows:

The registration process is as follows:

MIR's process to resolve the identifier is as follows:

In MIN, users' behaviors of publishing and accessing are protected and managed by MIS, and the blockchain undeniably records illegal actions. Only approved content is allowed to be published. At the same time, different identifiers can be defined by different sovereignty subnetworks. The application for an electronic visa for translation between identifiers and content communication between different sovereignty networks of different countries is completed by the blockchain. MIS credibly records transaction history which can be tracked and queried. Thus, MIS ensures that user information and behavior cannot be tampered with and non-repudiation [9].

Therefore, MIN will make the cyberspace in an orderly and secure state, which will direct traffic to the post-IP multi-identifier network tied to the user's identity. The framework of MIS is shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2 The framework of MIS

# 3.3.3 Multi-identifier Router

The data plane is mainly composed of switches and MIRs. As the core equipment of the data plane, MIRs are mainly used for identifier inter-translation, routing and addressing, content filtering, data protection, and other functions. To fit different scenarios, MIR supports multiple network identifiers and multiple transmission modes simultaneously. Multiple identifiers include identity, content, service, geographic information, IP address, and other variants. Various transmission modes include the "push" mode represented by IP network architecture and the "pulling" mode represented by Content Centric Network (CCN) architecture.

Due to the large scale of the existing IP network, it cannot be replaced by the new network architecture in one day. Many of the network protocols above the network layer in IP networks are not directly compatible with the content centric network architecture. First, TCP is an end-to-end protocol that communicates through IP addresses and port numbers, which contradicts CCN's content-based philosophy. Second, in CCN, communication is a user-initiated process of "pulling" the required data. However, in TCP, it is a "push" process in which the sender sends data, and the receiver replies to the acknowledgment message. The two are fundamentally different in semantics. Third, TCP ensures reliable end-to-end transmission, which CCN does not address.

To realize the progressive deployment, TCP and CCN need to communicate mutually in MIN. The MIR scheme is divided into two parts, including the IP network compatibility scheme and the development of new network architecture. A comprehensive transmission scenario should be considered, including IP-MIN-IP, MIN-IP-MIN, IP-MIN and MIN-IP.

Fig. 3.3 Connection of IP-MIN-IP transmission

Fig. 3.4 Connection of MIN-IP-MIN transmission

(3) The tunnel between IP-MIN. IP-MIN communication means the transmission process that the host sending the request is in the IP network and the data it requests is in the MIN. Its architecture is shown in Fig. 3.5. The module is installed on the MIR at the junction of MIN and the IP network to obtain data from MIN for all IP nodes that can communicate with. This module

Fig. 3.5 Connection of IP-MIN transmission

communicates with the IP node through TCP protocol and pulls data from the MIN node through the exchange of interest packets and data packets.

(4) The tunnel between MIN-IP. Its architecture is shown in Fig. 3.6. This module is installed on the MIR router at the junction of MIN and IP network, which helps MIN nodes in the same domain pull files from the IP network.

Fig. 3.6 Connection of MIN-IP transmission

#### Fig. 3.7 Packet types [11]

The data transmission of the bottom layer of MIN is similar to Information Centric Networking (ICN) [10]. Communication in ICN is driven by data consumers. There are two types of grouping in ICN including interest packets and data packets [11, 12] shown as Fig. 3.7.

All data transmission in the MIN network is carried out through these two groups.

# 3.3.4 Security Situation Awareness System

With the increase of network scale and complexity, the attack technology is constantly innovated, and a large number of new attack methods emerged. In recent years, a variety of security incidents emerged in endlessly. Usually, enterprises need to react until the attack happens, which is difficult to prevent beforehand. Because security regulators cannot control the security situation of the enterprise in real time, they cannot take effective measures in the early stage of threat formation to avoid loss [13].

Security devices, such as firewalls, WAF (Web Application Firewall), IDS (intrusion detection system) and UTM (Unified Threat Management), are deployed independently in enterprises, governments, and financial institutions. So, they handle security incidents independently based on their device capabilities. At present, many security attacks or penetrations are combined or simulate normal access behavior, such as CC (Challenge Collapsar), APT (Advanced Persistent Threat) attacks, etc. This kind of attack threat cannot be protected or identified by a single system, so it needs to be unified protected by association and analysis of multi-system. Therefore, the security state of the entire network and its trend should be attention by network security personnel.

In addition to the endogenous security architecture [14] of the sovereignty network, a MIN security situational awareness system combined with blockchain has been designed and completed to further ensure the security and control of the network. The network status is monitored in real time by the proposed system, which is deployed on the boundary router of MIN. The proposed system senses the security threats that exist at all levels of the server in real time. Specifically, advanced machine learning, deep learning and high-performance computing models are

Fig. 3.8 The architecture of security situation awareness system

combined to improve analysis efficiency and accuracy. On the other hand, blockchain technology is combined to latch and accurately locate events. The system can help network analysts assess the risk profile and predict future trends (Fig. 3.8).

The system is divided into three layers including a data collection module, data processing module, and situation assessment module. The data collection module monitors and collects real-time traffic of the network, as well as detects and collects abnormal data of the IP and MIR through the NetFlow tool and TCP dump. The data processing module analyzes, classifies, extracts, and stores the collected data with the Kafka and Scapy. Besides, deep learning algorithms and machine learning algorithms based on single vector machine classification are combined to improve the efficiency of the process. For the host detection, we adopt a comprehensive feature database for testing whose characteristics of library can detect 84 kinds of common abnormal behavior to effective capture of attackers. Then the data will be analyzed with AI technology immediately. According to the result, abnormal traffic and events are recorded and reported to the administrator. The situation assessment module is responsible for assessing and predicting the security situation of the system in real time. The critical security information will be fed back to the administrators to adjust the defending strategy.

Besides, all abnormal events are locked in the PPoV\_blockchain to ensure that the record of security threat events is not tampered with, and the attacker's behavior trajectory cannot be erased, which ensures the integrity of the system security log and further improves the security of the system itself.

The security situation awareness system integrates various security technologies such as packet processing technology based on big data, AI modeling, blockchain, and Cyberspace Mimic Defense. These technologies help decision-makers understand the system security situation in real time. The security situation awareness system traces network behavior and supervises the whole traffic in the global domain to guarantee the security of MIN.

# 3.4 Processes in Sovereignty Network

The sovereignty network supports a variety of functions, each of them is described in this section with selecting Broadcast TV network as a typical application scenario.

# 3.4.1 Registration Process

Users need to authenticate and register with real information such as ID number, mobile phone number, and face when they register a MIN account. The system uploads and stores user information in the blockchain. The user registration interface is shown in Fig. 3.9.

# 3.4.2 Publishing Content by Ordinary Users

In the sovereignty network, the core production and broadcast network can publish video, audio and other content, authorized users can also publish content. The content filmed or produced by the authorized user is transmitted to the blockchain node for voting. If the vote is approved, the content can be published on sovereignty networks. The process of authorized users to publish content is shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.9 Registration interface

# 3.4.3 Publishing Content by Broadcast Network Staffs

Another major source of content published on the sovereignty network is the production and broadcast network, which is shown in Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 3.10 Ordinary users publish content

Fig. 3.11 Staffs of the production and broadcast network publish content

# 3.4.4 Obtaining Content by Ordinary Users

Enterprise users and home users are collectively referred to as ordinary users. The process of ordinary user gets data can be divided into two classifications. The first is that the data provider is on the IP network. When the ordinary users of the

Fig. 3.12 Ordinary users obtaining content from IP network

sovereignty network acquire data for the first time, they need to obtain data from the IP network through EMIR. The data transmission process is shown in Fig. 3.12.

Table 3.1 The permission domain levels

conforms to the permission scope based on the permission domain, which can control the scope of its access content according to different levels. The permission information is shown in Table 3.1. If the requested content exceeds the user's permission, the request is discarded. While it is within the permission, then proceed to the next step.

The second situation of the ordinary user acquiring data is that the content provider is within the sovereignty network (the content publisher is the sovereignty network user). Or the requested content has been cached in the nodes of the sovereignty network, that is, users themselves or other users have requested the same content before. Hence the data can be directly obtained within the sovereignty network. The data transmission process is shown in Fig. 3.13.

Fig. 3.13 Ordinary users obtain content from the sovereignty network

# 3.4.5 Obtaining Content by Broadcast Network Staffs

Staffs of the Production and Broadcasting Network obtain resources from the IP network for producing and publishing. Therefore, they access resources mainly through the IP network. The process of data processing is shown in Fig. 3.14.

Fig. 3.14 Staffs of the production and broadcasting network obtain content

# 3.4.6 Assessing to Sovereignty Data by Extranet Users

Users in the sovereignty network can access to data in the IP network, and users or attackers in the IP network can also access the sovereignty network. However, to guarantee the security of the sovereignty network, EMIR strictly examines active requests from the external IP network. The process is shown in Fig. 3.15.

Fig. 3.15 EMIR examines active requests from the external network

# 3.4.7 Signature Algorithm in MIN

When the data is transmitted in the MIN based on Identity Centric Network (ICN), each data packet will be signed and decrypted, which is shown in Fig. 3.16.

# 3.5 Assessing the Security of Sovereignty Network

# 3.5.1 Anti-attacking Analysis

One of the main usages of the sovereignty network is to construct secure and private networks. How to ensure the security of the kernel private network is an important issue to be considered in the construction of a sovereignty network. The sovereignty network based on blockchain technology will guarantee the security

Fig. 3.16 The process of signing and decrypting

and reliability from three aspects: identity centric networking, audit filtering mechanism, and endogenous security mechanism.

## 1. Identity Centric Networking

Firstly, the sovereignty network is an identity centric network and it does not rely on IP system. All attacks against IP constructed by using IP security defects are invalid in the sovereign network. Secondly, the public key is used to sign each packet. Thirdly, because the identity centric network is driven by data consumers, only content that has been requested can be sent to consumers, and content producers cannot actively send data. If the external network wants to send the request or the attacker wants to send the data actively, they need to crack the signature of the consumer. The cracking process is mainly to crack the related cryptography algorithm. The attack difficulty of existing encryption algorithms has reached exponential level. For example, the most common RSA algorithm would take decades to run on today's highest performance supercomputers. Besides, user information, user behavior information is stored in the blockchain in identity centric network. If there is a problem with the published content or the requested content, it can be accurately located to the individual to ensure that the behavior and resources can be managed and controlled.

# 2. Audit Filtering Mechanism

Starting from EMIR, the sovereignty network will set up filtering functions such as firewall, packet detection, text recognition, audio recognition detection, image and video recognition detection, and natural language processing at each MIR where the packet will pass. These filtering functions will filter the harmful data. If attackers want to attack the core network, they need to attack each filtering MIR on the link in turn. An attacker walks along the attack chain taking one step down the chain each time when breaks through a filter. If the attackers are caught by a filter, they move one step back along the attack chain. Through the multi-layer filtering mechanisms, the spread of attacks is effectively prevented in the network.

# 3. Endogenous Security Mechanism

The core equipments of the sovereignty network are constructed with the Cyber Mimic Defense (CMD) architecture which has endogenous security characteristics. In the field of cyber defense, similar to the biological mimic defense, CMD changes its architecture under the premise of its service function and the target object, which improves the difficulty of attack. The common architecture reconfigures the internal structure, redundant resources, operating system, core algorithm, and environment to avoid the unknown back door or Trojan virus. Therefore, a plausible scenario is presented to the attacker, which disrupts the construction and effectiveness of attack chains to multiplicate the cost of attack.

# 3.5.2 Security Mechanisms

The security of the sovereignty network can be analyzed from the above three aspects, among which the main security mechanism is listed as follows.

	- The sovereignty network adopts a "pull" mode, namely the receivers pull data actively.
	- If users want to pull data in the sovereignty network, they need to sign in with their real identity information. Therefore, harmful data flowing into the sovereignty network can be traced to a specific user avoiding the intentional introduction of harmful data from the IP network by users in the sovereignty network.

# 3.6 Protocol Architecture of Sovereignty Network

Since the sovereignty network adopts an identity centric network as its architecture of the core network, it is completely different from the traditional IP network. Protocols in the IP network may not be applicable in the sovereignty network. But the link layer and physical layer of the IP network are similar to the sovereignty network, so both of these two layers can be applied in the sovereignty network without any changes. Protocols in the application layer of the IP network need to be modified to adapt the sovereignty network.

To make the applications of the sovereignty network take full advantage of the characteristics of the multi-identifier network, the network architecture should be redesigned. As shown in Fig. 3.17, the network architecture consists of four layers: application layer, multi-identifier network layer, data link layer and physical layer.

Fig. 3.17 The protocol architecture of sovereignty network

Table 3.2 Protocols in sovereignty network

This architecture is compatible with traditional applications, but does not correspond exactly to the TCP/IP model. The protocols used in the sovereignty network are shown in Table 3.2.

We describe the protocol architecture shown in Fig. 3.17.

The sovereignty network adopts an identity centric network as the core network and takes the identity identifier as the core authentication identifier. Compared with the current IP network protocol stack, the sovereignty network establishes the multi-identifier network layer which combines and simplifies the transport layer and the network layer in the IP network. The protocols in the application layer of the sovereignty network are roughly similar to those in the application layer of IP network, while authentication is added in the network layer, and identity is taken as the prior condition of routing. By adding the content identifier field, the translation of content and identity identifier has been realized. Identity information represents the personal information of the publisher, such as ID number, mobile phone number, MAC address of the publisher's device and so on. Among them, the packet forwarding among multi-identifier network layer, application layer and data link layer is through the Face. Face is an abstraction of the network communication channel, which represents not only the interface connection information of physical devices, but also the port information between communication process protocols. The data link layer and physical layer are roughly similar to the current IP network, including CSMA, PPP, Copper, etc.

The identifiers in MIN (Multi-Identifier Network) support a variety of communication modes with different semantics such as push and pull semantics. To guarantee the transmission performance in different communication modes, we propose MIT (Multi-Identifier Network Transmission Control Protocol), which allows the MIR nodes to participate in transmission control to balance the network load.

MIT exploits the explicit congestion detection and notification scheme. The MIR nodes periodically detect its congestion status by using the AQM (Active Queue Management) algorithm. In order to notify the current network status to downstream nodes, the MIR node marks data packets through setting the congestion tag. Once receiving the explicit congestion message, the end host will adjust its packets sending rate correspondingly to make full use of network resources and avoid network congestion. For packets with pull semantics, the receiver adjusts its sending rate according to the congestion mark in received data packets. For packets with push semantics, the receiver marks the reply packet through the congestion mark in the received data packet, so the sender can fully perceive whether their packets cause network congestion through the reply packet.

MIN realized the multilateral co-governing and sovereignty autonomy in cyberspace for the first time. In 2019, MIN and its prototype system were awarded as the leading technological achievements of the sixth World Internet Conference at Wuzhen, China [15] (Figs. 3.18 and 3.19).

Fig. 3.18 The 6th World Internet Conference

Fig. 3.19 The 6th World Internet

Conference-MIN

3.6 Protocol Architecture of Sovereignty Network 93

# References

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

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# Chapter 4 Key Technologies of Sovereignty Network

In order to realize all functions of the sovereignty network while guarantee the security at the same time, what key technologies should be used in the architecture? This chapter will elaborate on the key technologies of the sovereignty network.

Sovereignty network is mainly composed by a traceable data signing and acceptance mechanism and combined with the MIN protocol architecture. A variety of innovations were proposed and integrated into the Multi-identifier Router (MIR) as the core device of MIN, and the construction is carried out around supporting multi-identifier coexistence, co-governance, endogenous security, as well as supporting network evolution.

On the data plane of sovereignty network, in order to support the operation of identity centric network, we proposed the data transmission scheme and designed the user access process based on identity centric network, which are described in Sect. 4.1. In order to meet the needs of various communication scenarios, we proposed and realize the inter-translation scheme supporting multiple identifiers coexisting equally in MIN. Then to guarantee endogenous evolution ability of MIN, we designed an identifier extension mechanism that allows the gradual extension of MIN identifiers. Details are presented in Sect. 4.10. In general, the above new identifiers are much longer than IP address, so the inter-translation and addressing process of multi-identifier will face great pressure in computing and storage. To this end, we proposed a hash table with prefix tree algorithm HPT, accelerating the backtracking process of FIB query algorithm and effectively improving the efficiency of multi-identifier translation and addressing. HPT-FIB has a significant storage overhead when the network scale further expands. Therefore, we proposed a hyperbolic identifier and routing scheme instead of forwarding table to reduce storage overhead in MIR. Those are described in Sect. 4.3. Further, in order to meet the demand of the development of future network towards space-terrestrial integrated, we proposed a greedy routing strategy based on hyperbolic routing technology and light-weight distributed self-adaptive satellite routing algorithm based on delay to construct the Space-Terrestrial Multi-Identifier Network (ST-MIN). ST-MIN takes advantages of the feature that satellite communication is not affected by time, location or environment, which is described in Sect. 4.9.

Moreover, considering the communication reliability and transmission efficiency of the sovereign network under different scenarios, we proposed MIT– Transmission Control Protocol, a transmission control scheme for MIN. MIT supports the transmission control in both push semantic and pull semantic, which is described in Sect. 4.8.

On the management plane of MIN, in order to realize co-governance of user information and identification, we proposed PPoV (Parallel Proof of Vote) as a non-forking consensus algorithm for consortium blockchain. The core idea is the separation of voting rights and bookkeeping rights, which is presented in Sect. 4.2.

In addition to the construction of the architecture, the sovereignty network is required to protect user privacy and system security while managing users. To this goal, we designed a variety of security mechanisms. To guarantee the privacy of users and traceable of behaviors, combined with asymmetry encryption technology, we proposed an identity authentication scheme of the sovereignty network based on human biological characteristics. To provide a hierarchical security and reliability guarantee for network, we adopted three kind of protection mechanisms: network censorship, cryptography, and Cyberspace Mimic Defense (CMD) for designing six levels of defense barriers. Besides the above structural security, we design a Security Situation Awareness System to monitor the network state in real time, and establish a mathematical analyzing model based on random process to assess the network security and optimize the security policy. The above security mechanisms are described in Sects. 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, and 4.7.

# 4.1 Identity Centric Network

Identity centric network is one of the key technologies of the sovereignty network. Data transmission in the sovereignty network is based on the identity centric network.

# 4.1.1 MIN Based on Identity Centric Network

The core conception of MIN is that multiple identifiers and transmission semantics can coexist in the network layer at the same time. In order to illustrate the concrete meaning of multiple identifiers, the identifiers are classified by two dimensions, including the identifier form and the identifier semantic. In terms of the dimension of the identifier form, identifiers can be classified into the following three types:

(1) Flat identifiers. Flat identifiers are usually composed of a series of irregular values or characters. So, such identifiers are difficult to aggregate in the routing table. Some network architectures (such as XIA) use the hash value of a public key or data slice as the identifier for routing, which is a typical example of Flat identifiers.

On the other hand, in terms of the dimension of the identifier semantic, there are at least two types of transmission semantics listed as follows:

Network devices can process different types of identifiers. Devices that support the same identifiers can be divided into one area named identifier space. In order to support the extension of the new identifiers in the future, the current network must have one or more basic identifiers. The most typical basic identifier is the identity identifier, which directly uses the hash value of public key of the network device as the identifier for routing. It belongs to the flat identifier, and we define its transmission semantic is the point-to-point transmission semantic. Each device in the network must support identity identifiers, and each device will be bound to an identity identifier. A formal definition of the identifier space is given below.

# 1. The Definition of Symbols

(4) <sup>S</sup><sup>N</sup> <sup>¼</sup> ð Þ VN; <sup>N</sup> . <sup>S</sup><sup>N</sup> represents the identifier space, which is a 2-tuple. VN represents a subset of network device V in identifier space, and N represents a subset of all identifiers that are supported by identifier space SN.

# 2. The Definition of Identifier Space

The set <sup>S</sup><sup>N</sup> ¼ ð Þ VN; <sup>N</sup> can represent an identifier space in MIN if and only if <sup>S</sup><sup>N</sup> meets the following conditions:

# 4.1.2 Data Transmission Scheme

The characteristic of data transmission scheme in MIN is that it supports various transmission semantics coexisting on the network layer at the same time, including pull semantic and push semantic. MIR processing the incoming packet with different methods according to their identifier type, and this mechanism enable MIN's network layer to be compatible with various transmission semantics.

Identity identifier is the basic identifier of MIN, and it has two features. Firstly, the transmission semantic of the identity identifier is push semantic. Secondly, identity identifier can be the hash value of public key of a user or device. Point-to-Point push semantic is the most essential method in packet forwarding. When a router receives an incoming packet, it is just need to look up the FIB (Forwarding Information Base) to decide the next hop where the packet will be sent to. If no match is found in FIB, the router will drop the packet. Both ends in a point-to-point session can validate each other's identifier without any third-party certification body by using the hash value of the public key as the identity identifier. This is called the self-certified function of identifiers.

Another basic transmission semantic in MIN is the pull semantic, which is the typical transmission semantic in Information Centric Networking (ICN). Data transmission in ICN is driven by the consumer (receiver). There are two types of packets in ICN: Interest Packet and Data Packet. There are three major data structures: Forward Information Base (FIB), Content Store (CS), and Pending Interest Table (PIT).

FIB is used to forward interest packets to sources of matching the data. The FIB in the sovereignty network stores a list of outgoing faces rather than a single one [1]. Other than that, it's almost identical to The FIB in IP. ICN's FIB allows multiple data sources to be queried in parallel.

The CS is the same as the buffer memory of an IP router, but the replacement strategy is different [1]. Because each IP packet belongs to a separate point-to-point session, it has no further value after being forwarded downstream. So, the IP "forgets" the packet and recycles the cache (MRU replacement) as soon as the forwarding completes. ICN packets are idempotent, self-identifying, and self-certified, so each ICN packet may be useful to many consumers, for example, many hosts read the same news or watch the same YouTube videos. To maximize the possibility of sharing and minimize upstream bandwidth requirements and downstream latency, it is necessary for ICN nodes to remember incoming packets with LRU or LFU substitution strategies as long as possible.

PIT records the return path of the interest that is forward to upstream source of content, so the returned data packets can be sent downstream to the requester. In ICN, only interest packets are routed because they propagate upstream to possible data sources and leaving a "trace". This "trace" provides a return path to the source requester for a matching packet. Each PIT entry is a trace. Once the PIT entry is used to forward a matching data packet, the PIT entry is erased (data packet consumes interest packet). PIT entries that do not find interest packets that match the packet will eventually time out by a soft state model; the consumer sends interest packets repeatedly if they still want the packet [1].

The process of data transmission in information centric network is shown in Fig. 4.1.

The requester sends an interest packet with name of the content. The router that receives the request will record the interest packet's arrival face, and perform Longest Prefix Match Algorithm (LPM) for the content name.

Firstly, the CS is queried. If the requested content exists in the CS, the content is returned directly to the requester, and the interest packet is discarded; actually, it has been satisfied.

Fig. 4.1 The process of data transmission in information centric network [1]

Then, the content name of the interest packet is queried in PIT. If there are exactly matching PIT entries, the arrival face of the interest packet is added to the list of requesting faces for PIT entries. Then the interest packet is discarded because a same interest packet has already been sent to upstream nodes. Hence, the router will send a copy of the data packet to each corresponding incoming face recorded in the PIT when the data packet arrives.

Finally, the content name of the interest packet is queried in FIB. If there is a matching entry, the interest packet needs to be sent upstream to the data source. If the resulting list of querying FIBs is not empty, the interest packet is then sent out all the reserved faces, and a new PIT entry is created according to the interest packet and its arrival face.

If the interest packet does not match any entry in FIB, it is discarded. It means that this node does not have any matching data and does not know how to find the matching data.

Once the interest packet reaches the node that has the requested resource, the data packet containing the name, content and the publisher's signature is forwarded to the requester along the reverse path of the interest packet.

During the data transmission, neither interest packets nor data packets carries any host or interface address. In addition, ICN introduces the design of network cache. The router which the data packet passes through will cache the correct contents in its buffer memory, namely CS. Caches in ICN can help reduce the delay and the occupation of bandwidth in the content downloading process. If the cache has stored the request content, it can be returned to the requester without accessing to the data source when the request arrives at the router.

The process of data forwarding in the information centric network is as follows. When multiple interest packets request the same data at the same time, the router records incoming faces of these interest packets in PIT and only forwards the first received interest packet. When the data packets are returned, the router finds the matching entries in PIT and forwards the packets to those faces recorded in the entries.

# 4.1.3 Process of User Access

In identity centric network, the management strategies combining identity information is introduced for user access. In order to encourage users to be responsible for the published content, new contents published by users are bound with their identity information.

The process of user registration to the sovereignty network based on blockchain [2] is shown in Fig. 4.2.

Each user in the sovereignty network is a client node. Users in the sovereignty network must register with their real identities. The client generates public and private keys, then submits the public key, identity information, and information signed with the private key to any node in the blockchain. All nodes of the

Fig. 4.2 The process of user access

blockchain open service threads. When a blockchain node receives the request sent by the client, the request format is first checked. Then the blockchain node searches the user information in the local database and simply validates some contents. If one of the above steps failed, error message is returned to the client. If all the verifications are successful, the blockchain node encapsulates the user registration request as a common transaction and sends it to all consortium nodes.

The butler that receives the ordinary transaction stores it in the transaction pool. At the beginning of each consensus round, the duty butler takes ordinary transactions from the transaction pool to generate the pre-block and sends it to all commissioners for signatures.

The commissioners receiving the pre-block shall verify the pre-block header and each transaction according to the rules set in advance. There are three types of validation: no validation, probabilistic validation, and validation of keywords against a custom filter list. If the verification fails, the commissioner will send the failure message to the duty butler. Otherwise, the signature of the block header will be returned to the duty butler.

If more than half of the commissioners is collected rejecting signature, the duty butler will delete the pre-block in the memory, take out transactions from the local pool to generate the pre-block and send it to all commissioners for signatures. If more than half of the commissioners is collected agreeing signature, the duty butler will store the signatures in the block header and calculate the number of the duty butler for the next consensus period. Then it adds the timestamp to make the pre-block be a formal block. The formal block is finally released to the blockchain network. If less than half of the signatures are received, the duty butler will wait until time out, i.e., 20 seconds. Then the duty butler will be replaced and the pre-block will be regenerated and sent to the commissioners for signatures.

In blockchain, each node receiving formal block will verify signatures of commissioners and whether the number of signatures is more than half of commissioners. If the validation is successful, the block is stored in MongoDB database. The user registration information is then extracted from the block and is stored in the user registry. User information outside the blockchain is also stored via MongoDB. Considering MongoDB is a type of NoSQL (Not Only SQL), internal data is stored in a JSON-like format called BSON, which is different from the concept of the data table in a common relational database. However, due to the fixed key of user data and no nested structure, it can be equated to a user information table in a relational database.

The above procedure implements the process from sending requests to storing in the database and the information table outside the blockchain. By adding user registration requests in the consensus process, encapsulating user registration information into ordinary transactions, verifying the transactions, retrieving user information from transactions and saving to the database, it realizes the combination of blockchain and user registration function.

The fields and their meanings contained in the user information table are shown in Table 4.1.

An example of the user information table is shown in Table 4.2.

Table 4.1 User information table

Table 4.2 An example of the user information table

# 4.2 Large-Scale Multilateral Managed Consortium Blockchain Technology

The blockchain originates from a unique way to store data in the system of cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin [3]. It can hold all historical data, transaction records, and other related information in the past by using a self-referencing blockchain data storage structure. Bitcoin has introduced the consensus mechanism into blockchain technology, making tampering with data almost impossible for attackers in computational difficulty [4, 5]. The consensus mechanism plays a key role in blockchain applications, which directly affects the safety and performance of products. Combining distributed storage, cryptography, consensus mechanism and peer-to-peer transmission, the blockchain technology reaches a spontaneous consensus in a decentralized environment with the core of safeguarding group interests.

Generally, the blockchain is divided into three types: public, private and consortium blockchain. Blockchain technology originates from the public blockchain. However, in practical application, the public blockchain suffers from various restrictions in different countries because of its transparency, untraceable of private information and weak controllability. As a compromise between the private and the public blockchain, the consortium blockchain has the advantage of realizing "partial decentralization" between some existing institutions, making the consortium of them efficient and fair.

The construction of the sovereignty network adopts the self-proposed efficient and novel consensus algorithm—PoV (Proof of Vote) [6–10], which is suitable for the consortium blockchain.

# 4.2.1 PoV Consensus Algorithm

There are four roles in PoV: commissioner, butler, butler candidate, and ordinary user. A certain degree of concurrent role is allowed, as shown in Fig. 4.3.

#### 1. Commissioner

A commissioner is a member of the consortium committee. Several enterprises or institutions from different regions of the world form a consortium committee and maintain a consortium blockchain system together. A new commissioner must be

Fig. 4.3 Four roles in the PoV network

accepted through the proposed consortium law or offline consultation, and represented by a node working in the consortium blockchain network. It uses CS (Commercial Server) to provide services.

Commissioners have the following characteristics:

#### 2. Butler

Butlers specialize in producing blocks. The number of butler nodes is limited. They can be considered as representative nodes in the traditional consensus algorithm, but the difference is that the authority of butlers is supervised and voted by commissioners in the consortium. The role of butler is designed to separate the voting and bookkeeping right. Commissioners have no right to produce blocks. However, a butler should gather transactions from every commissioner via network, pack them into a block, and sign it.

To becoming a butler, one needs to take two steps:

The butlers take turns to generate blocks in random order during the tenure and accept re-election after the expiration of their term of office.

## 3. Butler Candidate

The system numbers the butlers {0, 1, 2, …, n − 1} which win the election in each round. As the number of butlers is limited, commissioners can elect butlers only from butler candidates through voting. If butler candidates lose the election, they can stay online, and wait for the next election.

There are three steps to apply for a butler candidate:

#### (4) Ordinary User

All three of these nodes use cryptography to authenticate their identities and need to sign the hash values of their operational messages. In contrast, ordinary users have the following characteristics:

Figure 4.4 shows the relationship between the four roles.

# 4.2.2 PoV Consensus Process

The overall process of PoV consensus is shown in Fig. 4.5. After initialization, each node first enters the phase of the genesis block generation, which is jointly generated by commissioners and contains the information of the initial consortium members and the first batch of butlers.

When the genesis block is created, the system will automatically enter the cycle of "generating BW ordinary blocks +1 special block". Each cycle is a tenure, and a

Fig. 4.4 Conversion of the four roles [8]

Fig. 4.5 Block generation process [8]

round of consensus may pass through M duty butlers to eventually generate a block. The butler circulates the work during on-duty and off-duty, and periodically applies to the vast majority of commissioners for block synchronization to ensure the latest status of itself. The generation cycle of a block is also the duty cycle of a selected butler to create a block. Each block contains a random number R generated by the random number algorithm, specifying the number of the next duty butler i = R.

After the genesis block is generated, the key nodes to create the block are the commissioners and the butlers. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 respectively show the flow chart of the perspective of the butler and the commissioner of ordinary blocks, where

〈h; hs; <sup>M</sup>; time; <sup>R</sup>;sign Bð Þ〉represents the block height, the latest special block height, the cost duty cycle, the timestamp, the random number, the butler's signature and other key attributes in the current block.

Figures 4.6 and 4.7 explain the key processes of generating ordinary blocks and special blocks only from the perspective of commissioners and butlers. On the other hand, other nodes, such as butler candidates and ordinary users are in a continuous cycle of synchronizing blocks, updating stored data, forwarding blocks, submitting and forwarding transactions. Most of these operations are in the network layer and the data layer. Submitting a common application transaction is in the application layer and usually operated by the wallet.

Algorithm 4.1 gives the pseudocode to run PoV algorithm on a node. After a series of initializations, the node determines how to run the PoV process by its own state and configuration.

Fig. 4.6 Flow chart for generating ordinary blocks and special blocks (butler's perspective)

Fig. 4.7 Flow chart for generating ordinary blocks and special blocks (commissioner's perspective)

Algorithm 4.2 describes the implementation of the commissioner process, including phases of the genesis block generation and the ordinary block generation.

Algorithm 4.3 describes the implementation of the butler candidate process.

This PoV has been updated to highly efficient version of Parallel PoV, or shortly as PPoV.

# 4.2.3 PoV Hierarchical Signature Mechanism

Due to the division of labor among nodes in the identity centric network is different, the sovereignty network considers using a hierarchical group/ring signature scheme [11]. Signatures of nodes in the network form a tree structure, and each superior manages a group of subordinate nodes as its leaves. Non-leaf nodes and their leaves form a group/ring. The public key table with all public keys in the group/ring is maintained locally where the signature formats of leaf and non-leaf nodes are respectively <sup>r</sup> <sup>¼</sup> ð Þ <sup>r</sup>;<sup>s</sup> and <sup>r</sup> <sup>¼</sup> ynew;^r1; ^rt ð Þ ;<sup>s</sup> ; ^ri <sup>¼</sup> ri ð Þ ; <sup>r</sup><sup>i</sup> , as shown in Fig. 4.8.

The superior signature is generated by the combination of the subordinate signatures and contains all information of the subordinate nodes. So, the verification of the superior signature also includes that of the tree rooted by the signature. In addition, according to the security requirements of the hierarchical group signature scheme, the group manager can only track the signer identity of its leaf node and cannot open the signature generated by members in other groups. By establishing

Fig. 4.8 Hierarchical group/ring signatures

groups among nodes with different levels and identities, the superior group managers can quickly locate the problem group and identify the corresponding malicious nodes.

To reduce the size of a single tree and the complexity of iterative verification, the signature tree is divided into two types according to its ownership and purpose: ring signature tree for voting and common group signature tree. The hierarchical signature mechanism based on group/ring signature technology with PoV blocks is shown in Fig. 4.9.

# 4.3 Routing Scheme for Billions of Multiple Identifiers

Traditional Routing methods based on flat Routing Protocol, such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), are faced with the problem of Routing Information synchronization, and cannot be adapted to hierarchical network architecture. Considering the hierarchical management characteristics of the sovereignty network, the BGP protocol is adopted to synchronize the routing information between the autonomous system of the same level network. Considering the future Industrial Internet and other application scenarios, the network addressing scale will have been continued explosive growth.

In order to further improve the efficiency of routing, hyperbolic identifier and routing scheme [12, 13] is proposed for the core networks which has more stable topology and under greater routing pressure than other parts. Then the hash table with prefix tree algorithm is designed for edge networks which topology changes frequently to support a huge amount of identifiers routing problem.

# 4.3.1 Border Gateway Protocol

The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an optimal distance vector routing protocol, which is used to connect the routes between autonomous system. BGP protocol provides an inter-domain routing system, it guarantees that the autonomous system can only exchange routing information acyclic and routers exchange information about the paths to the target network.

The BGP is modified from the Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP), where EGP can only simply transport routing information between ASs. However, EGP does not distinguish any priority in routing and does not consider how to avoid routing loops between ASs. So BGP is generally adopted in the operator's core network.

Different with the original EGP, the BGP provides a better service due to the routing optimization, avoiding routing loops, efficiently routing, and maintain large amounts of routing information. This is a policy-based routing protocol that allows the autonomous system to transport data based on a variety of BGP attributes. The most critical factor to be considered is the BGP attributes rather than the speed, when determining the best path.

BGP forwards by maintaining three tables: (1) a neighbor relationship table that records all neighbors, (2) a forwarding database that records neighbor network, path attributes, and BGP attributes, (3) a route table that records the optimal path and the distance of the BGP route from the outside/inside.

The main message types are listed as Table 4.3.

BGP adopts different strategies to establish neighborhood relationships according to its states. In the Idle state, BGP rejects connection requests from neighbors. Only after receiving the Start event from this device, BGP tries to make TCP connection with other BGP peers and goes to the Connect state. The Start event is

triggered by one of these reasons: a BGP procedure is configured by an operator, an existing procedure is resettled, and the BGP procedure is resettled by a router software. Whatever the state BGP is, BGP will go to Idle state after receiving Error events such as Notification message, TCP pipe broken Notification.

If in the Connect state, TCP build the connection through three times handshake. If TCP do not complete the handshake, the BGP starts the Connect Retry timer and waits for TCP to complete the connection. If the TCP connection is successful, then BGP sends an Open message to the peer and switches to the OpenSent state. If the TCP connection fails, and the BGP switches to the Active state. If the Connect Retry timer timeouts and the BGP still does not receive a response from the BGP peer, the BGP attempts to build TCP connection with another BGP peer, and BGP remains in the Connect state.

In the Opensent state, if three times handshake is successful, and sending OPEN message to negotiate related parameters of BGP (e.g., AS, version, auth). BGP waits for the Open message of the peer, and checks the AS number, version number, authentication code and so on in the received Open message. If the received Open message is correct, the BGP sends the Keepalive message and switches to the OpenConfirm state. If any error is found in the received Open message, the BGP sends the Notification message to the peer and switches to Idle state.

When it enters the Establish state, BGP can exchange the Update, Keepalive, Route-Refresh and Notification messages with peers. If the correct Update or Keepalive message is received, then the BGP judges that the peer runs, and maintains the BGP connection. If an incorrect Update or Keepalive message is received, the BGP sends the Notification message to notify the peer of going to the Idle state. The Route-refresh message does not change the BGP state. If the Notification message is received, the BGP switches to Idle state. If the TCP chain notification is received, the BGP disconnects and switches to the Idle state. If Active TCP fails to establish three times handshake, it will attempt three times then goes back to Idle state.

Advantages of BGP:

# 4.3.2 Hyperbolic Identifier and Routing Scheme

Sovereignty networks forward content based on the name, which suffers from the large identity scale and dynamic requests brought by many new types of identifiers and many future application scenarios such as IoT, Industrial Internet, high security private network.

Greedy geometric routing (GGR) maps the cyberspace into a metric space and assigns an address or coordinate to each node. Each segment of the network message transmitted in the network is accompanied by its destination coordinates. Each router calculates the geometric distance between each adjacent node and the destination separately after receiving the packet. The one with the smallest distance will be selected as the next hop for forwarding. In this process, since the required information of each node only includes the coordinates of its neighbors, GGR can minimize the size of FIB as much as possible. GGR is a basis for providing a routing protocol for large-scale networks.

Hyperbolic routing (HR) is based on the scale-free property of the network, which means that the degree of nodes in the network follows a power-law distribution. Through the mapping algorithm, the network is mapped to a space with negative curvature (i.e., hyperbolic space). Two-dimensional space is taken as an example. Each node is mapped into a disk with radius R and assigned a polar coordinate ð Þ <sup>r</sup>; <sup>h</sup> . The angular coordinate <sup>h</sup> represents the relative position of the node in the network, and the radial coordinate r indicates the central degree of the node. The smaller the radius coordinate of a node, the closer to the center of the disk. When the angular coordinates of the two nodes are constant, the hyperbolic distance between them will decrease with the decrease of radial coordinates. Therefore, greedy routing based on hyperbolic distance tends to select more centralized nodes as its next hop for forwarding.

Many networks such as the IP Internet have the scale-free property. Combining with an appropriate mapping algorithm, a simple greedy strategy based on hyperbolic range can forward the message to the destination node with a high success rate. For the few cases that forwarding fails, auxiliary intelligent forwarding strategies can be adopted to make the success rate of hyperbolic routing approach 100%.

However, HR algorithm also has some defects. Compared with the routing protocol based on the traditional shortest path algorithm, the forward path selected by HR algorithm has a larger transmission delay. It's the inherent disadvantage of the greedy strategy, and most of the existing hyperbolic mapping algorithms do not consider network delay. To avoid this disadvantage, we have proposed a hyperbolic routing algorithm that reduces the network latency and ensures the fast selection of forwarding paths to guarantee the fast forwarding of the sovereignty network.

The proposed HR algorithm maps a scale-free cyberspace to a three-dimension hyperbolic space H<sup>3</sup> . Each node in the network is assigned a three-dimension spherical coordinates. The distance between two points <sup>r</sup>1; <sup>h</sup>1; /<sup>1</sup> ð Þ and <sup>r</sup>2; <sup>h</sup>2; /<sup>2</sup> ð Þ can be calculated based on the cosine law.

$$d\_{12} = \cosh^{-1}(\cosh r\_1 \cosh r\_2 - \sinh r\_1 \sinh r\_2 \cos \Delta \theta\_{12}) \tag{4.1}$$

where Dh<sup>12</sup> represents the central angle between the two points and the origin.

$$
\Delta\theta\_{12} = \cos^{-1}[\cos\theta\_1\cos\theta\_2 + \sin\theta\_1\sin\theta\_2\cos(\theta\_1-\theta\_2)]\tag{4.2}
$$

The algorithm includes two parts: the angular coordinate mapping and the radial coordinate mapping. The specific process is described in the next part.

#### 1. Angular Coordinate Mapping

Each node is assigned an angular coordinate, which is mapped to the sphere S<sup>2</sup> . Sphere S2 simulates the surface of the earth, while the angular coordinates of nodes represent their actual positions in the network as shown in Fig. 4.10.

Fig. 4.10 Angle coordinate mapping

The angular coordinates of high degrees nodes are set directly as their geographic location, i.e., the latitude and longitude information. The reasons are listed as follows:

We have proposed a different approach to non-central nodes with low degrees, because their network location depends on local topology than geographic information. For node i whose degree is greater than or equal to 3, it will calculate its average delay from each central node, then select the three central nodes j1, j2, j<sup>3</sup> with the smallest delay to calculate its angular coordinate.

If the delay between i whose angular coordinate is h ; <sup>u</sup> ð Þ and jk whose angular coordinate <sup>h</sup>k; <sup>u</sup><sup>k</sup> ð Þ is tk, we can obtain that:

$$\min\_{(\boldsymbol{\theta}^\*, \boldsymbol{\phi}^\*) \in \mathcal{S}^2} \left[ |\boldsymbol{\tilde{\boldsymbol{\varphi}}}| + \boldsymbol{\varepsilon} (\boldsymbol{\Delta\theta}\_{i1} + \boldsymbol{\Delta\theta}\_{i2} + \boldsymbol{\Delta\theta}\_{i3}) \right] \tag{4.3}$$

$$\text{s.t.} \lambda \Delta \theta\_{ik} = t\_k - \xi(k=1,2,3) \tag{4.4}$$

<sup>D</sup>hik is the central Angle of <sup>h</sup>k; <sup>u</sup><sup>k</sup> ð Þ and <sup>h</sup> ; <sup>u</sup> ð Þ, which can be obtained from Eq. 4.2. The Eq. 4.2 reflects the direct proportional relationship of the network delay and spherical distance, where the relaxation variable n is used to ensure a viable solution.

The former term of the objective function ensures that the value of n is as small as possible. The latter term <sup>e</sup>ð Þ <sup>D</sup>h<sup>i</sup><sup>1</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>D</sup>h<sup>i</sup><sup>2</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>D</sup>h<sup>i</sup><sup>3</sup> is used to select the smallest sum of spherical distances when there are multiple feasible solutions.

For non-central nodes with degrees less than or equal to 2, their angular coordinates will directly copy one of the highest degrees in the neighborhood, since there is only one path to the central node.

#### 2. Radial Coordinate Mapping

The radial coordinate r represents the central degree of a node. In a scale-free network, r follows the exponential distribution.

"Supernodes" in a network may delay the generation of suboptimal paths. For example, Shanghai has an extremely large number of Internet users, so there are several high "supernodes". If a message from the north Korean city of Incheon to the south Korean city of Busan, the forwarding path selected by HR may be attracted to the high center of Shanghai, i.e., Incheon—Shanghai—Busan causing additional delay, because these cities have a smaller population than Shanghai.

To solve this problem, the global network is divided into subgraphs. The most central node in each subgraph has similar radial coordinates. Therefore, the forwarding process is more likely to select the central node in the subgraph, which improves the locality of routing and reduces transmission delay. The m nodes i1; i2; ...; im with the highest degrees in the network are selected, and the other nodes measure the delay between themselves and each <sup>i</sup>. If ik is the one with the smallest delay, then this node belongs to the corresponding sub-graph Gk.

Radial coordinates are obtained by maximum likelihood estimation, and we have the following prior conditions:

(1) The degree of nodes follows a power distribution <sup>q</sup>ð Þ <sup>k</sup> <sup>k</sup><sup>c</sup> , where the lowest degree is k0, and the average value is k. The degree and radius coordinates satisfy the following relation:

$$r(k) = R - 2\ln\frac{k}{k\_0} \tag{4.5}$$

where R indicates the radius of the sphere.

(2) The probability of connecting two nodes with hyperbolic distance x is:

$$p(\mathbf{x}) = \left\{ 1 + \exp\left[\frac{\zeta(\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{R})}{2T}\right] \right\}^{-1} \tag{4.6}$$

T is temperature and represents the aggregation degree of control nodes. f is the curvature of hyperbolic space. R can be obtained by the following integral:

$$\mathcal{K} = \frac{N}{2\pi} \int\_0^R \rho[k(r)] \int\_0^R \rho[k(r')] \int\_0^\pi \int\_0^\pi p(\mathbf{x}) d\boldsymbol{\phi}^\prime d\boldsymbol{\theta}^\prime d\boldsymbol{r}' d\boldsymbol{r} \tag{4.7}$$

x is the hyperbolic distance between r<sup>0</sup> ; h<sup>0</sup> ; <sup>u</sup><sup>0</sup> ð Þ and ð Þ <sup>r</sup>; <sup>0</sup>; <sup>0</sup> .

On the basis of the above prior conditions, for node i with degree ki, the maximum likelihood of its radial coordinate is estimated as:

$$r\_i^\* = R - 2\ln\frac{k\_i - T\gamma}{k\_0} \tag{4.8}$$

If node <sup>i</sup> <sup>2</sup> Gj, its diameter coordinate is:

$$r\_i = \log\left\{\beta + \exp\left[r\_i^\* + \left(r\_0 - r\_i^\*\right)\left(\frac{R - r\_i^\*}{R - r\_j^\*}\right)^4\right]\right\}\tag{4.9}$$

b is used to adjust the relative weights of radial coordinates and angle coordinates in the routing process.

Through the above formula, the diameter coordinate r<sup>0</sup> of the most central node in each subgraph is obtained, and only minor modification is made to the non-central node whose original radial coordinate is small.

In the angular coordinate mapping algorithm, the network delay is equivalent to the spherical distance, and the coordinates of non-central nodes are calculated accordingly. At the same time, in the radial coordinate mapping algorithm, the delay is reduced by subgraph partition. At the same time, the network delay is taken as the basis of subgraph partition.

# 4.3.3 Hash Table with Prefix Tree Algorithm (HPT)

Prefix Tree (Trie), also known as Dictionary Tree, is a data structure commonly found in string matches. In a dictionary tree, an edge refers to a unit composed of a name, such as bits, characters, and so on. A node refers to a specific name whose contents are the assembly of components rooted to all the edges on the path to that node. In the storage structure based on Prefix Tree, the same prefix part between names is merged into the upstream path to realizing the compression of data capacity and the preservation of the logical relationship between names.

Because the prefix tree supports LPM (Longest Prefix Matching) algorithm and has good space utilization efficiency, most network uses prefix tree for forwarding. The disadvantage of prefix tree is that the searching speed in prefix tree is slow. Firstly, the computational overhead is roughly proportional to the expected length of the name. Secondly, at each level, the searching algorithm needs to match all the outsides of the node one by one to find the child nodes for the descent. Therefore, the forwarding architecture based on the prefix tree will cause a large searching delay and affect the overall performance of network.

Compared with the prefix tree, the searching speed of the hash table is not affected by name length and entry size, so it has better adaptability in a large-scale network. However, to cope with hash collisions, the hash table also needs to store the full key value (i.e., the content name) in the table entry, which incurs a large storage overhead.  To cope with these problems, existing ICN networks usually use data compression schemes such as footprint-based Hash Table and algorithm optimization schemes such as Random Search to improve the scalability of the system.

In general, the new identifier is much longer than the IP address, so the process of a multi-identifier will face great pressure of computing and storage. To this end, we propose a hash table with prefix tree algorithm HPT, adding semi-virtual entries to the prefix tree. This scheme accelerates the backtracking process of the FIB searching algorithm and effectively improves the efficiency of multi-identifier

Fig. 4.11 The structure of FIB [28]

translation and addressing. Hash tables are used for quick lookups, and tree structures are used to store logical relationships between names. The main structure of FIB is shown in Fig. 4.11.

The characteristics of FIB include the following:

The specific definitions of real entries, non-real entries, virtual entries, and semi-virtual entries are as follows:

(4) Semi-virtual entry: If the non-real entry has a real prefix, the non-real entry is called a semi-virtual entry and requires backtracking.

When a user registers and publishes resources on MIN, multiple identifiers are bound with resources and stored in MIS. Commonly used identifiers and their inter-translation information are stored in HPT-FIB of MIR. If MIR can query corresponding information in the local HPT-FIB, it will directly forward. Otherwise, MIR will initiate a translation request to the MIS system based on the identifier provided by the user. MIS searches the other identifiers corresponding to this identifier, then selects the appropriate identifier and sends it to MIR for addressing. The usage of FIB is as follows.

#### 1. FIB insert

First, we should determine whether the name to be inserted in FIB exists. If so, perform the first (1) inserting step; otherwise, perform the second (2) inserting step. The inserting steps are shown as below.

(1) The inserting steps

To sum up, in the first inserting step, if the name to be inserted already has a corresponding entry in FIB, there is no problem with adding new entries. The case of real entries is trivial, so only non-real entries are considered. The corresponding category is modified to be real. If the entry is originally virtual, the virtual entry in the subtree needs to be modified to semi-virtual. If the entry is originally semi-virtual, the subtree does not need to be modified.

(2) The inserting steps

Firstly, search the LPM of the name to be inserted in FIB. If HIT is real, then perform the first processing step. If MISS or HIT is virtual, the second processing step is performed.

To sum up, in the second step, if the name to be inserted does not have a corresponding entry, the corresponding real entry is inserted. At the same time, the prefixes are checked backward and forwards to ensure that they are present in the FIB. If a prefix is found not existing, the corresponding non-real entry is inserted. This process continues until the algorithm reaches the LPM or root node, and thus determines the category of non-real nodes inserted during this process (Fig. 4.12).

#### 2. FIB Search

The process of lookup of FIB algorithm is shown as Algorithm 4.5 and Fig. 4.13.

The port to forward the packet is obtained by searching the name of the interest packet through the random searching algorithm. The random searching algorithm can be chosen according to the request, such as traditional binary searches.

Fig. 4.13 The steps of FIB lookup

There are three patterns based on the category of the last HIT entry:

As shown in Fig. 4.14, the last HIT prefix of binary search for the name "/c1/c2/ c3/c6/c7" is "/c1/c2/c3", which is a semi-virtual table entry leading to the backtrack

process. The algorithm starts from "/c1/c2/c3" to backtrack until it encounters the first real entry "/c1", then returns its corresponding forward information.

So, there are two kinds of lookup results. One is HIT, which means that there is a corresponding real entry in HPT FIB (i.e., the last HIT entry is real entry or semi-virtual entry). The other is MISS, which means that the corresponding real entry does not exist (i.e., the last HIT entry is virtual).

#### 3. Deleting FIB

The FIB deleting step is used to discover and retrieve out-of-date non-real entries.

Firstly, determine whether there are child nodes in the corresponding entry of the name to be deleted in FIB. If so, perform the first deleting step; otherwise, perform the second deleting step.

	- First deleting sub-step: Change the entry category corresponding to the name to virtual, and then traverse the subtree with the name as root. If one of the nodes satisfies the first condition (category is semi-virtual) and the second condition (there are no real nodes on the path from the node to its name), then the category of the node is changed to virtual.

Through deleting steps, the categories of non-real entries can be kept correct in the dynamic environment, and out-of-date non-real entries can be found and recovered timely, so as to ensure the efficiency and stability of the forwarding plane (Fig. 4.15).

Our experiments show that the FIB forwarding data structure combining prefix tree with hash algorithm could support large-scale name prefix storage and search, as shown in Table 4.4.

HPT-FIB has a significant storage overhead when the network scale further expands. Therefore, we proposed a 3D Hyperbolic Routing (HR) model instead of a forwarding table to reduce storage overhead in MIR. MIN is mapped to a 3D hyperbolic space, then MIR and all contents are given 3D spherical coordinates. In HBR, MIR only uses the greedy algorithm to select a MIR as next-hop with the smallest hyperbolic distance from the destination for forwarding. This approach significantly reduces the storage overhead of MIR.

The HPT-FIB entries of this system are more than one billion, and the lookup speed is close to log(log(N)), where N is the number of identifiers. The design completely solves the problem of false-negative errors in the existing algorithms. Besides, MIR can detect and delete obsolete table entries timely, thus improving the efficiency of memory recovery.

Table 4.4 The relationship between time and scale of FIB [31]

# 4.4 Identity Authentication Scheme Based on Real Identity and Biometric

The identity authentication of the sovereignty network users is based on human biological characteristics, and combined with blockchain technology as a decentralized identity management scheme. The user authentication function accurately identifies the user's identity, and stores the related information into blockchains, so as to ensure its integrity and consistency. Besides, combined with the identity management scheme of blockchains, it also realizes the decentralization of third-party certificate authentication and generating institutions. Through the most advanced encryption scheme, the proposed scheme effectively protects the privacy of the user's identity information.

# 4.4.1 Introduction of User Biological Characteristics

#### 1. Iris

The iris is the circular region between the pupil and the white sclera on the surface of the human eye. In near-infrared light, the iris presents a rich texture, such as spots, stripes, filaments, coronae and crypts. Iris recognition technology is adopted in identity authentication by comparing the similarities between iris image features. The core step is to describe, match and classify iris features of human eyes by pattern recognition, image processing and other methods, so as to realize automatic human identity authentication.

The characteristics of iris are listed as follows.

a contactless (or even remote) collection device. This is very convenient in practical applications.

(4) Large capacity. The acquisition of clear iris texture requires the cooperation of specialized devices and users, so it is difficult to steal iris images, compared with fingerprints and faces. In addition, eyes also have a lot of excellent optical and physiological characteristics, which can be used for detection in vivo iris.

Iris recognition process includes iris image acquisition, iris image preprocessing, feature extraction and comparison, and user identity recognition.

#### 2. Face Recognition

Face recognition is a kind of biometric technology based on facial feature information. Images or video streams containing faces are captured with cameras to automatically detect and track the faces. The series of related technologies are commonly known as portrait recognition or face recognition.

Rapidly developing solutions include multi-light face recognition based on active near infrared image and face recognition based on machine learning.

Multi-light face recognition based on active near infrared image technology can overcome the influence of light changes and improve the recognition performance. Due to the performance of the system in accuracy, stability and speed superior to 3D image face recognition, this technology has developed rapidly in recent two or three years, which gradually makes facial recognition technology to practical application.

The face recognition technology combining machine learning is based on various theories to build the learning model and face database, which can also realize high-precision face recognition without special physical equipment.

Similar to other biological features of the human body such as fingerprints, iris, etc., the human face is innate. It is difficult to be copied with unique characteristics, which provides a necessary prerequisite for identification.

Compared with other biometrics, face recognition has the following characteristics:

In addition, face recognition also conforms to the characteristics of "recognizing people by appearance", as well as guarantees simple operation, intuitive results, good concealment, etc.

# 3. Fingerprint

The fingerprint is lines on the skin on the front end of fingers. The lines are arranged regularly to form different patterns. Fingerprints are almost synonymous with biometric identification for their lifetime immutability, uniqueness, and convenience.

The starting point, ending point, joint point and bifurcation point of the lines are researched as the detailed feature of fingerprint. Fingerprint identification compares the detailed features of different fingerprints. Fingerprint recognition technology combines image processing technology, pattern recognition technology, computer vision technology, mathematical morphology, wavelet analysis and many other subjects. Fingerprints can be used for identification because everyone's fingerprints are different even between the fingers of the same person.

The main advantages of fingerprint identification technology are listed as follows.

Above all, the adoption of biometric information can greatly improve the reliability of user identification and significantly reduce the probability of user feature information being stolen.

# 4.4.2 Introduction of Each Module

In the sovereignty network, the authentication system based on real identity and biometric characteristics includes three modules: identity chain, Content Management (CM) module, sovereignty network client and handheld terminals.

# 1. Identity Chain

The identity chain uses the blockchain based on PoV consensus as the underlying storage system to store the user's identity information, public key, and part of the encrypted identity information. Identity information refers to symbols that can be individually mapped to a particular unique user, such as relevant certificates, fingerprints, iris images and face information. Depending on the requirements of scenario with the need for high security, a location map of the off-chain storage can be written on the block, which uses a secure off-chain storage scheme to store identity information that the user refuses to disclose.

The identity chain also provides a client to query identity information. The sovereignty network client or CM module obtains the corresponding identity information with this client.

#### 2. CM Module

CM module is responsible for completing user's operations, such as adding, deleting, modifying, searching, etc., as well as specific business, such as registration, login, logout, modification and deletion of identity information. Various designs are adopted to protect the privacy and rights of the user. The addition and deletion of the user are executed without the authorization of users, while the modification and query of user information need its consent. In fact, the client needs to generate the corresponding Access Token or the intermediate key in re-encryption technology to indicate the obtained users' permission.

During the registration process, CM module approves part of the user's information. Once approved, the summary is signed and returned to the client. Meanwhile, as the verifier in the identity management scheme, CM module invokes the identity chain of the client to write and query the identity. In addition, CM encapsulates the third-party biological interface and works as the server for biological characteristics authentication. Since the variety of proposed biological authentication methods in the sovereignty network, the CM module determines which authentication method the user uses for login.

#### 3. Sovereignty Network Client and Handheld Terminals

The client is responsible for collecting and maintaining the corresponding hardware and software information, and the handheld terminal uses the interface of the biological verification facility in the form of APP to collect the initialization data and biological information during verification. The handheld terminal adopts Android system to develop Android applications and corresponding identity authentication applications for the sovereignty network client.

In addition, during the registration, the Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) is adopted in the client to generate the corresponding public and private key pairs, and then issue a request after CM approval. The approval public key, client information and identity information are written to the identity chain. Then the erasure code technology is used by the client to split the private key into n blocks, which will be stored on trusted devices respectively. While restoring the private key, m blocks are requested from the corresponding devices to decode the complete private key. In this way, MIN enhances the stability of the private key storage with low storage overhead.

# 4.4.3 Application Scenarios

#### 1. Handheld Terminal Authorization

As shown in Fig. 4.16, the process of handheld terminal authorization is as follows.

#### 2. User Registration

As shown in Fig. 4.17, the user registration process is as follows:

Fig. 4.16 Authorization of end-host

Fig. 4.17 The process of user registration

operation staff), and is stored in trusted devices. It is worth mentioning that MIN would provide a local disk to store private keys if the user does not provide any equipment.

As shown in Fig. 4.18, the process of user login is as follows:

(1) The user enters the user name and password. Then the client uses its private key and CM's public key to generate the re-encryption key. The re-encryption key cannot be used to invert the user's private key and CM's public key, but can be decrypted with CM's private key.

Fig. 4.18 The process of user login

# 4. User Identity Information Modification and Deletion

	- If the user needs to re-enter biological information, the process is similar to the registration process.
	- If the user needs to modify the biological information, the client would send the corresponding information to the CM module, and CM would re-write the updated identity information on the blockchain.

# 4.5 Privacy Protection and Network Management

The broadcasting network is used as an application example of the sovereignty network, which needs to protect user privacy while managing users. Hence, the sovereignty network introduces blockchain technology, asymmetry encryption technology, privacy protection strategy and other technologies [14, 15].

In addition to the above technologies, the sovereignty network set up electronic visas. When a user of a sovereignty subnet wants to access the content of another sovereignty subnet, he or she needs to apply for an electronic visa for the target sovereignty subnet. Access to the resource in the sovereignty subnet is only possible with visa information.

# 4.5.1 Electronic Visas of Sovereignty Network

Each country independently builds its own sovereignty network and has full autonomy. To access the content of a country's sovereignty web, users in other countries must first apply for an electronic visa, and then carry the successfully applied visa for the visit. At the same time, the country can control visa permissions and design access rules for content, such as making it off-limits to foreign users. In this way, cyberspace corresponds to reality, just as the Internet customs. It can not only realize the mutual access between countries, but also manage and control the access behavior. See Sect. 5.4.2 for a detailed description of certificate acquisition and access to network content through certificates.

# 4.5.2 Asymmetric Encryptions

Existing content centric network architectures typically use "verifiable names" for data requests. In other words, each name must contain how its publisher's public key is acquired, as well as the publisher's signature of the name and content. Before the data message is cached by the routing node or received by the requester, its signature information must be verified to ensure the integrity, security and reliability of the name and content.

There are frequent public key requests in the network. In order to save bandwidth resources and reduce the transmission pressure of the network, the sovereignty network adopts the public and private key generation scheme based on the identity identification and combination matrix. The scheme is briefly described as follows:

The cryptosystem we adopt is Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). In ECC, if the base point G on the elliptic curve and its order n are given, the positive integer <sup>r</sup>\<sup>n</sup> is the private key, and the <sup>r</sup> times <sup>G</sup> point rG ¼ <sup>R</sup> is used as the public key. It is easy to calculate <sup>R</sup> by ð Þ <sup>R</sup>; <sup>G</sup> , but it is not computationally feasible to solve <sup>r</sup> by ð Þ <sup>R</sup>; <sup>G</sup> because the discrete logarithm problem of elliptic curve is difficult. The private key matrix <sup>ð</sup>rijÞ<sup>m</sup><sup>n</sup> is <sup>m</sup> <sup>n</sup> order, where every element rij is a positive integer satisfying rij\n. The public key matrix <sup>ð</sup>RijÞ<sup>m</sup><sup>n</sup> can be generated by the corresponding relation rijG <sup>¼</sup> Rij. The private key matrix is only held by the authority of key management and used for the distribution of the user's private key. The public key matrix is held by each network node and used for data signature authentication.

As shown in Fig. 4.19, the key management agency generates the user's private key rID with the user's identity ID and private key matrix <sup>ð</sup>rijÞ.

For example, the generation of the private key can be implemented in the following way. Through cryptographic chip and cryptography, each identity ID can uniquely generate a sequence, as shown below.

Fig. 4.19 The process of generating the private key

$$GeneratorSub(ID) = \{i\_1, i\_2, \dots, i\_l, j\_1, j\_2, \dots, j\_l\} \tag{4.10}$$

The private key corresponding to ID is the sum of the corresponding items in the private key matrix:

$$r\_{\rm ID} = r\_{i\_{\rm ij1}} + r\_{i\_{\rm 2j2}} + \cdots + r\_{i\_{\rm ijl}} \tag{4.11}$$

Similarly, the public key corresponding to the ID can be calculated by the verifier using the public key matrix and the identity ID

$$R\_{ID} = R\_{i\_1j\_1} + R\_{i\_2j\_2} + \cdots + R\_{i\_lj\_l} \tag{4.12}$$

Because the multiple points of G form an exchange group,

$$\begin{aligned} r\_{ID}G &= (r\_{i\_1j\_1} + r\_{i\_2j\_2} + \dots \, r\_{i\_lj\_l})G\\ &= r\_{i\_1j\_1}G + r\_{i\_2j\_2}G + \dots \, r\_{i\_lj\_l}G\\ &= \mathcal{R}\_{i\_1j\_1} + \mathcal{R}\_{i\_2j\_2} + \dots \, \mathcal{R}\_{i\_lj\_l} \\ &= \mathcal{R}\_{ID} \end{aligned} \tag{4.13}$$

Therefore, ð Þ rID; RID constitutes the private-public key pair relationship. In this way, the one-one mapping between the identity and the public key is completed, which ensures the superintendence and traceability of network behaviors. On the other hand, the proposed method could avoid frequent requests for public keys and improves network performance.

# 4.5.3 Privacy Preserving Policy

When all user terminals request the network to register an identity identifier, they need to bind the corresponding identity information to ensure the normal operation and maintenance of the network. The user generates the identity certificate with a specific hash function and the user identity information. The system sends the user's public key to the supervisor node. The user signs the identity registration request with his own identity certificate and sends it to the supervision node together with the identity registration request. After the identity registration request is received, the supervisor node first uses the same hash function to verify the user's legitimacy, and then uses the user's public key to decrypt the additional signature. The supervisor node compares the two hash values. If they are the same, then the signature can be proved to come from the user, and the identity registration request is confirmed by the supervisor node. The sovereignty network stores the user's identity certificate in a distributed database, ensuring that the identity can be traced and monitored later. At the same time, the sovereignty network requires that all identities must be registered before they can be routed through the network. In addition, the identity information of the publisher must be added when the identity is registered, which can effectively reduce the spread of illegal prohibited content in the network, including but not limited to the dark web of traditional IP networks and personal privacy data. Screening for banned content can further protect users' privacy.

The sovereignty network also introduces a permission management policy. Content posted by users will be graded. When users access network resources, access rights can be determined according to their identity information. This can help administrators implement user management, such as restricting the daily online and gaming time of students and other certain groups. Classification of Internet content can effectively protect the physical and mental health of minors and promote the reasonable and compliant development of Internet content.