Hardness of matrix HO, MPa

1. 3000 (initial state)

Hardness of surface HS, MPa

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82545

Relative gain of surface hardness К, %

Surface Treatment of Titanium Alloys in Oxygen-Containing Gaseous Medium

R1 3050 3630 19.0 45–50 ≤505 20.0 R2 4030 32.0 30–35 ≤495 18.0 R3 4080 34.0 60–65 ≤465 11.0 R4 4860 60.0 60–65 ≤445 6.0 R5 5550 82.0 30–35 ≤500 19.0

Fatigue strength of titanium alloy VТ5, under rotating bending conditions, depending on the level of surface

Average relative gain of surface hardness К, %

Average relative gain of surface hardness К, %

2. 2650 3095 12.5 25–30 ≤430 28.5 3. 3575 30.0 30–35 ≤420 25.5

Fatigue strength of titanium alloy OТ4-1, under rotating bending conditions, depending on level of surface

Depth of hardened zone l, μm

Depth of hardened zone l, μm

Depth of hardened zone l, μm

3020 ≤1 5–10 ≤525 0

2850 4.0 5–10 ≤335 0

3200 5.0 5–10 ≤420 0

Fatigue strength σ�1, MPa

Fatigue strength σ�1, MPa

Fatigue strength σ�1, MPa Relative gain of fatigue strength Δσ�1, %

Relative gain of fatigue strength Δσ�1, %

Relative gain of fatigue strength Δσ�1, %

1. The kinetic parameters of interaction and regularities of solid solution

2. 3000 3145 5.0 100–120 ≤580 10

Fatigue strength of titanium alloy VT16, under rotating bending conditions, depending on level of surface

hardening of titanium alloys VT1-0, VT5, OT4-1, and VT16 under conditions of thermodiffusion saturation in rarefied gas medium are determined.

2. It is shown that under the same conditions of saturation (T, τ, P), the hardened layers of various parameters (H, l) are formed on the titanium alloys. The monophase α-titanium alloys VT1-0 and VT5 and near-α-alloy ОТ4-1 are the most sensitive to the conditions of gas saturation: the gain of surface hardness and its gradient in the hardened layer increase sufficiently. With the increasing

of β-phase (OT4 ! VT16), changing of the parameters of CTT has less

#### Figure 23.

Fatigue strength of titanium alloy VT5, under rotating bending conditions, as a function of depth of hardened zone, when level of surface hardening is constant K = 30%.

characteristics. In addition, vice versa for each depth of hardened zone, the optimal level of surface hardening exists. Furthermore, it can be forecasted that for each alloy the optimal relation between parameters K and l exists that provides absolutely maximal gain of fatigue strength. Such parameters of gas-saturated layers can be determined as optimal parameters of alloy hardening. The aim of the next step lies in the search of the optimal level of K and l parameters of the hardened zone.

Surface Treatment of Titanium Alloys in Oxygen-Containing Gaseous Medium DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82545

Table 25.

Fatigue strength of titanium alloy VТ5, under rotating bending conditions, depending on the level of surface hardening K and depth of hardened zone l.

#### Table 26.

Fatigue strength of titanium alloy OТ4-1, under rotating bending conditions, depending on level of surface hardening K and depth of hardened zone l.

Table 27.

Fatigue strength of titanium alloy VT16, under rotating bending conditions, depending on level of surface hardening K and depth of hardened zone l.


**2. About the study sample**

To investigate an answer to this question, we considered a sample of students who take the course of Classical Mechanics Laboratory parallel to the theoretic class of Classical Mechanics. These subjects are dictated by a higher education institution for students of the Common Plan of the Engineering area. The sample is constituted by 240 students distributed in five theoretical courses, with an average of 40 students.

The collaborative learning process that is analyzed relates to the Classical Mechanical Laboratory courses whose content base of 12 experimental activities, each of 90 minutes, programmed during a semester. A "typical" laboratory course was formed by 12 students, which grouped into four teams of three students each. The creation of teams of only women, only men, and mixed were encouraged to study, also, the relationship between gender and learning in science. The selection of the courses is made without any other a priori criteria (notes, social origin, and others). The achievement of significant learning is examined through laboratory reports developed and delivered periodically by the teams of students for each activity plus two cumulative tests with questions about alternatives and development.

The students correspond to their vast majority (90%) to the first family generation in entering higher education.


*2.3.2 Second-generation ASO*

The second generation represents oligonucleotides in which the structural modification is not limited to the backbone linkage but additionally includes structural modifications of the ribose: ASO with 2'-O-alkyl modifications of the ribose were developed (**Figure 2b**). These modifications intend to improve binding affinity, to increase efficacy, to modulate the protein binding of oligonucleotides and to enhance nuclease resistance. 2'-O-Methyl (2'-OMe) and 2'-O-Methoxyethyl (2'-MOE) modifications of ASO-PTO are the most widely studied [28]. These second-generation ASOs are less toxic than PTO- modified ASOs and have a slightly enhanced affinity towards their complementary RNAs [29]. Moreover, an important aspect for these ASOs is that 2'modifications can reduce immunostimulatory effect [30]. However, 2'-OMe and 2'-MOE substitutions do not activate the RNase H to cleave the target mRNA, which decreases the efficacy of the ASO [31]. Indeed, mechanistic studies have been conducted to elucidate RNase H activity. They have shown that the flexibility of the ASO, the accessibility of the 2′-OH group of the RNA and the correct width of the minor groove of the ASO-RNA duplex are necessary for effective RNase H mediated mRNA degradation [32]. Since 2′-*O*-alkyl RNA ODs do not activate the RNase H, they inhibit mRNA expression only by a steric interference with translation. However, to increase its potency, an ASO should be able to induce cleavage by RNase H. Therefore, a chimeric ASO was developed (**Figure 2b**). It consists of a central 'gap' region containing 10 DNA or PTO DNA monomers and flanked on both sides (5'and 3'extremities) by approximatively 5 modified nucleotides such as 2′-OM or 2'-MOE (indicated by red and yellow regions of the OD in **Figure 2b**). This chimeric 'gapmer' ASO allows RNase H to sit in the central gap and to execute target-specific mRNA degradation; meanwhile, the flanking 2′-alkyl modified ends prevent nuclease cleavage of ASO. The 2′-*O*-MOE-PTO gapmers OGX-427 (Apatorsen) developed by Rocchi et al., directed against HSP27 and OGX-011 (Curtisen) against clusterin are currently undergoing clinical trials (**Table 1**). The ODs being tested clinically mainly incorporate relatively simple chemical modifications such as the PTO modifications and the 2′-alkyl modifications (first- and second-generation ODs).

**19**

*<IP_ADDRESS> Locked nucleic acid*

*Antisense Oligonucleotides, A Novel Developing Targeting Therapy*

Third-generation ASOs have been developed to further improve nuclease resistance, increase binding affinity, and to enhance pharmacokinetics and biostability. They are characterized by chemical modifications of the nucleotide, and more precisely to its furanose ring [33]. Many modifications have been described, such as N3′-P5′ phosphoramidates, 2′-deoxy-2′-fluoro-β-D-arabino nucleic acid analogue (FANA), cyclohexene nucleic acids (CeNAs) and tricyclo-DNA (tcDNA), however, peptide nucleic acid (PNA), phosphoramidate morpholino oligomer (PMO) and locked nucleic acid (LNA) are the three most studied third-generation ASOs [34, 35]. It should be noted that there is no single modification that covers all the desired properties for a modified ASO. As described before, chemical modifications can improve ASO-RNA hybridization affinity, enhance nuclease resistance, decrease toxicity and modulate pharmacokinetics. An optimal antisense can be designed depending on its use by mixing and matching the numerous chemical modifications accordingly.

PNA is a synthetic DNA mimic in which the deoxyribose phosphate backbone is replaced by polyamide linkages [36] (**Figure 2c**). PNAs are biologically very stable and have good hybridization properties. However, they do not activate mRNA cleavage via RNase activity, but rather block translation and thus protein expression, by forming sequence-specific duplex with mRNA, hence generating steric hindrance. Due to their neutral backbone, PNAs have low solubility and their cellular uptake remains a challenge for exploiting them as therapeutics antisense. PNAs delivery can be enhanced annealing a PNA strand with a negatively charged complementary oligonucleotide, and then enclosed the obtained duplex with a cationic lipid. To this end, PNAs are also conjugated to peptides for improving their cellular uptake [37, 38]. Furthermore, PNA can elicit antigen effects by hybridizing with double-stranded DNA [36, 39] resulting in transcriptional arrest. Substantial data have revealed the

effectiveness of PNA in gene silencing in various in vitro models [39, 40].

phase II clinical trials for restenosis, cancer and polycystic kidney disease.

Locked nucleic acids oligonucleotides figure among the most promising candidates developed the last few years. LNAs are chemically modified nucleotides with a ribose containing a methylene bridge between the 2′-oxygen and the 4′-carbon

PMOs are non-charged ASOs whose pentose sugar is substituted by a morpholino ring and the inter-nucleotide linkages are phosphoramidate bonds in place of phosphodiester bonds [41] (**Figure 2d**). PMOs avoid the RNase H recruitment; their effect is primarily mediated by steric interference of ribosomal assembly resulting in translational arrest. Synthetic PMOs are resistant to nucleases degradation in biological fluid. Because their backbone is uncharged, PMOs are unlikely to form unwanted interactions with nucleic acid-binding proteins [42]. PMOs do not enter mammalian cells easily in culture, but it has been shown that conjugating it with peptides such as arginine-rich peptide (ARP) can enhance its cellular uptake and antisense potency [43]. Antisense PMO oligonucleotide, have shown efficacy in animal models *in vivo* and in human clinical trials [44, 45]. Indeed, a PMO antisense agent is currently in

*<IP_ADDRESS> Phosphoramidate morpholino oligomer*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82105*

*2.3.3 Third-generation ASO*

*<IP_ADDRESS> Peptide nucleic acid*


**6.7 Converting the PDF to a CDF**

The probability density function (PDF) is then converter to a cumulative distribution function (CDF) by integration. The integration order is run along the row, then the second row, then the third row, etc. As expected, the first element of the CDF array is zero and the last two elements are equal to 1. This is in recognition of the fact that the diagonal elements in the PDF are always zeros.

*A Universal Methodology for Generating Elevator Passenger Origin-Destination Pairs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93332*


**The First Step to Leadership in School Management: Taking Initiative The First Step to Leadership in School Management: Taking Initiative**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.70789

İlknur Şentürk İlknur Şentürk

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70789

#### **Abstract**

*Problem statement*: The present study aims to determine the situations and the characteristics of these situations, in which school administrators take initiatives, and the outcomes of these initiatives for the school.

*Aim of the study*: The aim of this study is to investigate school administrators' use of initiative. Consistent with this purpose, conditions and frequencies of school administrators encountering with unordinary situations, references and strategies they apply when there is a complication without formal solution, conditions of taking initiative instead of over-validating the legislation, principles, values, ethical outlines and outcomes of taking initiative are intended to be identified.

*Methodology*: This study aims to identify the conditions of taking initiative, characteristics of these conditions and outcomes of the cases where school administrators take initiative based on interviews.

*Results*: Initiative domains of school administrators participated in this study bare very limited contribution to lead changes in daily routines and bureaucratic procedures. When legislations and regulations fall short, participating school administrators seem to feel worried, anxious, conflicted, helpless, distrustful and worried about being aggrieved and going under investigation. While taking initiative, principles and values school administrators take into account can be summarized as common interest, institutional benefit, justness, objectivity, and human-orientation.

**Keywords:** initiative, taking initiative, school administration, school administrators, qualitative study

#### **1. Introduction**

Origins of organizational and administrative complications in Turkish educational system are mainly rooted in the centralized organizational structure of the state, which is positioned

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

behind authoritarian and hierarchical power fields of administrative practices and processes. Modern democratic administration approaches on the other hand prioritize effectuation, leadership, prudential rationality, and willpower. Arranging and implementing decision-making mechanisms are a prerequisite for flexible and democratic organizations and administrations.

behavior. It requires being in compliance with the objectives of the organization, such as action- and strategy-oriented thinking, a vision, a long-term perspective, consistency, and commitment [14–16]. Aypay and Şekerci [17] indicated that initiative-taking behavior includes listening, human relations, motivating others, conflict management, and personal adaptability. Similarly, Goerdel [18] argued that administrators who take initiative were able to establish an interactive and holistic organizational structure since they grasp actions well. The logic behind initiative is to look out for the interests of the organization, instead of personal benefits. Indeed, interests of the school were the basis emphasized by the administrators during interviews. In the essence of initiative taking lies the ability to solve problems, the capacity for solving problems, creativity and innovation, courage, insight, intuition, and leadership skills. Initiative is the next door just beyond the leadership [19]. Problem solving skills are prerequisites for taking initiative. Ability of coping with challenges brought by administrative roles and responsibilities defines systematic and methodological thinking, proposing solutions and alternatives, thinking in reference to rich and deep sources and to proceed actively [14, 20, 21]. The use of initiative requires the ability to predict future situations. Features increasing the potential to take initiative are desire for innovation and working, openness to communication and suggestions, will of doing something without any driving force or supervision, desire to help others and take responsibility, adaptation to teamwork, and willingness to learn. Taking initiative may be dependent upon not only intraorganizational but also external stimuli of social origin. The use of initiative characteristics may vary with motivational levels. Indeed, taking initiative requires certain characteristics. When personal characteristics are considered, setting high personal and organizational standards [5, 22] and initiating task-oriented activities are

The First Step to Leadership in School Management: Taking Initiative

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70789

23

Individual competencies such as proficiency in self-control, effective assessment and supervision ability, self-efficacy and a positive sense of self, being responsible, being open to change, risk and crisis management, and strategic thinking to overcome problems are other characteristics of administrators in the use of initiative. Taking initiative is a characteristic of people with high achievement motivation. However, the nature of the work and possible consequences are generally influential on the use of initiative. It may be described as a form of competency possessed by individuals with high cognitive levels and with an ability to comprehend the characteristics of the work, structure of the organization, and managerial processes in the organization. Organizational climate and culture [23] are also important factors in initiative. Qualifications of an administrator who is likely to be transformation oriented are curiosity, open-mindedness, being away from conventional ways of thinking, ability to manage learning processes and communication patterns, ability in the effective and efficient use of time, extending the realm of freedom, creative thinking, and sustaining

Hence, initiative is a form of thinking and acting that is revealed in the presence of such personal characteristics. Apart from personal characteristics mentioned above, organizational sense of belonging, commitment, and adaptability are also psychological engagements with potential effects on initiative [3]. One of the most important results of initiative taking is

primary characteristics.

high-order targets.

Decision-making procedures in educational organizations of Turkish educational system take shape with a centralist conception and lack of pluralistic and efficient participation of stakeholders. Şişman and Turan [1] argue that decentralization and democratization efforts led to greater levels of authority in schools. This in turn led to participation in decision-making processes and school-based management. Principals taking initiative can be considered as a first step toward school-based management. Initiative is defined as the ability to assess and initiate things independently and an act or strategy intended to resolve a difficulty or improve a situation, a fresh approach to a situation [2]. Initiative can also mean a plan that is targeted at solving a particular problem. It also means independent evaluation and ability to act, power to make an attempt, a behavior to overcome a difficulty or to develop a situation further, or a strategy in different languages [3]. Decision-making in an administrative process is a primary factor for determining to what extent it is democratic and autocratic. For school administrators, the extent of taking initiative on school matters is a key to more flexible, humanitarian, and creative institutional processes. Beyond the bulkiness of centralized administration, initiativetaking school administrators would indeed render these processes more effective and efficient.

Personal initiative can be considered as a concept which can contribute to popular debate and research such as leadership, modern management paradigms, decentralization, schoolbased management, school improvement, and exercise and transfer of authority [3–10]. Initiative can be described as self-starting volition of active decision-making and actualization in order to accomplish organizational objectives and overcome organizational challenges [7–9, 11, 12]. To an individual extent, initiative represents a lifestyle. It is related to intelligence, contributing to a certain profession; will of control on situations; exhibition of an active and positive attitude instead of passivity; and hence cultural descriptors of lifestyle [7, 8]. Quality of work life has been criticized with the remoteness of authority, which is explained as the power distance between the superior and the subordinate.

The concept of decision-making styles is related to the level of contribution of subordinates in decisions, and the extent of power distance in this context is a sign of centralization. There is a demand for an authoritarian leadership in organizations when power distance is large, and in such organizations, active control, low levels of job satisfaction, and fear of change in organizational structures are observed. Workforce is in constant need of orders [3, 13]. Accordingly, remoteness of the authority has to be reduced to pave the way for initiative in organizational models and administrative approaches.

In conditions where there is dense competition of powers, centralized and hierarchical organization structures, employees are expected to be more obedient to the authority and adopt an understanding of order-based conduct and not to exceed their well-defined limits. Initiative on the other hand is a potential facilitator to revoke such orthodoxy of management models. Beyond individual way of behavior, taking initiative is an organizational behavior. It requires being in compliance with the objectives of the organization, such as action- and strategy-oriented thinking, a vision, a long-term perspective, consistency, and commitment [14–16]. Aypay and Şekerci [17] indicated that initiative-taking behavior includes listening, human relations, motivating others, conflict management, and personal adaptability. Similarly, Goerdel [18] argued that administrators who take initiative were able to establish an interactive and holistic organizational structure since they grasp actions well. The logic behind initiative is to look out for the interests of the organization, instead of personal benefits. Indeed, interests of the school were the basis emphasized by the administrators during interviews. In the essence of initiative taking lies the ability to solve problems, the capacity for solving problems, creativity and innovation, courage, insight, intuition, and leadership skills. Initiative is the next door just beyond the leadership [19]. Problem solving skills are prerequisites for taking initiative. Ability of coping with challenges brought by administrative roles and responsibilities defines systematic and methodological thinking, proposing solutions and alternatives, thinking in reference to rich and deep sources and to proceed actively [14, 20, 21]. The use of initiative requires the ability to predict future situations. Features increasing the potential to take initiative are desire for innovation and working, openness to communication and suggestions, will of doing something without any driving force or supervision, desire to help others and take responsibility, adaptation to teamwork, and willingness to learn. Taking initiative may be dependent upon not only intraorganizational but also external stimuli of social origin. The use of initiative characteristics may vary with motivational levels. Indeed, taking initiative requires certain characteristics. When personal characteristics are considered, setting high personal and organizational standards [5, 22] and initiating task-oriented activities are primary characteristics.

behind authoritarian and hierarchical power fields of administrative practices and processes. Modern democratic administration approaches on the other hand prioritize effectuation, leadership, prudential rationality, and willpower. Arranging and implementing decision-making mechanisms are a prerequisite for flexible and democratic organizations and administrations.

Decision-making procedures in educational organizations of Turkish educational system take shape with a centralist conception and lack of pluralistic and efficient participation of stakeholders. Şişman and Turan [1] argue that decentralization and democratization efforts led to greater levels of authority in schools. This in turn led to participation in decision-making processes and school-based management. Principals taking initiative can be considered as a first step toward school-based management. Initiative is defined as the ability to assess and initiate things independently and an act or strategy intended to resolve a difficulty or improve a situation, a fresh approach to a situation [2]. Initiative can also mean a plan that is targeted at solving a particular problem. It also means independent evaluation and ability to act, power to make an attempt, a behavior to overcome a difficulty or to develop a situation further, or a strategy in different languages [3]. Decision-making in an administrative process is a primary factor for determining to what extent it is democratic and autocratic. For school administrators, the extent of taking initiative on school matters is a key to more flexible, humanitarian, and creative institutional processes. Beyond the bulkiness of centralized administration, initiativetaking school administrators would indeed render these processes more effective and efficient.

Personal initiative can be considered as a concept which can contribute to popular debate and research such as leadership, modern management paradigms, decentralization, schoolbased management, school improvement, and exercise and transfer of authority [3–10]. Initiative can be described as self-starting volition of active decision-making and actualization in order to accomplish organizational objectives and overcome organizational challenges [7–9, 11, 12]. To an individual extent, initiative represents a lifestyle. It is related to intelligence, contributing to a certain profession; will of control on situations; exhibition of an active and positive attitude instead of passivity; and hence cultural descriptors of lifestyle [7, 8]. Quality of work life has been criticized with the remoteness of authority, which is

The concept of decision-making styles is related to the level of contribution of subordinates in decisions, and the extent of power distance in this context is a sign of centralization. There is a demand for an authoritarian leadership in organizations when power distance is large, and in such organizations, active control, low levels of job satisfaction, and fear of change in organizational structures are observed. Workforce is in constant need of orders [3, 13]. Accordingly, remoteness of the authority has to be reduced to pave the way for initiative in organizational

In conditions where there is dense competition of powers, centralized and hierarchical organization structures, employees are expected to be more obedient to the authority and adopt an understanding of order-based conduct and not to exceed their well-defined limits. Initiative on the other hand is a potential facilitator to revoke such orthodoxy of management models. Beyond individual way of behavior, taking initiative is an organizational

explained as the power distance between the superior and the subordinate.

models and administrative approaches.

22 Open and Equal Access for Learning in School Management

Individual competencies such as proficiency in self-control, effective assessment and supervision ability, self-efficacy and a positive sense of self, being responsible, being open to change, risk and crisis management, and strategic thinking to overcome problems are other characteristics of administrators in the use of initiative. Taking initiative is a characteristic of people with high achievement motivation. However, the nature of the work and possible consequences are generally influential on the use of initiative. It may be described as a form of competency possessed by individuals with high cognitive levels and with an ability to comprehend the characteristics of the work, structure of the organization, and managerial processes in the organization. Organizational climate and culture [23] are also important factors in initiative. Qualifications of an administrator who is likely to be transformation oriented are curiosity, open-mindedness, being away from conventional ways of thinking, ability to manage learning processes and communication patterns, ability in the effective and efficient use of time, extending the realm of freedom, creative thinking, and sustaining high-order targets.

Hence, initiative is a form of thinking and acting that is revealed in the presence of such personal characteristics. Apart from personal characteristics mentioned above, organizational sense of belonging, commitment, and adaptability are also psychological engagements with potential effects on initiative [3]. One of the most important results of initiative taking is autonomy. Ambos et al. [24], in their structural equation modeling study, found that taking initiative influences institutional autonomy positively. Taking initiative as a primary focus of administrative processes, functional autonomy, organizational change, execution of organizational behavior beyond predefined roles and responsibilities, strengthening personnel, and transfer of authority will possibly accelerate the expected structural shift, especially in educational organizations [12, 25–29]. Recent studies, which proposed that school education and administration require reconsideration of concepts like autonomy, responsibility, accountability, and effectiveness, advocate that these key concepts could make a reformist change in public schools [14]. Taking initiative, at this very point, emphasizes personal and professional competencies of school administrators for such reformist expectations of change. Demand on organizational and administrational change in educational organizations is of greater concern recently.

**3.** Do school administrators use initiative as an alternative to validate and adhere to the

The First Step to Leadership in School Management: Taking Initiative

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70789

25

**4.** What are school administrator's principles, values, rules and ethical frame in their initia-

This study aims to identify the conditions of taking initiative, characteristics of these conditions and outcomes of the conditions where an initiative was taken by school administrators based on conducted interviews. The study group included voluntary school administrators working

The present research, which aimed to define school administrators' opinions about the situations and results of taking the initiative on decision-making, was designed as a case study (single case study), one of the qualitative research methods. A case study, which is conducted with description and investigation of a restricted system, is a type of qualitative study. In a case study, an up-to-date phenomenon is generally investigated in real-life context. The object of investigation in the present study is a restricted system. A restricted system is where the investigated object is just a person, a program, a group, an institution, a society, or a special policy. In a case study, researcher defines the interaction of significant factors related to that phenomenon by focusing on the phenomenon. The model in which the researcher explores the restricted situation using the data in depth and reports it by describing the themes about this situation is an approach [30–32]. In the present study, the situation is thoughts created by the regulations concerning the appointment of school administrators. In other words, unit of analysis in the case is opinions of school administrators concerning the use of initiative-taking

Interview technique is the method where the interviewer and interviewee take part by focusing on the questions about the area of research [30]. Interview is a type of interaction [32]. Interview is a technique that is effective in defining behavior, feelings, and expressions, which are not observed [30]. For this reason, in the study, the interview method was used as a data collection tool to observe the change school administrators' views and thoughts about conditions, reasons, and results of taking initiative in the administrative processes. The questions in the semi-constructed form were constituted using flexible expressions to collect personal data. The questions in the interview form were created to focus on topics that were expected

in Eskişehir province, Turkey. Purposive sampling was used in the study.

**5.** What are the results of the situations in which school administrators took initiative?

legislation and regulations strictly much more?

tive process?

**2.1. Research model**

situations.

to be explained.

**2.2. Data collection tool**

**2. Method**

Current legal definitions of educational administrators' authority and responsibilities are insufficient for efficient and effective actions against administrative complications they often face. Consequently, hierarchically defined roles that are tied to bureaucratic mechanisms and centralized approaches have been hindering the perception of schools as an agent of change in the social structure. Studies on taking initiative have recently been emphasizing changing paradigms especially on school improvement, school-based administration, and reforming schools in an information society. Possessing similar opportunities and under similar restrictions, what make a world of difference, are leadership traits of administrators. Capitalizing the conditions of school, exploring resources of the institution, and enhancing academic and organizational performance are the outcomes of an effective leadership. Taking initiative may be regarded as a vital first step for an effective leadership. Finally, concepts such as entrepreneurship, creating alternatives, organizational citizenship, and organizational identification that appear frequently in recent literature on administration and organization emphasize the importance of taking initiative. Taking initiative emerges an important personal characteristic for educational administrators since it helps to activate the cultural dynamics of democracy in educational organizations.

The objective of this study is to investigate school administrators' use of initiative. Consistent with this objective, it also aims to identify the conditions and frequencies of school administrators' encounters with unordinary situations, references, and strategies they apply when there is a complication without formal solution, conditions under which they take initiative instead of over-validating the legislation, principles, values, ethical outlines, and outcomes of taking initiative.

Thus, the sub-objectives of the research were determined as follows:


**4.3 Tips on student engagement in asynchronous online learning**

Creating a learning environment in online learning is a challenging task. The following examples of the application of the principles of online pedagogy [15–17] would help plan asynchronous online teaching sessions in the discussion boards of the Learning Management System (LMS) or Google group emails or blogs (**Table 1**).


**2.5 Cerebral venous thrombosis**

In patients with cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT), early seizures were seen in 6.9–76% [71], status epilepticus in 6% [40], late seizures in 11% [43], and post-CVT epilepsy in 4–16% [71]. Risk factors for early seizures following cerebral sinus thrombosis include brain parenchymal lesions, focal neurological deficits, supratentorial parenchymal lesions, intracerebral hemorrhage, focal edema/ischemic infarction, superior sagittal sinus thrombosis, cortical venous thrombosis, and pregnancy/puerperium [72–77]. Known risk factors for late seizures after CVT are early seizures, baseline intracerebral hemorrhage, decompressive hemicraniectomy, sigmoid sinus thrombosis, loss of consciousness at presentation, and genetic thrombophilia [43, 75, 78].

In the absence of previous early seizure following cerebral venous thrombosis, there is no evidence to prescribe prophylactic antiepileptic drugs during acute phase [40]. European and American guidelines recommend antiepileptic drug treatment on CVT for patients with early seizures and supratentorial lesions in order to prevent further seizures [79, 80].

Due to the high recurrence risk of late seizures, epilepsy diagnosis and commencement of antiepileptic drugs following a first late seizure after CVT is reasonable [43].