**10. References**

14 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

the Bianchi identities (62) and (63) could lead to constraints on the admissible torsion *Tα*, as in 4D and higher dimensions. However, in 3D the situation is different: Using Appendix B, the

2 *ηβ* ∧ *ηαβ* = (−1)*s ρ*

*ν*] *ϑγ* ∧ *ϑμ* ∧ *ϑν* = 0.

*Tβ* ∧ *ηαβ* = 4*κ*2

Thus the first Bianchi identity does not give any further information. The second Bianchi

which is identically zero by a similar argument, or by employing Eq. (73). Consequently, the Bianchi identities impose *no* restrictions on the axial torsion given by (10) in 3D, a fact which

[1] Anandan, J. (1994). Topological and geometrical phases due to gravitational field with curvature and torsion, *Physics Letters* A195, 284–292; (1996). Gravitational phase

[2] Baekler, P., Mielke, E. W. & Hehl, F. W. (1992). Dynamical symmetries in topological 3D

[3] Bakke, K., Furtado, C. & Nascimento, J. R. (2009). Gravitational geometric phase in the

[4] Cacciatori, S. L., Caldarelli, M. M., Giacomini, A., Klemm, D. & Mansi, D. S. (2006). Chern-Simons formulation of three-dimensional gravity with torsion and nonmetricity,

[5] Carlip, S. (1995). Lectures on (2+1)–dimensional gravity, *Journal of Korean Physical Society*

[6] Carlip, S. (1998). *Quantum gravity in* (2 + 1)*–dimensions*, Cambridge University Press. [7] Carlip, S. (1995). The (2 + 1)–dimensional black hole, *Classical Quantum Gravitation* 12, 2853–2880; (2005). Conformal field theory, (2+1)-dimensional gravity, and the BTZ black

[8] Chern, S. S. & Simons, J. (1971). Some cohomology classes in principal fiber bundles and their application to Riemannian geometry, *Proceedings of Natural Academy of Science* 68,

[9] de Juan, F. , Cortijo, A. & Vozmediano, M. A. H. (2010). Dislocations and torsion in

[10] Dereli, T. & Tucker, R. W. (1988). Gravitational interactions in 2+1 dimensions, *Classical*

2 *Dηα* = 2*κρ*

22

*ηβμνηαβγ*

*ϑγ* ∧ *ϑμ* ∧ *ϑν* (83)

2 *ηαβ* ∧ *ηβ* ≡ 0. (84)

3 *ηαβ* ∧ *ηβ* ≡ 0 (85)

first Bianchi identity yields

(−1)*s*

identity (63) yields

**10. References**

28, S447–S467.

791–794.

*ηαβ* ∧ *R*∗

*β* = (−1)*s ρ*

= −(−1)*s*

*DR α* = *ρ*

*DTα* = 2*κ*

2*δα* [*μδ γ*

*Dηα* = 2*κ*

has allowed us to construct something non-trivial from the MB model.

operator and cosmic strings, *Physical Review* D53, 779–786.

presence of torsion, *The European Physical Journal* C60, 501–507.

graphene and related systems, *Nuclear Physics* B828, 625–637 .

gravity with torsion, *Il Nuovo Cimento* B107, 91–110.

*Journal Geometrical Physics* 56, 2523–2543.

*Quantum Gravitation* 5, 951–959.

hole, *Classical Quantum Gravitation* 22, R85–R124.

Furthermore, the exterior covariant derivative of Eq. (10) provides the identity

**1. Introduction**

The search for the theory of quantum gravity (QG) in 4-dimensions (4D) is one of the most significant challenges of temporary physics. The great effort and insights of many theoreticians and experimentalists resulted in the emergence of one of the greatest achievements of 20th century science, i.e. standard model of particles and fields (SM). SM (with its minimal extensions by massive neutrinos and after renormalization) describes and predicts, with enormous accuracy, almost all perturbative aspects and behaviour of interacting quantum fields and particles which place themselves in the realm of electromagnetic, strong and weak nuclear interactions, within the range of energies up to few TeV. However, gravity at quantum level is not covered by this pattern. The oldest, semiclassical, approach to QG relies on the quantization of metric field which is understood as the perturbation of the ground spacetime metric. This is exactly in the spirit of quantum field theory (QFT) as in SM. There should follow various correlation functions of physical processes where gravity at quantum level is present. There should, but actually they do not since the expressions are divergent and the theory is not renormalizable. Even the presence of supersymmetry does not change this substantially. On the other hand, we have a wonderful theory of general relativity (GR)

**Quantum Gravity Insights from Smooth**

**4-Geometries on Trivial 4**

*Institute of Physics, University of Silesia, Katowice*

**4**

Jerzy Król

*Poland*

which, however, is a theory of classical gravity and it prevents its quantization in 4D.

mathematics which is still not fully comprehended.

Among existing approaches to QG, superstring theory is probably the most advanced and conservative one. It attempts to follow GR and quantum mechanics as much as possible. However, superstring theory has to be formulated in 10 spacetime dimensions and on fixed, not dynamical, background. Many proposals how to reach the observed physics from 10D superstrings were worked out within the years. These are among others, compactiffication, flux stabilization, brane configuration model-buildings, brane worlds, holography or anti-de-Sitter/conformal field theory duality, i.e. AdS/CFT. There exists much ambiguity, however, with determining 4D results by these methods. Some authors estimate that there exist something about 10500 different backgrounds of superstring theory which all could be "good" candidates expressing 4D physics. This means that similar variety of possible models for true physics is predicted by superstring theory. To manage with such huge amount of "good" solutions, there was proposed to use the methods of statistical analysis to such *landscape* of possible backgrounds. Anyway, one could expect better prediction power from the fundamental theory which would unify gravity with other interactions at quantum level. On the other hand, superstring theory presents beautiful, fascinating and extremly rich


**4. Relationship between markers and use practices**

The markers presented are some similarities between themselves regarding the level of polymorphism, random distribution in the genome stability, gene expression among others. The comparison between them is presented in Table 2 adapted from Ferreira & Grattapaglia (1995).

Table 2. Comparative analysis for some characteristics of molecular markers.

The molecular markers reported so far in the chapter became important tools in the genetic improvement of plants. The following is a brief account made of the possible uses for these markers.

Construction of genetic maps: The Mendelian segregation observed in molecular markers, allows them to be used to construct genetic maps of connection and enable the location of genes within the chromosomes. QTLs mapping;

Characterization of genetic variability: the polymorphism generated from DNA and observed in the form of bands, allows us to study and confirm the genetic variability among plants;

Monitoring of genes: Genes may be screened in breeding programs that use the technique of backcrossing. Some applications of molecular markers linked to breeding programs can be facilitated through the use of this tool. In programs of backcross markers can maximize the efficiency of programs by increasing the probability of conversion of individuals and

Molecular Markers: Assisted Selection in Soybeans 173

Variations in the sequences are the result of mutations and SNPs are mutations that have spread over generations and may occur either in coding regions as in non-coding genomes. They are classified as non-synonymous when they occur in coding regions and can result in an amino acid substitution in the protein sequence. Classification as synonymous SNPs is given the changes that occur in non-coding region. These markers can be used in genotyping and as a new strategy for identification of polymorphism in species with low

Molecular markers are very important in structural and functional genomics of animal species, plants and microorganisms. The marker developed by Hu & Vick (2003) was named Region Amplification Polymorphism Target (TRAP). It's is a fast and efficient using bioinformatics tools and data from EST's to generate polymorphic markers around targeted candidate gene sequences based on PCR. It is considered a dominant marker, which

The polymorphism is generated from a combination of a fixed primer designed from an EST sequence of interest, and an arbitrary primer. Recent studies have reported the use of TRAP markers to access genetic diversity in sugarcane and identification of possible candidate genes for cold tolerance and metabolic pathway involved in sucrose (Alwala et al., 2006). The technique is extremely simply practice involving the extraction of genomic DNA and a

Möller (2010) evaluated 286 F2 plants from crosses of IAC-100 and CD-215 in order to identify markers linked to genes conferring resistance to sucking bugs of soybean seeds. For the marker TRAP, 11 primer combinations fixed / arbitrary generated 230 brands, and 31 (13.48%) polymorphic, an average of 2.82 marks per polymorphic combination. Despite the lower number of different polymorphic by combining the percentage of polymorphism

Finally the marker Nucleotide Binding Site (NBS) which has been successfully used in potato, tomato, lettuce, barley (Van der Linden et al., 2004), allowing the identification of areas of resistance genes highly conserved between species. The technique consists of amplification of specific regions using degenerate primers homologous to conserved

The visualization of fragments generated by molecular markers, is usually performed using gel electrophoresis, which can hinder the precise correlation between the bands and allelic variations. Technological developments put at the disposal of researchers, hybridization methods such as microarrays. The high cost restricts their use in most laboratories. Alternatively, we developed a methodology called: Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT),

The technique is based on the construction of panels of diversity and hybridization microarray. Its use allows the visualization of the presence or absence of specific fragments

Molecular markers have facilitated the studies of genetics, taxonomy and evolution of plants delivering breakthrough in scientific knowledge. New possibilities of genetic manipulation

The selection methods were largely enhanced by the use of molecular markers, and the success of marker-assisted selection depends on the degree of association between him and

which allows analysis of genomic representations without the need for sequencing.

combines the ease of the RAPD markers with polymorphism of AFLP markers.

obtained with the marker TRAP (0.13) was higher than for AFLP (0.10).

sequences of resistance genes (R-genes).

emerged, directly benefiting the plant breeding.

degree of polymorphism.

PCR reaction.

in the genome.

**6. Conclusion**

reducing the time required to obtain an acceptable recovery of the recurrent parent (Borém & Miranda, 2005). The proportion of recurrent parent obtained in the first backcross generation, after selection of a marker in each of the chromosomes of tomato, roughly equals the proportion in three backcross generations in the absence of selection (Tankskey & Rick, 1980);

Genetic characterization: Description of a plant gene in their DNA. Molecular methods allow the varietal characterization with high discrimination power. Several studies have shown the quality of information on the molecular identification of germplasm (Lee et al.,1989; Smith & Smith, 1991).

Marker-assisted selection: The possibility of identifying genes of interest, to be strongly linked to molecular markers allows the selection can be made indirectly. In cases where gene expression occurs only in the final phase of the cycle of the species, such as the lipoxygenase in soybeans, the possibility of indirect selection through molecular markers becomes attractive (Borém & Miranda, 2005). The same authors reported useful for screening individuals who have two or more genes whose expression produces similar phenotypes, as is the case of pyramiding genes conferring resistance to a pathogen.

Great prospects for the area of molecular markers have been discussed. The potential usefulness of these techniques will be achieved, for example, through indirect selection based on markers: when the desired character has low heritability or present difficult evaluation, in situations where there are undesirable genetic correlations between traits, and especially the practice of early selection in crops perennials. The isolation, cloning and manipulation of individual genes that control quantitative traits of economic importance is a goal, theoretically attainable.


**4. Wildlife habitats in Bangladesh**

Among the 5 global ecological domains and 20 global ecological zones of the world, 33% of Bangladesh belongs to tropical rain forest GEZ and 67% to tropical moist deciduous forest GEZ of the tropical domains of global ecological domains [10]. The variation in climatic features, i.e., temperature, rainfall, soil, and hydrology, led to the development of 25 bioecological zones with distinct characteristics. Bangladesh has 1.45 million ha of forest land (9.8% of total area) of which 1.21 million ha (84% of forest) is natural forest and 0.24 million ha (16% of forest) is plantations [10].

Vegetation characteristics divided the natural forests of Bangladesh into evergreen/semievergreen, deciduous, and mangrove forest. Noncontinuous freshwater swamp is distributed in the northeast basin. Tropical evergreen and semievergreen forests constituting 44% of natural forest are extended over Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), Cox's Bazar, and Sylhet covering an area of 6700 km2 which is about 4.54% of total landmass of Bangladesh. Dominant native plant species include species of *Dipterocarpus* spp., *Artocarpus* spp., *Ficus* spp., *Syzygium* spp., *Mangifera* spp., *Tectona grandis*, etc. The moist deciduous Sal forest of Bangladesh is mainly consisted of Madhupur tract which is located in the central part covering an area of 340 km2 [10]. Dominant trees of this forest are *Shorea robusta*, *Lagerstroemia speciosa*, *Dillenia pentagyna*, *Adina cordifolia*, *Terminalia* spp., *Albizia* spp., etc. The Sundarbans, the largest single patch of mangrove forest, is located at the southern extremity of the Padma (Ganges) and Jamuna (Brahmaputra) delta which covers about 5770 km2 area [11]. Fairly dense evergreen plant species of 10–15 m height is the main feature of this forest. These species are adapted for living under saline condition and regular inundation by the tides. Succulent leaves, stilt roots, pneumatophores, and viviparous germination are the key features of these plants. *Heritiera fomes*, *Excoecaria agallocha*, *Nypa fruticans*, *Sonneratia apetala*, *Rhizophora* spp., *Ceriops decandra*, *Phoenix paludosa*, and *Acrostichum aureum* are the common plants of the Sundarbans. Wetlands of Bangladesh also support a large number of

plants and wild animals of the country. Nearly 50% (8 million ha) of the total land surface of the country including river, natural lakes, tanks, reservoir, mangrove forests, estuarine, and seasonally inundated floodplains are considered as wetland.


**HEAT EXCHANGERS – BASICS DESIGN APPLICATIONS**

Edited by **Jovan Mitrovic**

**INTECHOPEN.COM**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/1997 Edited by Jovan Mitrovic

#### **Contributors**

Jayakumar J S, Yasuki Kansha, Akira Kishimoto, Atsushi Tsutsumi, Muhammad Aziz, Omid Asgari, Hadis Hemati, Mohammad Hassan Saidi, Mohamed Mansour, Mohammed Hassab, Ignacio Carvajal-Mariscal, Florencio Sanchez-Silva, Georgiy Polupan, Huisheng Zhang, Shilie Weng, Ming Su, Muthuraman Subbiah, Pablo Dolado, Ana Lázaro, José María Marín, Belén Zalba, Trung Thanh Dang, Salim Newaz Kazi, Tomasz Bury, Klaren, Eric. F. De Boer, David Astrain, Alvaro Martinez, Piotr Wais, Kharseh, Ali Bani Kananeh, Julian Peschel, Minato, Béatrice Ledésert, Ronan Hébert, Y. S. Muzychka, M. M. Awad, Agnieszka Chudzik, Dusan D Gvozdenac

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First published in Croatia, 2012 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia

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**4. Discussion**

The study area has undergone significant land use change from 1980 to 2015. A significant loss of farmland was observed in the period between 1980 and 2015. During this period, most of the farmlands are replaced by built-up lands in the south-eastern part of the study area. After the national survey was carried out in 1985, the land area of Xiamen City expanded outward through reclamation [42]. The major land use change in Xiamen is attributable to land reclamation and urban development in the past years. The process of urban construction in reclaimed land and building new residential areas started to rise after 1985, which is reflected in the runoff increase after 1990 [45,46]. In 1980, after the city was declared as specific economic zone, most of the farmlands and forestlands were converted into urban areas between 1985 and 2005. After 2005, there was major sea reclamation which increased the urban area. New initiatives for industrial and economic development occurred in the period of 1990 to 2005, and an urban renewal program took place between 2003 and 2012 [31]. The change in land use significantly affected the runoff hydrology of the city as a result of urban development. The high values of runoff gradually expanded outside Xiamen Island and were mainly distributed in the areas with increased urban construction [40]. Results show that particular increase in constructed land with higher CN value contributes to higher runoff, whereas farmland, forestland, and grassland with lower CN contribute to a lower percent of runoff [30]. Therefore, change in land use, particularly an increase in urban areas, corresponds to an increase in runoff. As a result of rapid urbanisation, significant increase in surface runoff is observed in the island and outer areas of mainland, which poses higher risks for urban as well as coastal floods [47]. Similar results depicting the strong impact of urbanisation on surface runoff has been obtained by previous studies [2,7,17,48]. Relevant studies have shown that the extent to which urbanisation affects hydrological response depends on spatial and temporal scale, physical geography, landscape composition, and physical and climatic characteristics [49]. The study area, being a lowland coastal area, is relatively flat, and a major part of the area has a slope of less than 15%. Therefore, the slope of the area had a less significant effect on the surface runoff. Additionally, the main objective of the study is to analyse the impact of land use change on the surface runoff, especially due to rapid urbanisation. The impact of slope on the runoff characteristics (peak flow and runoff velocity) are not studied in detail. However, future studies could help better understand the effect of slope on peak flow and runoff velocity.

This study demonstrated the use of a GIS-based SCS–CN method to assess the effects due to land use change on surface runoff by integrating spatial data and hydrological parameters. A GIS-based approach proved to be a reliable tool for quantifying the impact of land use change on runoff with respect to change in CN, which is a function of soil, land use, and moisture conditions [50]. The input data of the soil map and rainfall were based on actual field data, and the CN values of each land use type were obtained from the USDA standard table. The simulation of runoff was validated by comparing the observed and simulated annual flow in the study area, which shows that the design runoff simulated by the model is well accepted. Therefore, the model produced accurate and reliable results of runoff incorporating different spatial aspects. The results were consistent with the results obtained by previous studies of runoff simulations in Xiamen [40,42,51].

To fully comprehend the impacts of spatiotemporal land use change on abrupt or gradual flood peaks and runoff flow, various geographical parameters that influence the runoff should be considered in future studies. In the study, other human and environmental factors affecting runoff, such as the construction of dams, reservoirs and underground extraction, drainage systems, temperature, canopy cover, and soil loss, etc. are given little attention. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct extensive studies including these factors in the future.