1. Introduction

The volunteered geographic information which emerged, when the highresolution satellite images were made available. High-resolution imageries attract the public to visualise the world from the sky (bird's eye view). People are enthusiastic to visualise the earth and gradually the identification process that contributes to the improvement in clarity. The raster-based maps got digitised to vector format by the creation of features by the stakeholders. There is a long history for the human to use maps, while making different types of decisions, from daily route planning to national military strategy. Maps or the geographical information on the maps have become the obligatory part of our daily life. This paper aims to use an example and initiative of using GIS in E-Commerce application of construction and architecture. GPS and GIS systems with similar functionality will more widely be

adopted or even would become a must in future E-Commerce applications. The task of creating such huge data and its updating is almost impossible for any single organisation. With the advent of web 2.0, many individual contributors simultaneously generated the digital data.

features of the cellular environment, it is a significant challenge to locate the target precisely. E.g., global positioning system (GPS), assisted GPS, network-based tech-

Volunteered Geographic Information System and Its Contribution in Service Sector Employment

Crowdsourcing is the concept of integrating the work of the significant participants (crowd). Here the smallest contributions are accumulated to do large tasks which are having hardships physically and economically. It is the more public contribution of work than of the specific professional task, most commonly operated and owned by non-profit making organisations having public involvement. Before the digital era, the term crowdsourcing referred for creating the funding procedure and creating commons of public interest like building communal spaces like the water bodies, parks and vacation spots. In the digital era, the concept of crowdsourcing refers to the creation of data, computation and analysis. It also channels the experts who wish to solve an issue and share the solution to the general

Virtual globes have unlocked the world of satellite imagery to the general public.

Geo-informatics is an essential tool in the developing cultural universe of human society. The collection of Geospatial Information with its attributes and its regular updates is a gigantic task in the dynamically changing complex world. The increased precision of positional accuracy and availability of latest high-resolution satellite imageries is the source of Geo-information in Participatory Geographical Information System (PGIS), further enhancing this is the time-to-time updated information in the reliable real-time world. The citizens act as sensors to capture spatial data; these data are edited and managed by a collaborative environment [8, 9].

Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) is all about the location information of mundane things appearing on the earth surface which is recorded by volunteered people through Crowdsourcing methods. The traditional techniques of geographic information were intern gathered from surveying techniques by professionals. Whereas, the conventional methods were accurate but failed to keep the map information up-to-date. The task of disintegrating the work and distributing work to many people mainly called outsourcing, in the corporate sector this system

experimenting with outsourcing while lacking a firm understanding of the relationship between internal functions and its spatial implications. Outsourcing has set companies with unexpected drawbacks. The miscommunication and lower quality of products, absence of completeness and focus, which ended in delaying of the

They allowed education, entertainment, and exploration for the newbie's [3]. Importantly, a domain to communicate their investigations and information that the public is interested in [4, 5]. The development of Digital Earth (DE) is focused on the whole of humankind to progress considering humanity as a whole. The determination is towards the positive contribution for public peace, safety, order, and general prosperity consistent with the Brundtland Commission on sustainable development [6]. DE is as much social science as it is a phenomenon of quantitative science and engineering. It should equally respect as the social science with an ontology and epistemology, i.e. the study of the nature of the 'reality' of DE (ontol-

ogy), and the study of the process of the acquisition of knowledge [7].

introduced for the economic purpose. In many cases, firms took risks

nology, the travel time of signals.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82004

3. Volunteered geographic information

2. Crowdsourcing

public [2].

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The employment of the service sector was providing some service at a particular location at a specific time. The service type may be on a regular basis or a temporary basis. The regular service is a traditional service in the regular course of time like the supply of milk and newspaper, school bus and postal services and the like. The occasional services like the personal transport, delivery of goods, painting and catering, housekeeping and maintenance and building construction require an exact location for prompt delivery.

Moreover, some of these services required at doorsteps, which were very difficult for strangers to deliver/provide service in a particular geographical location because of the lack of the locational knowledge about the area. The ability to provide the locational information through web-based GIS servers on the go, in the smartphones as shown in Figure 1 improved the services from providing agency to the consumers.

The added advantage of the voice-based response assisted the drivers during navigation. The safe driving improved, and the advanced information regarding route and driving instructions of the navigation with the real-time traffic and weather information and the distance to be covered with the travel time ensure the punctual destination reach. Advancement in the domain network and computing has contributed to the evolution of the Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) enterprise. Targeted at providing access to the information that they require and an environment in which geospatial users and producers contribute, SDIs are still in the progressive stage, but the architecture is a necessary and useful mechanism for LBS. Wireless data communication combines the mobile and spatial data communication by giving consumers easy access through wireless devices (mobile telephones, personal digital assistants, palmtop computers) to relevant information on the Internet and intranets. The consequential technology is the positioning technology, the way to find out the position of a mobile device accurately. Referable to the unique

Figure 1. Structure of smartphone-based geographical locational service [1].

Volunteered Geographic Information System and Its Contribution in Service Sector Employment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82004

features of the cellular environment, it is a significant challenge to locate the target precisely. E.g., global positioning system (GPS), assisted GPS, network-based technology, the travel time of signals.


**6. Conclusions**

An aperiodic solid could be thermodynamically stable by the growth of entropy, the appearance of electronic energy gap around of the Fermi energy as occurred in the Peierls instability [218], or mechanisms described by the Hume–Rothery rules [219]. Such structural asymmetry represents a singular opportunity to achieve many unique physical properties. For example, the union of positively and negatively doped semiconductors constitutes the base of current microelectronics and modern illumination. Nevertheless, the presence of these structural interfaces requires new approaches for its study and design.

From the theoretical point of view, the tight-binding or Hubbard Hamiltonian based on the Wannier functions provides an atomic scale modelling of measurable physical quantities, where the huge degrees of freedom should be e fficient and accurately addressed by taking the advantage of all visible and hidden symmetries. For instance, the exciton di ffusion in organic solar cells has been recently analyzed by means of an attractive Hubbard Hamiltonian and the real-space renormalization method (RSRM) [220]. For aperiodic lattices with hierarchically structured inhomogeneities, the RSRM seems to be an ideal candidate because the structural scaling rule of these aperiodic lattices can be used as the starting point of RSRM. However, this procedure is truly useful only in 1D systems because they have a constant number of boundary atoms, in contrast to multidimensional systems whose boundary-atom number grows with the system size. These boundary atoms are extremely important for the Green's function determination, that is, a precise counting of all possible paths between two arbitrary atoms. For separable Hamiltonians, such as nearest-neighbor tight-binding Hamiltonian in cubically structured aperiodic lattices, a combination of the convolution theorem and RSRM has demonstrated its e ffectiveness [17]. Beyond cubically structured systems, the labyrinth lattice has been the first non-hypercubic aperiodic network recently addressed by the renormalization plus convolution scheme, where a new convolution theorem for a product of Hamiltonians instead of summation in the traditional convolution theorem was developed [184]. This fact opens a new horizon for the applicability of RSRM to more complex multidimensional aperiodic structures. On the other hand, the design of electronic and optical devices based on quantum mechanical calculations has been one of the biggest dreams of physicists and engineers, and the recent advances in RSRM bring it closer because these electronic and optical devices usually contain multiple aperiodic located structural interfaces. For example, first-principle calculations have been used in the multiscale design of omnidirectional dielectric reflectors [221] and Fabry–Perot resonators [222], whose results were experimentally confirmed.

Finally, despite the proven e fficiency of RSRM in the study of systems with huge degrees of freedom, there are still many challenges in the development and application of new RSRM and they might be summarized as follows: (1) extend the applicability of RSRM to multidimensional lattices with complex structural symmetry; (2) combine the RSRM with the density functional theory to address multielectron systems; and (3) apply the RSRM to strong correlated phenomena, such as the superconductivity.

**Author Contributions:** V.S. and C.W. both participated in the conceptualization, reference analysis, figure preparation, manuscript writing, and final revision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was partially supported by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología of Mexico through grant 252943 and by the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) through projects PAPIIT-IN115519 and PAPIIT-IN110020. Computations were performed at Miztli of DGTIC, UNAM.

**Acknowledgments:** We would like to thank Antonio Galeote for his participation at early stages of this article and Fernando Sánchez for stimulating conversations and technical assistance.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**1. Introduction**

Polymeric-based composites have been frequently used in last decades due to their promising properties and selectable specification. It is widely known that the usage of a polymer and one (or more) type of solid fillers allows us to obtain several advantages. In this case, by using diverse kinds of fillers, we can develop composite structures with selectable mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical properties. Among the most common fillers in the composite industry, calcium carbonate, glass fibers, talc, kaolin, mica, wollastonite, silica, graphite, synthetic fillers (e.g., PETor PVA-based fibers), and high-performance fibers (carbon, aramid, etc.) can be mentioned [1]. However, the usage of such additives leads to one of the main limitations of polymer composites; the presence of two different components within the

composite structure makes their recyclability and reuse a bit difficult to the level that it becomes much more economical to dispose them into the dump rather than reusing them [2–8]. Such method is often considered as an unappealing alternative due to its high cost, environmental impacts, and technical limitation/difficulties. Furthermore, it is worsened by the fact that plastic production requires a remarkable consumption of oil-based resources, which are notoriously nonrenewable [9]. Increased pressure from environmental activists, preservation of natural resources, and attended stringency of laws passed by developing countries lead to the invention and development of natural materials with a focus on renewable raw materials [10–12].

In case of chronological order, primary attempts were focused on the fabrication and characterization of polymeric composites based on recyclable polymers (e.g., polyolefin) filled with natural organic fillers, i.e., derived fibers and materials derived from natural plants. Several factors follow this choice. In this regard, the usage of natural organic fillers rather than traditional mineral inorganic additives leads to massive reduction in the usage of nonbiodegradable polymers and nonrenewable resources. Furthermore, these fillers are usually obtained from wastes or abundant plants; thus the final product becomes fairly economical and cheap. Moreover, these additives are less abrasive compared with inorganic mineral counterparts in matter of processing machinery. Likewise, these additives are also less dangerous for employees all of whom working in the production line due to their easy incineration and safe inhalation. The usage of such natural resources for reinforcement of composites can lead to the development of composite structures with lower density (or specific weight), ideal thermal properties, and fine acoustic insulation performance than with their mineral reinforced counterparts. Natural bio-fiber composites are emerging as a viable alternative to glass fiber reinforced plastics, especially in automotive applications. Thermoplastic biocomposites and biopolymer including PP, PE, PS, and PLA all of which were reinforced with natural fibers have attracted great attention toward themselves during the past few years. Such thermoplastic biocomposites, compared with those made using a thermoset matrix, can be processed into different shapes and have the potential to be mechanically recycled [13]. The synthesis of recyclable and degradable polymeric materials with a highly cross-linked three-dimensional network structure like PLA is very important for polymer science and technology for supporting a green sustainable society. PLA offers some advantages over the traditional nonbiodegradable polymers especially when their recycling is quite difficult or not economical. Likewise, there are also many restrictions due to the specification and properties of used materials, while a number of these challenges are expected to be resolved via blending PLA with other polymers, by making micro- and nanocomposites of PLA, coating with high barrier materials, and also through enhancement with practical polymeric materials [13].

The annual disposal of over 10 million tons of plastic wastes in both the EU countries and the USA has raised the demand for management and reuse of these nonbiodegradable waste streams. The synthetic polymeric materials containing displaced glasses, metals, wood, and ceramics have been widely used in many products, especially in the case of packaging. The commodity plastics, the so-called big four including PE, PP, PS, and PVC have been used in variety of forms such as films, rigid containers, and flexible bags which have revolutionized the packaging industry. However, disposal of these kinds of materials within the environment without the possibility of degradation led to rise of multitude environmental and ecological concerns. The important feature of composite materials is that they can be designed and tailored based on selectable properties to meet different requirements. Since biofibers are cheap and biodegradable, biocomposites from biofiber reinforced biodegradable polymers will render a contribution in the twenty-first century due to the serious environmental problem [14].

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**Table 1.**

*Development of Efficient Composites via Renewable, Recyclable, and Degradable Additives*

When traditional nonbiodegradable polymeric matrices are reinforcing with natural fibers (e.g., green fiber and biofibers), the resulting composite structure is becoming partially biodegradable. If the polymeric matrix being selected forms biodegradable resins (i.e., green polymer or biopolymer) and reinforced with natural fibers, the final composite structure is considered as green or fully biodegradable composite. Two or more diverse natural fibers as additives in combination with polymeric matrices (biopolymer or petroleum-based polymer) lead to the development of hybrid green composites. The aim of hybrid composite development is to customize the properties and specifications of resulting green composites. Another subclassification of green composites can be based on the natural fillers and functional behavior of green composites. Depending upon the type of natural fillers, green composites can be classified as unidirectional and bi-directional continuous fiber green composites or discontinuous reinforcement composites (aligned or randomly oriented in the form of particulates, short fibers, and whiskers). According to the functional behavior, they can be classified as functionally graded and smart green composites. At the end of their life cycle, green composites can be easily disposed into the soil without deteriorating the environment by creating pollution sources. Many scientific evaluations have been developed to address the potential and specifications of green and partially biodegradable composites [15]. **Table 1** reviews some of the reported works in case of these kinds of degradable composites. Some processing techniques were widely used for fabrication of composites, while among them extrusion, subsequent injection, and compression molding can be mentioned. It was rarely observed that the overall amount of fillers exceed 50–60 wt%; however, in some cases higher percentages about 70–80 wt% were reported (especially in the USA). Besides, in more excessive situations, the compression molding method is preferred rather than injection molding method. Some common flaws related to the processing of such materials are due to the hygroscopic and hydrophilic nature of these additives along with their low thermal resistance which restrict the production procedure to temperatures lower than 200°C.  Green composites**

Rice husk, wheat, husk, and coconut coir

*Development of Efficient Composites via Renewable, Recyclable, and Degradable Additives DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84560*