The definition of animal welfare in the Law of the Republic of Indonesia number 41 of 2014 concerning amendments to Law No. 18 of 2009 concerning Animal Husbandry and Animal Health clause 1 Section 42 is all matters relating to the physical and mental state of animals according to behavioral measures. Natural animal nature needs to be implemented and enforced to protect animals from any person's inappropriate treatment of animals that are used by humans. Animal welfare targets are all animals that interact with humans where human intervention greatly affects the survival of both animals in confinement, livestock and slaughter animals, working animals and pets [1]. The quality of life of animals will affect their productivity, where productivity is an indicator of animal welfare. The application of animal welfare aspects in the livestock industry is recognized as having the potential to increase animal productivity and improve meat quality [2].

Parameters for evaluating animal welfare that have been internationally recognized by classifying are The Five Freedoms [3] as follows: 1. Freedom from hunger and thirst; 2. Freedom from discomfort; 3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease; 4. Freedom to express natural behavior; 5. Freedom from fear and distress. Although aspects of animal welfare are grouped into two of five freedoms, the first four freedoms are to relieve suffering and the second freedom is to express normal behavior [4]. The application of animal welfare in cattle farming can mean placing cows in adequate facilities, protection from pain and protection from environmental extremes, such as air temperatures that are too hot or too cold [5].

Sumbawa Regency, Nusa Tenggara Barat (NTB) is one of the national cattle source areas in eastern Indonesia, both as a producer of beef cattle and seed cattle. Bali cattle population growth in Sumbawa is very dynamic starting at 0.34% in 2017; 4.69% in 2018; 1.36% in 2019; 1.33% in 2020 and − 3.78% in 2021. Meanwhile, growth other than Bali cattle such as Sumbawa cattle and crossbreed cattle was 1.47% in 2017; 19.54% in 2018; 81.14% in 2019; 70.33% in 2020 and −3.78% in 2021 [6].

The Bali cattle production system in Sumbawa, the results of the 2017 research, contained 34 typologies seen from the annual maintenance cycle. All of the typologies mentioned above have three typologies that are the most dominant, namely typology 6/6; tethered typology; and confined typology [7]. Currently, the typology that is increasingly being applied by farmers is the confined typology, the advantages of the confined typology are because there is a cattle insurance program, the ease of accessing people's business credit (PBC) for cattle business development from state-owned banks, while the 6/6 typology and tethered typology stagnant and even tends to decrease due to the change in land function and the existence of regional regulations that prohibit the free release of livestock. Therefore, the quality of life of Bali cattle with confined typology as seen from the knowledge and understanding of farmers in raising livestock which is part of animal welfare has never been reported. Based on the above phenomenon, an animal welfare level study with confined typology has been carried out in Sumbawa Regency.

### **2. Animal welfare view in Indonesia**

In Indonesia, issues of animal welfare and human rights were raised by the Indonesian Veterinary Association and animal rights activists in the 2000s. Various campaigns were launched, including improving the methods of slaughtering animals, sacrificial animals, to comply with animal welfare principles. The campaign was carried out on inter-island cattle transportation that often tortures animals, such as hanging cattle from one leg or throwing cattle from a truck [8].

The lack of information and regulations on animal welfare in cattle farming practices has an impact on the lack of animal welfare practices in the field [9]. Various studies have been conducted that focus on animal welfare, such as in several farms in the Pangkal Pinang area, Bangka Belitung Islands Province using the ANI method with five categories of animal welfare, namely movement, social contact, floor quality, light and air and cage cleanliness. The study shows that beef cattle are generally in a prosperous condition with a total ANI score of 23.8 [10]. The same thing was done by Sulistiawati and Wulandari [5] in the Nganjuk area, East Java Province with the results of the study showing that animal husbandry quite meets animal welfare standards (ANI category score 23) and almost does not meet animal welfare standards (ANI category score 12.8), meets animal welfare value standards if the total score is ANI category 32.

*Overview of Animal Welfare Aspects of Bali Cattle with Confined Typology in Sumbawa… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106654*

Animal welfare research on cattle slaughtered at the Banda Aceh Municipal Slaughterhouse (RPH). The animal welfare parameters observed included three aspects, namely transportation, shelter and slaughter. The three aspects are compared with the recommendations of Meat Livestock Australia (MLA) and the Indonesian National Standard 02–4509-1998. The method used is scoring assessment. Based on the scoring assessment of the shelter aspect and the slaughter aspect, the animal welfare of the slaughtered cattle at the Banda Aceh Municipal RPH is considered good in fulfilling the animal welfare aspect, while the transportation aspect is considered sufficient in meeting the animal welfare of the cattle slaughtered at the Slaughterhouse [11]. The development of the implementation of social welfare policies in the form of proposals through academic reviews as a basis for implementation. The concept of an animal welfare assessment system for sustainable cattle production in Indonesia which is based on protocols, human resources and the government. These three main elements in the animal welfare assessment system will be integrated to build sustainable cattle production through better animal welfare practices [9].

### **3. Welfare measurement techniques for Bali cattle in Sumbawa**

The research was conducted in July–October 2021 with four regions, namely west, east, north and south with 40 respondents. The respondent's criteria are Bali cattle farmers with a confined typology production system that has a cage with a minimum population of 10 Bali cattle with at least 3 years of livestock experience. Primary data were collected through direct interviews and secondary data from government agencies as well as direct observation for measurement (cage, feed, livestock behavior) and documentation. Data analysis used the Animal Needs Index method [12]. The determination of the rating scale was done using a Likert scale of 1–5 (**Table 1**).

### **4. Aspects of animal welfare for Bali cattle in confined typology**

In confined typology, there are limitations for livestock in accessing feed ingredients because everything is regulated. The role of livestock rearing management is of particular concern to livestock because it will support an increase in productivity through the application of animal welfare. Good management occurs when public awareness and knowledge are at a high level so that livestock can be guaranteed in terms of access to feed ingredients, drinking, comfort, health and normal behavior.

### **4.1 Knowledge and understanding of farmers**

The understanding and knowledge of farmers on livestock welfare or animal welfare need to be known as a supporting aspect in the context of deepening the aspects that are the determining variables. There is a positive relationship between humans and animals, especially the adequate knowledge and skills possessed by farmers [13].

**Table 2** shows the knowledge and understanding of farmers (KU1) about animal welfare with an average value of 1.64 (do not know category). This is due to the factor of not getting information about livestock welfare received by farmers independently and through socialization or technical guidance. Handling and productivity of livestock can be increased through training programs aimed at improving the attitudes and behavior of farmers toward their livestock [14, 15]. Specific training and skills can be beneficial [16].

This condition will certainly affect the farmers' understanding of animal welfare itself. The results of the study, in **Table 2**, show that only 1.56 breeders' have a lack of understanding of the KU2 value about animal welfare. Knowledge and understanding of farmers who do not know and understand as a result of the lack of socialization or information received by farmers is KU3 = 1.41 about animal welfare. The results of the research on the level of knowledge and understanding as well as getting information about animal welfare or cattle welfare in the Sumbawa district with a score of 1.54 is in a low category.

Animal welfare status is not always constant due to fluctuations in the factors responsible for good or bad welfare. Therefore, animal welfare status can be good, bad or somewhere in between [17] and varies with time. In general, if the cattle are healthy, comfortable, well nourished, free from pain, fear and distress and able to express their innate behavior, their welfare will be fulfilled [3]. The fulfillment of animal welfare is obtained from good husbandry, including the prevention and treatment of disease, humane handling and slaughter, and the provision of adequate nutrition and shelter [18].

### **4.2 Freedom from hunger and thirst**

The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty Animals [19] states that the level of animal welfare is said to be good if the livestock is free from hunger and

*Source: Primary data, processed 2021.*

*KU1 = know, KU2 = understand, KU3 = get information.*

### **Table 2.**

*Knowledge and understanding of farmers about animal welfare.*

*Overview of Animal Welfare Aspects of Bali Cattle with Confined Typology in Sumbawa… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106654*

*Source: Primary data, processed 2021.*

*FHT1 = provide/feed as needed; FHT2 = provide/give water as needed; FHT3 = type of feed given; FHT4 = amount of feed given; FHT5 = how to feed; FHT6 = signs of cattle not feeling hungry and thirsty; and FHT7 = loss when cattle feel hungry and thirsty.*

### **Table 3.**

*Freedom from hunger and thirst.*

thirst. The aspect of consumption is a concern in animal welfare, this is indicated by the fulfillment of feed and water consumption so that livestock no longer feel hungry and thirsty. Livestock must have access to adequate feed and water according to their age and needs to maintain normal health and productivity and prevent hunger and thirst, malnutrition or prolonged dehydration [13]. The aspect of being free of hunger and thirst is the main measuring tool in assessing the level of animal welfare.

**Table 3** shows that the supply of feed according to needs with a value (FHT1 = 2,92) is still in the fairly good category, which means that the understanding and awareness of farmers in the context of providing feed that is in accordance with needs, has an impact on feed management. In an intensive cattle production system, all cattle are locked up and all rely on farmers for basic needs, such as cages, feed and drinking water [4]. Adequate water supply with a value of FHT2 = 2.68 shows awareness and understanding of the importance of water consumption for livestock and water as a basic need looks quite good. This is indicated by the provision of water ad libitum to livestock, there are also others who provide drinking water to cattle an average of two times a day in the morning and evening.

The provision of water in a confined typology should be ad libitum as the role of water in the body is very important because the largest nutrient in the body composition of livestock is water. The need and consumption of water depend on several factors, such as temperature, humidity, water temperature, production level, pregnancy status, physical activity, growth rate, animal size, type of food, water content of feed, salt content consumed and dry matter consumption [20, 21]. Consideration of good water quality is also given to reduce the incidence of disease and economic losses [22]. Understanding issues of water quality and consumption is critical to cattle nutrition and management [23].

The type of feeding that is suitable for cattle with an average value of FHT3 = 2.68 indicates that the type is quite varied depending on the season. In the rainy season, farmers rely on forage in the form of various types of natural grass, including types of legumes such as wild or cultivated *leucaena*. The limited number of farmers who cultivate superior grasses such as elephant grass, king grass, mott elephant grass and legume cultivation (*leucaena, indigofera, sesbandia glandiflora*) is a limiting factor in providing the varied feed. There is an additional type of feed in the form of concentrate (*rice bran*, *zea mays*) although still a small number of farmers apply this.

However, in the dry season, farmers rely on the remaining agricultural products in the form of rice straw, corn straw, corn cobs, corn husks, zea mays, green bean straw and *leucaena,* which still survive in the dry season. The amount of appropriate feed for cattle is quite good with an average value of FHT4 = 3.03, meaning that farmers have sufficient ability to understand the feed needs of cattle.

Forage quality affects dry matter consumption, so increasing forage quality will be followed by an increase in total digestible nutrients (TDN). The existence of the ability of farmers to assess signs of the adequacy of feed by looking at signs of cattle feeling full, cattle not wanting to eat anymore, and based on the experience of raising livestock for generations. In addition, the understanding of farmers through socialization or technical training on the adequacy of animal feed contributes to a fairly good FHT4 value. The way of feeding the category is quite good with an average value of FHT5 = 3.41 indicating that the awareness of farmers about regularity in the feeding pattern has been carried out quite well. Regular feeding with an average frequency of feeding 2–3 times a day, namely in the morning, afternoon and evening, has become a habit and culture for raising livestock for the Sumbawa people. So that the certainty of cattle feeling full is a target in feeding management, this can be seen from the value of the ability of farmers to recognize signs of livestock feeling hungry and thirsty quite well with an average value of FHT6 = 3.28 with a fairly good category. Understanding of hunger and thirst such as the left side of the cattle's stomach is flat, the cattle will be aggressive when there are people in the cages, the cattle are restless, make noises, do not want to stay still, and always scavenge or lick the feed. The ability to understand the signs of livestock feeling hungry and thirsty is an advantage possessed by farmers in the Sumbawa Regency as a real form of the evaluation process in feeding management. The awareness of farmers about the importance of livestock free from hunger and thirst can be proven by looking at the ability of farmers to assess the impact or loss it causes.

Understanding the mechanism of regulation of consumption/intake and regulation of energy balance in ruminants is very important to increase the production efficiency [24]. Changes in behavior are caused by variations in hunger [25]. The average value of losses when cattle feel hungry and thirsty (FHT7 = 3.00) is quite good, meaning that farmers can assess and ascertain what consequences will occur. Various losses that will be caused in the form of livestock will experience weight loss and are susceptible to disease so that they experience losses in their business, besides that, it takes a long time to maintain a reduction in the cost of treatment and care for disease as well as a reduction in mortality rates and improvements in health will reduce economic losses [2]. Based on the assessment aspects above, in general, the management of feeding and drinking in the Sumbawa district with an average value of 3.10 is still in a fairly good category in terms of being free of hunger and thirst. The feeding schedule for captive cattle is determined by the farmer and the feeding schedule four times a day is categorized as very good [19].

### **4.3 Freedom from discomfort**

The aspect of being free from discomfort in **Table 4** shows that the knowledge of farmers about signs of cattle feeling comfortable in cages can be seen from the average value of FDC1 = 3.16 with a fairly good category. Some signs of cattle feeling comfortable in the cage based on the understanding of the farmer such as cattle are not restless, normal breathing is not gasping for breath, cattle are not rebellious, cattle tend to be silent, do not rebel, want to get out and are calm in the cage by sleeping

*Overview of Animal Welfare Aspects of Bali Cattle with Confined Typology in Sumbawa… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106654*

*Source: Primary data, processed 2021.*

*FDC1 = sign of cattle feeling comfortable in the pen; FDC2 = sign of cattle not feeling comfortable; FDC3 = cage position is suitable for comfort; FDC4 = size/capacity/capacity of the cage; FDC5 = information on how to make a good cage; FDC6 = received information/counseling on cage sanitation; FDC7 = adequate and comfortable cages equipment; FDC8 = cages ventilation; and FDC9 = in the morning sunlight.*

### **Table 4.**

*Freedom from heat and feel comfortable.*

comfortably in the cage. Ways to get the comfort of livestock, it is necessary to protect them from extreme areas, such as heat, rain, and wind [26] as well as the management of housing by farmers, as one of the fulfillment of the basic needs of livestock other than food and water [4]. Farmers have quite good knowledge about the signs of livestock feeling uncomfortable in the cage, this can be seen from the average value of FDC2 = 3.18 with a fairly good category. The standard of livestock comfort is obtained by making the construction of the floor of the cage that is not wet and slippery and easy to clean [26].

A good position and location of the cage is the most important thing that affects the comfort of livestock in the cage. Farmers must prepare a shady place and comfortable rest for their livestock [4]. The knowledge of farmers that the direction of the cage must receive morning sunlight so that the direction of the cage is mostly facing east. This can be seen from the mean value of FDC3 = 3.04 included in the good enough category, meaning that farmers have good knowledge and understanding of building cages. The comfort of livestock in cages can also be influenced by the density of livestock in cages, this can be seen from the mean value of FDC4 = 3.03 with a fairly good category. Knowledge and understanding of farmers about power the livestock capacity is quite good, it can be seen that the planning for the construction of the cage is adjusted to the number of cattle to be kept. The current average livestock capacity is 3 m2 /head. The standard housing [12] equipped with booths is 2.2 m2 /head cattle for beef cattle weighing 350 kg.

There is limited information on how to make suitable cattle cages, the standard for making good cages is that the floor is not slippery and easy to clean [26] and the placement of the cage in a shady position [4] must be considered and should not be ignored. This can be seen from the average value of FDC5 = 1.83 in the less category. Lack of information about building good cages and meeting the requirements for livestock comfort is still not good in the form of socialization and counseling only relying on experience and knowledge passed down from parents. Understanding of cages for livestock cattle is to limit the movement space so that the accumulation of meat and fat occurs quickly and the weight gain of livestock is faster [27].

The cleanliness of the cage is also important to maintain the comfort of the livestock, therefore, the floor of the cage must be easy to clean [26]. Farmers'

knowledge of good sanitation methods is still lacking, this can be seen from the value of FDC6 = 1.88 in the poor category. This is due to the lack of socialization and counseling because many farmers ignore good cage sanitation methods only relying on experience. In addition, the provision of supporting equipment also needs to pay attention to the comfort of livestock, meaning that farmers have sufficient knowledge of the provision of cage equipment that meets the requirements for use in cages and does not endanger livestock. It is the farmer who can choose and plan whatever the livestock needs [28]. This can be seen from the FDC 7 = 3.03 in the fairly good category. By relying on experience and simple manual equipment the provision of equipment used in cages but not harmful to livestock.

Farmers' understanding of ventilation is not needed, this can be seen from the average value of FDC8 = 1.45 in the category not needed because an open cage system can guarantee air circulation in the cage, so it does not require special ventilation. Optimal air quality is obtained from open cages [12]. Open cages provide a minimum of 0.45 m2 / AWU with unrestricted access to open air, with a minimum opening height of 1 m [12]. Knowledge and understanding of farmers about a good position of the cage building can enter the morning sun as seen from the average value of BTN9 = 3.45 with a poor category. The importance of the morning sun entering the cage is mandatory in order to maintain the health of livestock. Based on the above components, the aspect is free from heat and feeling the comfort of livestock is quite good, this can be seen from the average value of FDC = 2.67 with a fairly comfortable category. The shape of the cage is quite open and has good air circulation in the cage so that it makes the cattle comfortable and enough sunlight illuminates the cage [10]. This condition [29] makes the place to lie down is always dry. Sunlight hitting the eyes of animals should be used in research with consideration, the percentage of direct sunlight that enters through the windows is affected by the projection of roofs, trees, buildings blocking the sky [12].

### **4.4 Freedom from pain, injury and disease**

**Table 5** shows that the cattle have experienced illness/injury with an FPID1 = 3.73 category of never. There were incidents of livestock getting injured or injured as a result of the transportation process, when they came out of the cage, they were scratched by the fence while the cattle got sick during the rainy/transient season in the form of scabies, bali zekte, pink eye and intestinal worms. The appearance of illness both physically and physiologically can be caused by stress in animals [30]. Therefore, it is important to raise or tame cattle with gentleness and respect without violence and pain. This is important because in Indonesia, farmers must prepare livestock in a safe, healthy, disease-free, intact condition without defects and halal (good) to be consumed [31]. Therefore, it is also important for farmers (producers) to choose livestock with better disease resistance early in life [32].

The actions taken by most farmers by consulting with livestock health officers have been carried out, this can be seen from the FPID2 = 3.31 value in the category of having done. This is done as a form of farmer awareness to protect and maintain the health of livestock from disease, following the statement that says that farmers must be able to prevent, diagnose and treat livestock if they are exposed to disease [4]. Cattle health needs to be considered when raising cattle, because to get good quality meat, cattle must be healthy [10]. The success of a cattle farming business is largely determined by the health of the livestock itself [33].

Protection and treatment measures are due to the lack of knowledge and skills of farmers in terms of treatment and livestock health, but other efforts are made with

*a burn stamp; FPID7 = separation of calf, cow and bull; FPID8 = separation of sick cattle; FPID9 = satisfied with the current condition of the cage; and FPID10 = needs adjustment.*

### **Table 5.**

*Freedom from pain, injury and disease.*

*Overview of Animal Welfare Aspects of Bali Cattle with Confined Typology in Sumbawa… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106654*

local knowledge using ingredients that are passed down from generation to generation. Other factors that have the opportunity to cause livestock to be injured/injured/ fallen sometimes occur, this can be seen from the mean value of FPID3 = 4.61 for the occasional category. The high FPID3 value was also caused by the condition of the cage floor which was less inclined and fell when the floor was wet and slippery. The floor is very important to provide a good grip to prevent cattle from slipping or falling [12]. In addition, poorly managed floors can cause injury to livestock hooves [12]. Lameness due to injury or disease of the legs is considered a major problem in cattle [34]. Another factor is cattle that are shocked or when the cattle are new and not yet tame when they enter the cage.

The incidence of cattle horning each other has never happened and suffered injuries, this can be seen with the value of FPID4 = 4.53 in the never category. This means that the chances of each other having a low-frequency horn occur because there is a barrier between livestock. The possibility of injury to livestock can also occur due to unsafe equipment during cage sanitation. The understanding and skills of farmers play a very important role, this can be seen with a FPID5 = 4.93 with the category of never occurring because the equipment used is not made of hazardous materials, such as iron or sharp tools, on average, farmers use materials in the form of wood, plastic or rubber so that the possibility of injury to livestock can be avoided.

The awareness of farmers in the maintenance and care of cattle is very good. This can be seen by avoiding things that can cause injury or illness to cattle in line with the opinion [35] that livestock should not be intentionally hurt, by no longer giving a sign in the form of a burn stamp to avoid livestock experience stress due to adverse activities/ management. This can be seen by the average value of FPID6 = 3.71 for the occasional category. This condition occurs because the marking in the form of a burnt stamp is a sign given by the previous owner. In addition, marking is no longer necessary because livestock no longer mixes with other people's livestock. Another reason for farmers is the demand for consumers who prefer livestock without markings, such as qurban cattle and the reason for the economic value that livestock that do not have defects such as burn marks are higher. In efforts to prevent livestock from getting injured due to physical contact in the form of horns, it is necessary to separate the bull from the cow or the calf. This can be seen by the average value of FPID7 = 3.02 category ever.

Knowledge and understanding as well as experience of farmers are good to avoid physical contact that causes livestock to suffer injuries in the cage. In addition, the separation of male, mother and child cattle is also aimed at controlling the disease. This can be seen by the average value of FPID8 = 3.11 in the never category, meaning that when there is an incident of livestock experiencing illness, it must be separated from the group to facilitate handling and treatment. In addition, to avoid the occurrence of disease transmission that can harm the economy. The limitations of farmers with cage management are still limited, this can be seen by the value of FPID9 = 2.66, the category is quite satisfied. This is due to the limited manual and traditional cage equipment and the limited form and construction due to limited cage financing. Limited space and livestock unable to show some of their natural behaviors can lead to disease risk and high feed competition [4]. The existence of additional information through social media as well as an understanding of appropriate and good cage management creates a desire to improve the quality of the cage facilities, this can be seen from the average value of FPID10 = 4.08 categories. It is necessary to adjust and improve the quality of the cage facilities in order to improve

the quality of management maintenance. Based on the overall component aspects of the assessment of being free from illness, injury and disease with a FPID value of 3.77 good category.

### **4.5 Freedom to express natural behavior**

Opportunities for animals to move need to be assessed and express their natural behavior according to their behavioral needs [12]. Animal welfare is best demonstrated by the presence of several natural animal behaviors observed [4]. Freedom to express natural behavior is obtained by providing sufficient space, appropriate facilities and friends of the animal species itself for social interaction [4]. In addition, it is important to facilitate livestock so that they can behave normally when getting up, standing and lying down [12]. Livestock management techniques are important to use the natural behavior of the cattle themselves [35]. Currently, livestock behavior assessment can be assessed scientifically to determine the quality of life of individual animals [28]. Based on **Table 6**, the time the cattle were released outside the cage can be seen from the mean value of FENB1 = 2.69 in the category of never/no time. Farmers really need to prepare an outdoor area of about 3–5 m<sup>2</sup> / AWU [12].

The knowledge of farmers about the importance of livestock being released at any time to express natural behavior, has been carried out by providing time for this. The frequency and duration of livestock access outside the room are important factors, with an average duration of more than or equal to 2 hours [12]. In addition to the availability of time to do body exercises and express natural behavior, the duration of time on a regular basis is important, this can be seen from the average FENB2 = 2.96 categories once a week. The duration of 1 full day once a week or equivalent to 51 days a year has been carried out by farmers regularly. The exercise pattern carried out by farmers is by walking the cattle outside the cage. This can be seen by the average value of FENB3 = 3.11 in the category of being invited for walks outside the cage for fattening efforts. The importance of livestock expressing natural behavior can be seen from the average value of FENB4 = 3.74 in the necessary category. Expressing normal behavior so that livestock can move freely, muscles are not stiff so that livestock do

*Source: Primary data, processed 2021.*

*FENB1 = free time; FENB2 = length of free time; FENB3 = maintenance model to freely express normal behavior; and FENB4 = need cattle to express natural/normal behavior.*

### **Table 6.**

*Freedom to express natural behavior.*

not cramp and suffer muscle injuries. The good health of livestock is influenced by the natural behavior of the animal [36]. Based on all components of the free aspect of expressing natural behavior with an average value of FENB = 3.12, the category is quite good.

### **4.6 Freedom from fear and stress**

Farmers must be able to fulfill their responsibility to provide a well-managed cage environment to prevent stress on animals, including noise which can also cause stress [12]. The behavior of cattle to stress can reduce the productivity and health of livestock [37]. High levels of stress can reduce the response of the immune system and increase the incidence of infectious diseases [36]. **Table 7** shows the average value of FFS1 = 4.49, the category of cattle sometimes experiencing fear and stress from wild animal disturbances. There is protection in the form of care or control, that is always carried out by farmers. The position of the cage that is close to the road and far from the forest can reduce the chance of disturbance by wild animals, but there are some cases for farmers in the form of dog disturbance during the parturition of cattle. In addition to wild animals, other social activities can also have an influence in the form of fear and stress on cattle. This can be seen by the average value of FFS2 = 4.52 categories never, this is due to the location of the cages of most of the farmers far from residential areas so that human social activities do not affect the cattle.

Routine security monitoring and control at all times is so intense that the chances of outside interference are minimal. This is in line with the view of [12] that good housing environment management can prevent stress on livestock. This has an impact on the low handling of livestock experiencing stress, this can be seen with the FFS3 = 1.35 category never. The low number of cases experienced by farmers due to disturbance of wild animals or human activities, even if there are, will immediately be handled so that livestock do not experience stress for a long time and do not suffer economic losses. The low effort of farmers to reduce stress on cattle can be seen by the low average value of FFS4 = 1.15 in the never category. The lack of handling efforts due to preventive efforts or prevention by intensively maintaining livestock safety. This is evidenced by the high average value of FFS5 = 4.68 categories that have experienced fear so that cattle experience stress. The absence of protection to reduce

*Source: Primary data, processed 2021.*

*FFS1 = experienced attack/disruption by wild animals; FFS2 = experiencing stress due to disturbance from wild animals or other activities; FFS3 = experiencing fear to stress; FFS4 = never handle fear; FFS5 = how often do you experience fear; FFS6 = special protection; and FFS7 = stress treatment effort.*

### **Table 7.** *Freedom from fear and stress.*

*Overview of Animal Welfare Aspects of Bali Cattle with Confined Typology in Sumbawa… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106654*

*Source: Primary data, processed 2021.*

*FHT = Freedom from hunger and thirst; FDC = Freedom from discomfort; FPID = Freedom from pain, injury and disease; FENB = Freedom to express natural behavior; FFS = Freedom from fear and stress.*

### **Table 8.**

*Assessment of animal welfare level.*

the fear of livestock to prevent stress can be seen by the low value of FFS6 = 1.28 in the none category. The absence of cases experienced by farmers caused no treatment carried out by farmers, this was seen by the average value of FFS7 = 1.14 in the category of none. Based on all components of the aspect of being free from fear and stress with an average value of FFS = 2.66, the category is quite good.

### **4.7 Comprehensive review of animal welfare level assessment**

Based on the results of **Table 8** analysis for the five aspects of animal welfare in Sumbawa Regency with a total average score of 15.32, is in the almost prosperous category. The lack of welfare of cattle is caused by the level of knowledge and understanding of farmers, who are still lacking as a result of the absence of socialization or information received by farmers about animal welfare, only relying on hereditary experience in the cattle rearing system.

### **5. Conclusion and recommendation**

Based on the results and discussion, it can be concluded that the value of the level of animal welfare or the welfare of Bali cattle with confined typology in Sumbawa Regency with a total ANI score of 15.32 is included in the almost prosperous category. The recommendation is that it is necessary to improve the aspect of being freedom from discomfort (FDC) and the aspect of being the freedom to express natural behavior (FENB) to improve animal welfare through increasing awareness and understanding of farmers and there needs to be government policy intervention in the context of implementing animal welfare in Sumbawa Regency as a efforts to increase the productivity of Bali cattle.

### **Acknowledgements**

We thank you for the collaboration between the Faculty of Animal Science and Fisheries, Samawa University and the Sumbawa Regency Government for funding our research in 2021 on animal welfare in Sumbawa Regency.

### **Conflict of interest**

We declare that there is no conflict of interest with financial, personal or other relationships with other parties or organizations related to the material discussed in this chapter.

### **Author details**

Sudirman Sudirman\*, Amrullah Amrullah and Asrul Hamdani Faculty of Animal Science and Fisheries, Samawa University, Sumbawa Besar, NTB, Indonesia

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Overview of Animal Welfare Aspects of Bali Cattle with Confined Typology in Sumbawa… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106654*

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[12] Bartussek H, Leeb C, Held S. Animal Needs Index for Catle-ANI35L/2000

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[16] Grandin T. Cattle vocalization with handling and equipment problems in slaughter plants. Applied Animal Behavior Science. 2 Mar 2001;**71**(3):191-201. DOI: 10.1016/ S0168-1591(00)00179-9

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[20] Arispe S. Water Nutrition and Quality for Beef Cattle. OSU Extention Service. Oregon State University. 2019. [Internet]. Available from: https:// extension.oregonstate.edu/animalslivestock/beef/water-nutrition-qualitybeef-cattle [Accessed: July 2, 2022]

[21] NRC. Nutrients Requirement of Beef Cattle. Update 7th ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2000

[22] Parish J. Beef Cattle Requirement and Source Management. Missisippi State University. Publication number P2490. Available from: http://extension.msstate. edu/publications/publications/beefcattle-water-requirements-and-sourcemanagement [Accessed: Juni 20, 2022]

[23] Josh Stroh MS. Water Quality and Concerns for Beef Cattle. Hubbard an Altech Company. Posted April 2021. [Internet]. Available from: https://www. hubbardfeeds.com/blog/water-qualityand-concerns-beef-cattle [Accessed: Juni 27, 2022]

[24] Clipton A. Baile, Mary Anna Dela-Vera. Nature of hunger and satiety control system in ruminant. Journal of Dairy Science. 1981;**64**(6): 1140- 1152. Available from: https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0022030281826938 [Accessed: Juni 27, 2022]

[25] Herskin MS, Jensen MB and Skjoth F. Effek of hunger level and tube diameter on the feeding behavior of teat-fed dairy calves. Journal Dairy Science. 2010;**93**(5): 2053-2059 [Internet]. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/20412920/ DOI: 10.3168/jds.2009- 2554 [Accessed: Juni 27, 2022]

[26] Sukmawati FM dan Kaharuddin. Practical instructions for cattle cage practical instructions for cattle cage. BPTP NTB. 2010. [Internet] Available *Overview of Animal Welfare Aspects of Bali Cattle with Confined Typology in Sumbawa… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106654*

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[27] Susilawati E, Syafrial Z, Yusri A. BEEF Cattle Fattening Management. BPTP Jambi. 2003. [Internet] Available from: http://jambi.litbang.pertanian. go.id/eng/images/PDF/bukletsapi07.pdf [Accessed: April 20, 2021]

[28] Fernandes DRP, de Lurdes Ribeiro Pinto M. Veterinarian's Role in Conservation Medicine and Animal Welfare. 2019. DOI: 10.5772/ intechopen.84173 [Accessed: Juni 25, 2022]

[29] Zakaria M A. Livestock Maintenance Management at PT. Adi Farm and PT. Lembah hijau Multifarm. Article. Faculty of Animal Science, Gadjah Mada University; 2012. [Internet]. Available from: https://text-id.123dok. com/document/zw0g75vy-manajemenpemeliharaan-ternak-di-adi-farm-danlembah-hijau-multifarm.html [Accessed: Juni 25, 2021]

[30] Broom DM. Coping, stress and welfare. In: Coping with Challenge: Welfare in Animals including Humans, Proceedings of Dahlem Conference, DM Broom, editors. Berlin: Dahlem University Press; 2001. pp. 1-9. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/299657903\_Coping\_stress\_ and\_welfare [Accessed: Juni 25, 2022]

[31] Nuraini H. Edit Lesa Aditia and Bram Brahmantiyo. Meat Quality of Indonesian Local Cattle and Buffalo. 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79904 [Accessed: Juni 25, 2022]

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[34] Ramanoon SZ, Sadiq MB, Mansor R, Syed-Hussain SS, Mossadeq WMS. The Impact of Lameness on Dairy Cattle Welfare: Growing Need for Objective Methods of Detecting Lame Cows and Assessment of Associated Pain. 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.75917. [Accessed: Juni 27, 2022]

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[37] Oltenacu PA, Algers B. Selection for increased production and the welfare of dairy cows: Are new breeding goals needed? Ambio. 2005;**34**:311-315. DOI: 10.1579/0044-7447-34.4.311 [Accessed: Juni 27, 2022]


*3.1. The IR Sensors and Data Acquisition*

TIRNet stations were equipped with FLIR System, Inc. IR cameras, which acquire IR frames in the 7.5–13 μm waveband. The IR sensor installed at Campi Flegrei caldera is the FLIR SC655 and at Vesuvius is the FLIR A40 M, both with a focal plane array (FPA) uncooled microbolometer detector, of which the resolution was, respectively, 640 × 480 and 320 × 240 pixels. Accuracy was ±2 ◦C (SC655 and A40 M) and thermal sensitivity at 50/60 Hz was **<**30 mK (SC655) and 80 mK @ +25◦C (A40 M). All IR cameras were set to a −40◦ to 120 ◦C temperature range. The optics used depended both on the distance sensor-target and type of IR camera and varied from 24.6 mm (FoV 25◦ × 19◦) of SC655 camera to 36 mm (FoV 24◦ × 23.4◦) of A40 M camera. The technical specifications of FLIR cameras and the features of target areas are reported in Table 1.

The IR stations acquired three IR frames of the target area every day at night-time. As solar heating can drastically decrease the thermal contrast between fumarole anomaly and the heated surrounding rocks [33] and references therein], the acquisitions of TIR frames were carried out at night (00:00, 02:00, 04:00 AM) in order to minimize diurnal heating effects.

After IR frames acquisition, WiFi radio or UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service) modem transmits TIR data to the INGV-Osservatorio Vesuviano server of TIRNet in order to process them and to display the results in the surveillance room.

**Table 1.** Technical specifications of remote stations, FLIR infrared cameras and target areas details.

As temperature values of TIR scenes are influenced by the atmospheric conditions (e.g., air temperature and humidity; [10]) and by the emissivity of target area, atmospheric correction was necessary. A probe of the IR station detected the values of air temperature and humidity and these values were transferred to the FLIR camera, which then applied the internal algorithm (LOWTRAN; [33]). This algorithm performed the atmospheric correction to the acquired IR frame in function of detector-target distance, emissivity of the target, air temperature and air relative humidity. The emissivity of the volcanic terrains (thermally altered pyroclasts), which characterize the target areas, was assumed to be 0.9 [34]).

The accuracy of the temperature measurements also depended on the orientation of the field of view, which should be as parallel as possible to the target. Generally, despite the calibration and correction of camera parameters, the detected IR temperatures were underestimated due to extrinsic field conditions mainly influenced by the presence of condensed water in fumarole gases which can partially hide the hot areas [14,35,36]. Therefore, the measured IR temperatures are to be considered apparent temperatures values that can differ from the real surface temperatures of the target area [1,37].

The resolution of FLIR cameras and the small distances between sensors and target areas allowed to detect correctly small thermal anomalies, and moreover, to minimize the attenuation of radiated energy of those non-homogeneous pixels which integrate both hot and cold areas [33]. In addition, the limitations in the calculation of real temperature were deemed not critical when the purpose was to investigate relative spatio-temporal variations of surface temperature field in volcanic areas [38].

#### *3.2. Data Processing Procedures*

The IR frames acquired by TIRNet stations were processed according to a multi-step procedure consisting of five main steps (Figure 2). The entire process is accomplished by the fully automated Matlab© software ASIRA (Natick, MA, USA), which was developed starting from the initial structure described by [19] and then by [20]. A detailed explanation of operative procedures is described in the following paragraphs. In the Appendix A, synthetic technical sheets of Matlab© code are reported.

**Figure 2.** Block diagram of IR images processing steps. 3D: three-dimensional.

3.2.1. Step 1—IR Files Conversion, Archiving and Image Quality Selection

The FLIR IR raw files (radiometric JPEG), transmitted by remote TIRNet stations to the acquisition server, were imported in the Matlab© environment, then saved in appropriate storage folders both as a single CSV file and in a Matlab© three-dimensional (3D) matrix (Matlab© function: 'step01.m'). Occasionally, the presence of wide blurred areas, due to the condensation of water vapor from the fumaroles plume and the occurrence of heavy rain, caused the homogenization of the IR temperatures [18–20] and generated low quality IR frames. With the aim of removing low quality data, only the IR scenes that satisfied the following condition were selected:

$$\mathfrak{a}\mathbb{F}\_i > \mathfrak{m}\mathfrak{a} - \mathfrak{c} \* \mathfrak{o}\mathbb{F}\_{\mathfrak{a}} \tag{1}$$

where σFi is the Standard Deviation (SD) of the i-th IR frame, mσ is the median of SD values of all IR frames of the station time-series, σFσ is the Standard Deviation of all Standard Deviations of IR frames of the station time-series, and c is a user-defined coefficient depending on the statistical distribution of data (Matlab© function: 'step01.m'). We found c=1a suitable value to obtain a homogeneous data set by excluding very low-quality images.

This step converted input data (FLIR radiometric JPEG, CSV or TXT IR matrix) into Matlab© 3D arrays [resY, resX, n], where (resY, resX) is the image resolution and n is the number of IR collected frames.

#### 3.2.2. Step 2—IR Frames Co-registration

The accurate alignment of all the IR frames related to a station time-series was necessary to proceed to further analysis. Since the IR framed area can vary in time, due to ground movements affecting volcanic areas or simply to maintenance services, a correction of IR frames position in respect of a reference IR frame was carried out (co-registration). This correction performed the alignment of the same pixels, of all IR frames belonging to the same station, by using the flow-based, image registration Matlab© algorithm, SIFT flow [39]. The SIFT flow algorithm matches pixel-to-pixel correspondences between two images and it is able to find dense scene correspondence despite substantial differences in spatial arrangement of compared images (Matlab© function: 'step02.m').

### 3.2.3. Step 3—Seasonal Component Removal

A simple plot of the time-series of temperature values evidenced a typical recurring pattern due to the seasonal influence over the surface temperatures (background raw maximum temperature plot in Figure 3). The temperature time-series of raw IR frames were representative of both exogenous (e.g., seasonal) and endogenous (thermal anomaly) components. Therefore, in order to highlight the possible spatio-temporal variation of thermal anomalies, it was necessary to remove the seasonal component in the raw temperature time-series (de-seasoned time-series).

**Figure 3.** Processing scheme of background removal procedure (BKGr).

Different methods to remove seasonal component in time-series were previously tested to TIRNet data [18–20] and two methods demonstrated to be effective to perform seasonal adjustment: the background removal (BKGr) and the STL decomposition (STLd, Seasonal-Trend decomposition based on Loess) [40]. The effectiveness of these two different methodologies depends on the time-length of the dataset. BKGr is applied on time-series shorter than two years that cannot be processed by STLd as it requires several-years-long time-series. The BKGr removes the seasonality only to maximum and average temperatures of IR time-series and does not perform the seasonal adjustment to all the pixels of IR frame. Diversely, STLd can remove the seasonal component to all the pixels of IR frame, allowing to perform deeper analysis to the IR dataset.

The Background Removal Procedure (BKGr)

The BKGr procedure [18–20] consisted of the removal of background temperature time-series to raw IR frames time-series. Background temperatures were detected in a background area of the IR scene not influenced by thermal anomaly. The procedure was based on the evidence that a linear correspondence is between maximum (or mean) temperature of background area (*TmaxBKG*) and maximum (or mean) temperature of IR scene (TmaxSc), as previously reported by [19,20] and illustrated in Figure 3 (TmaxSc vs TmaxBKG plot). This correspondence allows the application of the following equation:

$$dTn = T\_{\max} \mathcal{S}c(n) - T\_{fit}(n) \tag{2}$$

were *dT*(*n*) is the residual de-seasoned temperature value, *TmaxSc*(*n*) is the maximum temperature of the n IR scene and *Tfit*(*n*) is the value of *TmaxSc*(*n*) in correspondence of *TmaxBKG*(*n*) according to the linear fitting equation of the two variables (Figure 3; Matlab© function: 'step03.m').

The accurate selection of the background area (BKG) was crucial as it strongly influenced the efficiency of this procedure. BKG had to be outside the region of the IR frame affected by thermal anomaly and also characterized by similar lithology of the anomaly area, without vegetation and any kind of anthropic object. An efficient way to test the quality of the chosen BKG was to perform a linear regression to time-series of average temperature values of BKG. A suitable BKG must have the slope of the linear regression equation near to zero (Figure 4a).

**Figure 4.** (**a**) Time-series of average temperature values of Pisciarelli background area (grey color) and linear regression fit (blue color); (**b**) the results of the background removal procedure applied to Pisciarelli station: RAW maximum temperature of IR scene (grey color) and residual temperature value dT (blue color).

The main advantage of BKGr method was the possibility to apply seasonal correction to short temperature time-series; nevertheless, the results are expressed in terms of temperature residuals and not as absolute temperatures (Figure 4b).


**4. Snake's skin and scale features**

In snakes, the skin is entirely covered with scales, specific to reptiles. The scales are set together as piles covering each other and are comprised of the upper part of mucosal layer of the skin with subcutaneous tissue below; they are keratinized and protect snakes from skin injuries and dehydration, basically to make it air-proof. When considering the position on the body, they have a different layout and shape. Scales, especially on the head, have an important role in determining the species of snakes. Smaller scales are found dorsally on the body and are placed in several rows. On the ventral, abdominal part of the body, scales are wide and transversally positioned. The shape and number of scales on the head, back, and belly are characteristic to each family, genus, and species. Scales have a nomenclature analogous to the position on the body. In "advanced" (Caenophidian) snakes, the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond to the vertebrae, allowing scientists to count the vertebrae without dissection [14].

Scales protect the body of the snake, aid it in locomotion, allow moisture to be retained within and give simple or complex coloration patterns which help in camouflage and antipredator display. In some snakes, scales have been modified over time to serve other functions such as those of "'eyelash" fringes, and the most distinctive modification—the *rattle* of the North American rattlesnakes. The snakes also use scales for different types of movement because they have lost their limbs through the evolution process [22].

With the abdominal part of their scales, snakes can resist the unevenness of the surface and move across bare terrain such as sand and roads, where they cannot push off rocks and branches (lateral undulation type of movement) and with their muscle strength push their body forward. Besides that, it is mathematically proven that snakes also rely on the frictional properties of their scales to slide [23].

The resistance of a snake's belly scales is highest when its body is sliding sideways, rather than forward or backward. Snakes also seem to lift the parts of their bodies where friction is slowing movement the most, enabling them to slither faster. Snakes can move by folding themselves into pleats, contracting their bellies, contorting into helices or slithering in an S-shape. Scientists suggested that the snakes' belly scales, which can catch small bumps in the ground, might also aid movement. Behind the cloaca, scales are smaller and usually positioned in two lines. When closely observed, the border between the body and the tail is seen [23].

Snakes have pigmented scales; their color can change in certain species and some snakes are also albino snakes. Color of a young snake can be brighter than in adults and may also depend on the geographical position of the snake. In the cubs of green tree python (*Morelia viridis*), the color is yellowish to orange, however adult animals become green. The color of some boa species is also associated with the period of the day, where they are mostly darker at daylight and brighter at night time.

There is a polymorphism in snakes, but it is not common. It can be seen, for example, in the Turks Island Boa (*Epicrates chrysogaster*) and the Californian Royal Snake (*Lampropeltis getula californiae*), in which cells at the part of the snake may appear on individual animals forming a pattern and on the other part forming lines at the same time. During breeding of snakes, genetic mutations have emerged recently, and partial albinos are possible. During breeding, due to various mutations in the Ball Python (*Python regius*), color change may occur, and new species of morphs can be developed (**Figure 8**).

Snake skin contains pigmented cells and snakes use their color to camouflage (mimicry) or in order to give warning signs. A special form of mimicry is imitation of color, in which poor poisonous and non-lethal species of snake, such as the Arizona Mountain Kingsnake (*Lampropeltis pyromelana pyromelana*) (**Figure 9**), mimics an extremely poisonous painted coral snake (*Micrurus corallinus*) to protect themselves from predators [14].

#### **Figure 8.**

*A portrait of different patterns, colors, and morphs of Ball python (Python regius) (Photography, Leja Hrovatin, Nina Bajec, Nika Glavina, and Tilen Holynski). Very well-known and desired morphs are: Super Pastel Ivory morph (C), Piebald morph, Super Pastel Axanthic; Butter Pastel: Cinnamon, lesser (A), Super Pastel Spider, (D) Coral Glow/Banana in the comparison to normal ball python (B).*

**145**

**Figure 9.**

*Reptilian Skin and Its Special Histological Structures DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84212*

Snake's skin is similarly as in lizard's consisted of germinal layer of the epidermis spinosus-like keratinocytes that alternate to hard (β) and soft (α) layers. Samples from two different species of snakes were observed histologically and skin samples were collected from different parts of the body. We have observed skin at the abdominal (ventral) part and the tail of the Burmese Python (*Python bivittatus*) (**Figure 10**) and the lip part of the Emerald Tree Boa (*Corallus caninus*) (**Figure 11**). From the outer scale surface toward the dermis are the *oberhautchen* layer, β-layer,

*Arizona Mountain Kingsnake (Lampropeltis pyromelana pyromelana) (Photography Pia Cigler).*

Iridescence is caused by the physical properties of light on the thin and transparent outer layer of the skin. When light strikes from an angle, the light spectrum is split into wavelengths of different colors. Depending on the color of the scales, this will cause iridescent effect when the snake moves. This feature is more obvious in black or dark snakes like the white-lipped python (*Liasis albertisii*) (**Figure 12**) [14]. Snakes living among the leaves are most often green, and those living in the desert are often yellowish or reddish. Snakes have no skin glands other than cloacal glands. Some species can detect infrared light. Primitive boas have pronounced sensory receptors in the skin and can detect mice at a distance of 15 cm. Between the nostrils and the eye, in some snakes, there are special infrared receptors (pits) that allow them to feel hot-blooded animals and to attack them in the dark. These receptors are innerved with *n. mandibularis*, *n. maxillaris,* and *n. ophthalmicus* (branch of *n. trigeminus*). Along the upper and lower lumbar scales, there are fewer pits, which are also innervated by the branches of *n. trigeminus*. These organs are

At the ends of the tails of rattlesnakes (*Crotalus sp.*), there is a special anatomical adjustment—a rattle. Also, their name derives from the Greek word *krótalοn*, which means "rattle" or "castanet," and refers to the rattle on the end of the tail which makes this group (genera *Crotalus* and *Sistrurus*) very distinctive [26]. The rattle consists of up to 20 loosely interlocking hollow shells, each of which is at one point the scale covering the tip of the tail. Their number depends on the type and gender of the animal. In most other snakes, the tail tip is cone-shaped and not much thicker than the rest of the skin. It is shed along with the rest of molt. However, in rattlesnakes, it does not shed, and it also gets elongated, since younger specimens may shed three to four times per year, every time adding a new segment to the rattle. The end of the tail is much thicker and round shaped at the end, with one or two annular constrictions to prevent it from falling off. Before each shedding, a new button will

mesos layer, α-layer, lacunar layer, and the clear layer [1, 24, 25].

extremely sensitive to temperature changes of as much as 0.002°C [14].

*Reptilian Skin and Its Special Histological Structures DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84212*

*Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology*

morphs can be developed (**Figure 8**).

themselves from predators [14].

contorting into helices or slithering in an S-shape. Scientists suggested that the snakes' belly scales, which can catch small bumps in the ground, might also aid movement. Behind the cloaca, scales are smaller and usually positioned in two lines. When closely observed, the border between the body and the tail is seen [23].

Snakes have pigmented scales; their color can change in certain species and some snakes are also albino snakes. Color of a young snake can be brighter than in adults and may also depend on the geographical position of the snake. In the cubs of green tree python (*Morelia viridis*), the color is yellowish to orange, however adult animals become green. The color of some boa species is also associated with the period of the day, where they are mostly darker at daylight and brighter at night time. There is a polymorphism in snakes, but it is not common. It can be seen, for example, in the Turks Island Boa (*Epicrates chrysogaster*) and the Californian Royal Snake (*Lampropeltis getula californiae*), in which cells at the part of the snake may appear on individual animals forming a pattern and on the other part forming lines at the same time. During breeding of snakes, genetic mutations have emerged recently, and partial albinos are possible. During breeding, due to various mutations in the Ball Python (*Python regius*), color change may occur, and new species of

Snake skin contains pigmented cells and snakes use their color to camouflage (mimicry) or in order to give warning signs. A special form of mimicry is imitation of color, in which poor poisonous and non-lethal species of snake, such as the Arizona Mountain Kingsnake (*Lampropeltis pyromelana pyromelana*) (**Figure 9**), mimics an extremely poisonous painted coral snake (*Micrurus corallinus*) to protect

**144**

**Figure 8.**

*A portrait of different patterns, colors, and morphs of Ball python (Python regius) (Photography, Leja Hrovatin, Nina Bajec, Nika Glavina, and Tilen Holynski). Very well-known and desired morphs are: Super Pastel Ivory morph (C), Piebald morph, Super Pastel Axanthic; Butter Pastel: Cinnamon, lesser (A), Super*

*Pastel Spider, (D) Coral Glow/Banana in the comparison to normal ball python (B).*

**Figure 9.** *Arizona Mountain Kingsnake (Lampropeltis pyromelana pyromelana) (Photography Pia Cigler).*

Snake's skin is similarly as in lizard's consisted of germinal layer of the epidermis spinosus-like keratinocytes that alternate to hard (β) and soft (α) layers. Samples from two different species of snakes were observed histologically and skin samples were collected from different parts of the body. We have observed skin at the abdominal (ventral) part and the tail of the Burmese Python (*Python bivittatus*) (**Figure 10**) and the lip part of the Emerald Tree Boa (*Corallus caninus*) (**Figure 11**). From the outer scale surface toward the dermis are the *oberhautchen* layer, β-layer, mesos layer, α-layer, lacunar layer, and the clear layer [1, 24, 25].

Iridescence is caused by the physical properties of light on the thin and transparent outer layer of the skin. When light strikes from an angle, the light spectrum is split into wavelengths of different colors. Depending on the color of the scales, this will cause iridescent effect when the snake moves. This feature is more obvious in black or dark snakes like the white-lipped python (*Liasis albertisii*) (**Figure 12**) [14].

Snakes living among the leaves are most often green, and those living in the desert are often yellowish or reddish. Snakes have no skin glands other than cloacal glands. Some species can detect infrared light. Primitive boas have pronounced sensory receptors in the skin and can detect mice at a distance of 15 cm. Between the nostrils and the eye, in some snakes, there are special infrared receptors (pits) that allow them to feel hot-blooded animals and to attack them in the dark. These receptors are innerved with *n. mandibularis*, *n. maxillaris,* and *n. ophthalmicus* (branch of *n. trigeminus*). Along the upper and lower lumbar scales, there are fewer pits, which are also innervated by the branches of *n. trigeminus*. These organs are extremely sensitive to temperature changes of as much as 0.002°C [14].

At the ends of the tails of rattlesnakes (*Crotalus sp.*), there is a special anatomical adjustment—a rattle. Also, their name derives from the Greek word *krótalοn*, which means "rattle" or "castanet," and refers to the rattle on the end of the tail which makes this group (genera *Crotalus* and *Sistrurus*) very distinctive [26]. The rattle consists of up to 20 loosely interlocking hollow shells, each of which is at one point the scale covering the tip of the tail. Their number depends on the type and gender of the animal. In most other snakes, the tail tip is cone-shaped and not much thicker than the rest of the skin. It is shed along with the rest of molt. However, in rattlesnakes, it does not shed, and it also gets elongated, since younger specimens may shed three to four times per year, every time adding a new segment to the rattle. The end of the tail is much thicker and round shaped at the end, with one or two annular constrictions to prevent it from falling off. Before each shedding, a new button will

#### **Figure 10.**

*Skin histology of the tail (A, B) and ventral part (B, D) of Burmese Python (Python bivittatus). Skin from the tail and ventral part of the Burmese Python was stained with H&E staining. The sample was taken in the resting stage of the epidermis, when the animal was not in the process of ecdysis. In epidermis, the most visible part is the basal layer with keratinocytes with nuclei, which are dividing with mitosis. In figure (A) and (B), the existence of the overlapping scales and hinge region is observed. The melanin pigment is not evenly spread on all surfaces of scales. Mostly, it is observed in the overlapping scale and much less from the hinge region to the scale, which is overlapped. Approximately five layers were identified by microscopic observation. These were the oberhautchen, β-layer, the mesos layer, α-layer, and dermis. The β- and α-layers consisted of cells which become keratinized with the production of two types of keratin (β- and α-keratins). The oberhautchen did not show smooth characteristics, followed the inner scale surface and hinge region composed of thin β-layer. At the abdominal part of the skin, the epidermis is thicker. Dermis contains many more melanophores. In the dermis, fibrous connective tissue, vessels, nerves, melanophores, and Merkel mechanoreceptor cells are observed. In dermis connective tissue together with collagen fibers hard interesting pattern, which was distinctive in both samples. (A) 100× magnification, (B) 400× magnification.*

develop inside the last one and before the skin is shed, the tip of new button shrinks. This process continues, and an appendage consists of a number of interlocking segments that sound characteristically. The sound is generated by friction one button to another, especially when snake feels endangered. In grass snakes (*Natrix natrix*)*,* pine snakes (*Pituophis spp.*)*,* and kingsnakes (*Lampropeltis spp*.), similar sounds are produced as heard in rattlesnakes by shaking their tail or other body parts against the surface where they are [27].

Snakes periodically molt their scaly skins and acquire new ones. This permits replacement of old worn out skin, disposal of parasites, and is thought to allow the snake to grow. The shape and arrangement of scales are used to identify snake species [14].

**147**

surfaces [28].

**Figure 11.**

**Figure 12.**

*400× magnification.*

*Reptilian Skin and Its Special Histological Structures DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84212*

**5. Skin and scute features in crocodiles**

be the primitive form of dermal armor in reptiles [8].

*Iridescence in white-lipped python (Liasis albertisii) (Photography Valentina Kubale).*

In crocodiles and turtles, the dermal armor is formed from the deeper dermis rather than the epidermis and does not form the same sort of overlapping structure as snake scales. These dermal scales are more properly called scutes. Similar dermal scutes are found in the feet of birds and tails of some mammals and are believed to

*Skin histology of the lip of the Emerald Tree Boa (Corallus caninus). Skin from the lip of the Emerald Tree Boa was stained with H&E staining. The sample was taken in the resting stage of the epidermis, when the animal was not in the process of ecdysis. In epidermis (B), the most visible part is the basal layer with keratinocytes containing nuclei, which are dividing under mitosis. Very visible is also the melanophore layer. This side is oriented toward the lip side. Keratinized epithelium (at the bottom of panel (A)) is more heavily keratinized and fewer melanophores are observed. (A, C) 100× magnification, (C, D)*

The crocodile skin has horny plates, named scutes, in which shape, number, and position are important for the identification of the species. They can also become similar to bones and form an outer bone armor. The horny plates on the back are referred as the back shield, and below are dermal plates (4–10 longitudinal plates whose number varies depending on the animal species). On the abdominal side beneath the horny scutes, there are no bone plates. On the tail, scutes form rings with two rows continuing in one row of scutes by the end of the tail. The position of the horny scutes on the head is characteristic for each animal species. On the head beneath the horny scutes, bone plates are located. Unlike other reptiles, crocodiles do not shed their scutes, and they are renewed by scrubbing against different outer

*Reptilian Skin and Its Special Histological Structures DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84212*

#### **Figure 11.**

*Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology*

**146**

species [14].

**Figure 10.**

the surface where they are [27].

*samples. (A) 100× magnification, (B) 400× magnification.*

develop inside the last one and before the skin is shed, the tip of new button shrinks. This process continues, and an appendage consists of a number of interlocking segments that sound characteristically. The sound is generated by friction one button to another, especially when snake feels endangered. In grass snakes (*Natrix natrix*)*,* pine snakes (*Pituophis spp.*)*,* and kingsnakes (*Lampropeltis spp*.), similar sounds are produced as heard in rattlesnakes by shaking their tail or other body parts against

*Skin histology of the tail (A, B) and ventral part (B, D) of Burmese Python (Python bivittatus). Skin from the tail and ventral part of the Burmese Python was stained with H&E staining. The sample was taken in the resting stage of the epidermis, when the animal was not in the process of ecdysis. In epidermis, the most visible part is the basal layer with keratinocytes with nuclei, which are dividing with mitosis. In figure (A) and (B), the existence of the overlapping scales and hinge region is observed. The melanin pigment is not evenly spread on all surfaces of scales. Mostly, it is observed in the overlapping scale and much less from the hinge region to the scale, which is overlapped. Approximately five layers were identified by microscopic observation. These were the oberhautchen, β-layer, the mesos layer, α-layer, and dermis. The β- and α-layers consisted of cells which become keratinized with the production of two types of keratin (β- and α-keratins). The oberhautchen did not show smooth characteristics, followed the inner scale surface and hinge region composed of thin β-layer. At the abdominal part of the skin, the epidermis is thicker. Dermis contains many more melanophores. In the dermis, fibrous connective tissue, vessels, nerves, melanophores, and Merkel mechanoreceptor cells are observed. In dermis connective tissue together with collagen fibers hard interesting pattern, which was distinctive in both*

Snakes periodically molt their scaly skins and acquire new ones. This permits replacement of old worn out skin, disposal of parasites, and is thought to allow the snake to grow. The shape and arrangement of scales are used to identify snake *Skin histology of the lip of the Emerald Tree Boa (Corallus caninus). Skin from the lip of the Emerald Tree Boa was stained with H&E staining. The sample was taken in the resting stage of the epidermis, when the animal was not in the process of ecdysis. In epidermis (B), the most visible part is the basal layer with keratinocytes containing nuclei, which are dividing under mitosis. Very visible is also the melanophore layer. This side is oriented toward the lip side. Keratinized epithelium (at the bottom of panel (A)) is more heavily keratinized and fewer melanophores are observed. (A, C) 100× magnification, (C, D) 400× magnification.*

**Figure 12.** *Iridescence in white-lipped python (Liasis albertisii) (Photography Valentina Kubale).*


**6.4. Diagnosis**

Diagnosis is the part most critical of the system, because it involves decisions and consequently money. Currently, many techniques of artificial intelligence as expert systems and neural nets are being used (Lambert-Torres et al., 2009).


**Copper-Chitosan Nanocomposite Hydrogels Against Aflatoxigenic** *Aspergillus flavus* **from Dairy Cattle Feed**

**Kamel A. Abd-Elsalam 1,\* , Mousa A. Alghuthaymi 2 , Ashwag Shami 3,\* , Margarita S. Rubina 4 , Sergey S. Abramchuk 4 , Eleonora V. Shtykova 5 and Alexander Yu. Vasil'kov 4**

Received: 29 June 2020; Accepted: 16 July 2020; Published: 21 July 2020

**Abstract:** The integration of copper nanoparticles as antifungal agents in polymeric matrices to produce copper polymer nanocomposites has shown excellent results in preventing the growth of a wide variety of toxigenic fungi. Copper-chitosan nanocomposite-based chitosan hydrogels (Cu-Chit/NCs hydrogel) were prepared using a metal vapor synthesis (MVS) and the resulting samples were described by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Aflatoxin-producing medium and VICAM aflatoxins tests were applied to evaluate their ability to produce aflatoxins through various strains of *Aspergillus flavus* associated with peanut meal and cotton seeds. Aflatoxin production capacity in four fungal media outlets revealed that 13 tested isolates were capable of producing both aflatoxin B1 and B2. Only 2 *A. flavus* isolates (Af11 and Af 20) fluoresced under UV light in the *A. flavus* and *parasiticus* Agar (AFPA) medium. PCR was completed using two specific primers targeting aflP and *aflA* genes involved in the synthetic track of aflatoxin. Nevertheless, the existence of *aflP* and *aflA* genes indicated some correlation with the development of aflatoxin. A unique DNA fragment of the expected 236 bp and 412 bp bands for *aflP* and *aflA* genes in *A. flavus* isolates, although non-PCR fragments have been observed in many other Aspergillus species. This study shows the antifungal activity of Cu-Chit/NCs hydrogels against aflatoxigenic strains of *A. flavus*. Our results reveal that the antifungal activity of nanocomposites in vitro can be effective depending on the type of fungal strain and nanocomposite concentration. SDS-PAGE and native proteins explain the apparent response of cellular proteins in the presence of Cu-Chit/NCs hydrogels. *A. flavus* treated with a high concentration of Cu-Chit/NCs hydrogels that can decrease or produce certain types of proteins. Cu-Chit/NCs hydrogel decreases the effect of G6DP isozyme while not affecting the activity of peroxidase isozymes in tested isolates. Additionally, microscopic measurements of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed damage to the fungal cell membranes. Cu-Chit/NCS hydrogel is an innovative nano-biopesticide produced by MVS is employed in food and feed to induce plant defense against toxigenic fungi.

**Keywords:** aflatoxins; *Aspergillus* section *Flavi*; chitosan; feeds; nanocomposites

#### **1. Introduction**

The contamination of agricultural and dairy products with aflatoxins is a major problem for economic and public health. Aflatoxins (AFs) are fungal subsidiary products mainly developed by *Aspergillus flavus* and *Aspergillus parasiticus* strains on cereals, nuts, dried fruits, dairy, and animal feed under warm and humid conditions [1,2]. The significant source of AFs spoilage is *A. flavus*, especially aflatoxin B1, which has received a lot of attention in the food and feed industry [3]. High concentrations of aflatoxin could even prompt the disease of aflatoxicosis, an infection that affects serious disease and can lead to cancer in severe cases [1,4,5]. Additionally, chronic absorption of aflatoxins causes various adverse effects, such as increased susceptibility to various pathogens, loss of production, and a decrease in milk production yield and quality in dairy cattle [6]. The nanotechnology approach seems to be an encouraging, effective, and affordable way to reduce the health problems of mycotoxins in humans and animals. There are three different approaches to reduce mycotoxin risks: effects on mold and flour retention, mycotoxin, and minimization of toxic effects by various nanomaterials [7–9]. Chitosan and self-assembled benzoic acid polymers were synthesized, and it was found that the encapsulation of CS-BA nanogels significantly enhanced the half-life and antifungal activity properties of thyme oil against *A. flavus* strains [10]. The antifungal efficacy of mycogenic silver nanoparticles hybridizing with simvastatin against three species of the *Aspergillus Flavi* group was measured. Some nano-formulations regulated the development of the toxigenic *Aspergillus* species [11]. Plant-mediated CuO NPs were synthesized from *Cissus quadrangularis* and applied as antifungal agents against *A. niger* and *A. flavus*. The produced nano-copper showed a better performance than the carbendazim fungicide [12]. In addition, hybrid nanocomposites based on organic polymeric and inorganic matrices as effective anti-aflatoxigenic strains were explored [3,4,13,14]. Chitosan-based nanocomposite film vapor assays were applied to hybrids between thyme-organo, thyme-tea tree, and thyme-peppermint EO mixtures and demonstrated strong antifungal action against some toxic fungi, including *A. flavus, A. parasiticus,* and *P. chrysogenum*, limiting their production ranged from 51 to 77% [15]. There is a direct association between the concentration of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in dairy cattle feed which results in AFM1 being found in the milk of animals on contaminated feeds with AFB1 [16]. To our understanding, antifungal action of copper-chitosan nanocomposite-based chitosan hydrogels (Cu-Chit/NCS hydrogels) against *A. flavus* strains from animal feed samples is not previously studied. Present study aimed to: (1) recognize *alfP* and *aflA* as two essential genes that lead to development of aflatoxin in animal feed via *Aspergillus* genus. (2) determination of AFB1 and AFB2 frequency and distribution of *A. flavus* strains in relation to feed delivered to dairy cows in small farms. (3) copper-chitosan nanocomposite was produced utilizing metal vapor synthesis (MVS), the physicochemical characteristics of the nanocomposites formed were described by electron microscopy (TEM) transmission, X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), and X-ray scattering (SAXS) small angle. (4) The fungicidal effect of the hydrogel Cu-Chit/NCs were screened against three *A. flavus* strains. (5) Protein, isozymes, and DNA fragmentations were investigated using two electrophoresis techniques, finally, scanning electron microscope was used to assess morphological changes in NCs-treated fungi.

### **2. Materials and Methods**


4.1.3. Factors Affecting Resident's Energy Literacy Change

Along with the development of local tourism, locals have acquired more energy literacy in their daily tourism practices. According to the field data, the factors influencing residents' change in energy literacy are multiple. Both external and internal factors contribute to the improvement of residents' energy literacy in tourism development. On the external side, economic development, communication with external tourists, diversified access to knowledge, and government support are all factors that have contributed to the change in energy literacy among Ping-an residents. Specifically, economic development has

offered more possibilities for residents to choose new energy sources; communication with external tourists, especially pro-environmental visitors, has allowed them to understand that only sustainable environments can attract more tourists; the widespread use of mobile phones has also enabled residents to learn more about energy knowledge from the internet; as for government support, it includes investment in tourism infrastructure, attracts investment from outside, promotion resident's energy knowledge, and other related policy. For example, the local government's continuous promotion of energy knowledge in villages, such as fire and electricity safety, knowledge of energy conservation and environmental protection, etc. All these external factors have contributed to the improvement of residents' energy literacy.

In addition to these extrinsic reasons for promoting energy literacy, the key incentive for local people to become more energy-literate lies in their initiative in tourism development, also referred to as internal factors by residents. First, the goal of achieving better tourism development and poverty alleviation has led them to take the initiative to address the local energy problem. Before tourism, Ping'an Village was extremely isolated and poor. Up until 1992, it was still dependent on relief to survive; the income of residents was mainly from farming and working outside the village [66]. Since the development of tourism from 1993, tourism has gradually become the main source of economic income, including catering, accommodation, shopping, tour guide services, and ticket dividends [66]. By 2002, the villagers' annual per capita income reached about 2000 RMB. Up to 2011, it rose to 13,200 RMB [81]. By 2019 the villagers' annual per capita income had reached 5000 RMB just from the ticket income dividends, with some medium hotel annual income may reach 200,000 RMB. In this process, in order to get out of poverty and achieve wealth through tourism, they made efficient use of a combination of external resources, such as the government, developers, and new sources of energy in technological development, which helped them solve local problems effectively.

Second, the initiatives of residents have a positive impact on their energy literacy. As residents take the initiative to identify various energy problems that exist in local tourism, they actively seek information from the outside to solve local problems. By taking the initiative to learn and communicate with the outside, their energy literacy is enhanced. Such as the resident manager S17 mentioned,

*"In the off-season, several of our village committees have gone to other scenic spots around the country to learn, to see how others are doing, to see how people are solving the problems we have, and we often go out to see, which is very helpful to us. Sometimes we also watch Tik Tok and read a lot of relevant knowledge on the internet. We also have two people in the village who specialize in live-streaming terraces, they introduce our beautiful terraces to people outside, and sometime also share and show the balance of our natural ecosystem here."*


**10.1. Endoscopic myomectomy prior to IVF/ICSI**

The impact of uterine myoma on the outcome of IVF/ICSI is a very controversial topic. Many centers are overdoing myomectomy for nearly all myomata regardless size and site considerations. Contrary, other investigators have shown that fibroids don't exert a

deleterious effect. Nevertheless, many studies have provided evidence that uterine myomas have a significant effect on IVF outcomes and there is a large body of evidence that treatment of uterine myomas increases fertility and pregnancy rates, and decreases the rate of pregnancy loss (70). There is no doubt that any cavity-distorting myoma should be removed whether completely submucous or interstitial myoma with submucous encroachment. This highlights the central role of prior hysteroscopy as well as saline infusion solonhysterography (SIS) as previously described (39). Not only does sub mucous myoma cause mechanicl interference with implantation, but it also alters endometrial receptivity (71)

Endoscopy versus IVF: The Way to Go 47

still a subject of debate (75,76).

2010 Dec;94(7):2758-60.

*Obstetrics and Gynecology, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt*

option in Australia? Med J Aust 2007; 187:271-3.

Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; Issue 3. Art. No.: CD006415.

of infertility: diagnosis and treatment. Clin Ter. 2010;161(1):77-85.

obstruction--are we making progress? Fertil Steril. 1987 Oct;48(4):523-42

**Author details**

**12. References**

Atef Darwish

**11.2. Uterine myoma and infertility**

Uterine myoma may affect fertility according to its size, site and associated pathology. Endoscopic approach has a definite role in its management. HM is the gold standard line of management of submucous myoma of suitable size. LM doesn't seem to be superior to conventional open myomectomy regarding fertility and is characterized by both short and long term drawbacks. Uterine myomata would affect IVF/ICSI outcome whenever disturbing the endometrial cavity or large sized. The impact of other types of myomata on IVF/ICSI deserves further studies. Hysteroscopic myomectomy is indicated for intracavitary myomas and submucous myomas having at least 50% of their volume within the uterine cavity. The management of the subfertile women with small intramural fibroids (<5 cm) is

[1] Pandian Z, Akande VA, Harrild K, Bhattacharya S. Surgery for tubal infertility.

[2] Petrucco OM, Silber SJ, Chamberlain SL, Warnes GM, Davies M. Live birth following day surgery reversal of female sterilisation in women older than 40 years: a realistic

[3] Marana R, Ferrari S, Merola A, Astorri AL, Pompa G, Milardi D, Giampietro A, Lecca A, Marana E. Role of a mini-invasive approach in the diagnosis and treatment of tuboperitoneal infertility as an alternative to IVF . Minerva Ginecol. 2011 Feb;63(1):1-10. [4] Muzii L, Sereni MI, Battista C, Zullo MA, Tambone V, Angioli R Tubo-peritoneal factor

[5] Bateman BG, Nunley WC Jr, Kitchin JD 3rd. Surgical management of distal tubal

[6] Nezhat C, Lewis M, Kotikela S, Veeraswamy A, Saadat L, Hajhosseini B, NezhatC. Robotic versus standard laparoscopy for the treatment of endometriosis.Fertil Steril.

Controversy exists for interstitial and subserous myomata. The evidence supports treatment of all very large myomas (>7 cm) (70). Subserosal myomas that are smaller than 7 cm in size and intramural myomas of less than 4–5 cm in diameter appear to have little effect on IVF outcomes. Larger intramural and subserosal myomas present a clinical dilemma and more studies are needed to clarify a definitive plan for management (70). In a prospective controlled study, the distance between the intramural myomas and the endometrial lining did not appear to affect the IVF outcome. An insignificant tendency towards improvement of IVF outcome is found in myomas at more than 5 mm from endometrial lining (72).

In a recent review of literature (73) on myoma and assisted reproduction technology and spontaneous conception, hysteroscopic sub-mucous myoma resection is found to increase pregnancy rates. Intramural fibroids appear to decrease fertility, but the myomectomy does not improve assisted reproduction technology and spontaneous fertility. More high-quality studies are needed to conclude toward the value of myomectomy for intramural fibroids. Subserosal fibroids do not affect fertility outcomes, and removal does not confer benefit.


**4.2 Computational complexity of the CAC**

In this section, we would validate the computational complexity of the proposed CAC. The computational complexity measures the amount of computational effort required, by the best as of now known techniques, to break a system [2]. However, it is exceptionally hard to demonstrate the computational complexity of public-key cryptosystems [2, 3]. For instance, if the public modulus of RSA is factored into its prime components, at that point the RSA is broken. Be that as it may, it is not demonstrated that breaking RSA is identical to factoring its modulus [41]. Here, we study the computational complexity of the CAC by

providing arguments related to the inversion of the one-way function in CAC to a best known computational algorithm. The complexity of anonymous decryption could be understood as; if we assume that an attacker wants to recover the secret key by using all the information's available to them. Then they need to solve the discrete logarithm problem (DLP) to find the secret key followed by a number of steps described in Algorithm 6. Since, the one-way function is define analogous to discrete logarithm problem (DLP). However, although most mathematicians and computer scientists believe that the DLP is unsolvable [42]. The complexity of the DLP depends on the cyclic group. It is believed to be a hard problem for the multiplicative group of a finite field of large cardinality. Therefore even determining the very first step is nearly unsolvable.

If it is the case that somehow attacker manages to solve the DLP, then they have to determine Eq. (1) and calculate all the solutions corresponding to different pairs ð Þ *a*, *b* 2*l* 2 . Further, it is required to determine the relation matrix based on equality relation among the solutions of Eq. (1). Where entries of the relation matrix are the two-tuple structure of ð Þ *a*, *b* 2*l* 2 . Finally, entries of inverse of the relation matrix are required to replace through the implication of DLP.

Here we could observe the computational complexity as it increases with the value of *p* and 2*l* 2 . Therefore it is nearly impossible to determine the secret key for a large value of *p* and 2*l* 2 ; hence uphold the secure formulation claim of the proposed work.

#### **4.3 An example of the CAC**

In this section, we provide an example for the proposed CAC. The example is designed according to guidelines described in Section 4. The main purpose of this example is to show the reliability of our cryptosystem. It is important to note that this example is non-viable for the proposed CAC, since the values of the parameters are too small.

*Example 1* Let us consider 2*l* 2 ¼ 8 (i.e. *l* ¼ 2) and *p* ¼ 17. Suppose we want to send a message *X* whose numerical value store in matrix **A** of order 8.

We choose two distinct non-trivial generators of a set of generator in **F**∗ 17 (the set of generator is obtain by employing Algorithm 2), say *γ*0 ¼ 11 and *γ*00 ¼ 3. Now, we evaluate the complex relation between these chosen generators, which can perform by DLP. One can write 37 ¼ 11 mod17 ð Þ. Consider that *r*0 ¼ 7. The public key is the public values *l* ¼ 2, *p* ¼ 17 & *γ*0 ¼ 11 and the private key is the secret values *l* ¼ 2, *p* ¼ 17, *r*0 ¼ 7 & *γ*00 ¼ 3. The public values generated cyclotomic matrix of order 8 as required, which is

*A Public Key Cryptosystem Using Cyclotomic Matrices DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101105*

Determinant of **B**3 is equal to 1, implies non-singular. Now we encrypt the message **A** by multiplying matrix **B**3 and **A**, which is as follows:

The matrix **C** is a ciphertext matrix. To transmit the message, entries of the matrix converted into text. To decrypt the message, first, we expand the secret keys which are performed by Algorithm 4. It generates a non-singular cyclotomic matrix of order 8, which is shown by matrix **B**0. Now each entry of equality of cyclotomic matrix (i.e. output matrix of Algorithm 1) is multiplied by *r*0 ¼ 7. We get matrix *D* whose entries are pair of cyclotomic numbers.

$$\mathbf{D} = \begin{bmatrix} (0,0) & (0,7) & (0,6) & (0,5) & (0,4) & (0,3) & (0,2) & (0,1) \\ (0,7) & (0,1) & (1,2) & (1,6) & (1,5) & (1,4) & (1,3) & (1,2) \\ (0,6) & (1,2) & (0,2) & (1,3) & (2,4) & (2,5) & (2,4) & (1,6) \\ (0,5) & (1,6) & (1,3) & (0,3) & (1,4) & (2,5) & (2,5) & (1,5) \\ (0,4) & (1,5) & (2,4) & (1,4) & (0,4) & (1,5) & (2,4) & (1,4) \\ (0,3) & (1,4) & (2,5) & (2,5) & (1,5) & (0,5) & (1,6) & (1,3) \\ (0,2) & (1,3) & (2,4) & (2,5) & (2,4) & (1,6) & (0,6) & (1,2) \\ (0,1) & (1,2) & (1,6) & (1,5) & (1,4) & (1,3) & (1,2) & (0,7) \end{bmatrix}$$

Now compute the inverse of **D** and substitute the value from **B**0 to each pair of cyclotomic numbers. The matrix becomes

$$\mathbf{D}^{\*} = \begin{bmatrix} -1 & 1 & 1 & -1 & -1 & 1 & -1 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 1 & -1 & 1 \\ -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ -1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & -1 & 1 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\ -1 & 0 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & -1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & -1 & 1 & -1 \end{bmatrix}$$

Finally, we obtain **D\*** � **C=A**.