Meet the editors

Dr. Clémentine Bosch-Bouju is a neuroscientist expert in the impact of nutrition on neurophysiology. She did her PhD in the Collège De France, Paris, and her postdoc at the University of Otago, New Zealand, on the physiopathology of Parkinson's disease, with electrophysiology and optogenetics approaches. She joined the NutriNeuro lab in 2014 where she specialized in the impact of nutrition on brain function. Her work shows the

deleterious impact of an omega-3-deficient diet on endocannabinoid-dependent synaptic plasticity. Since 2016, Dr. Bosch-Bouju has been an assistant professor at Bordeaux INP and she is studying the role of vitamin A metabolism in the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease.

Sophie Layé, PhD, is a research director at the Institut National de la Recherche en Agronomie (INRA), France. She is the acting head of the NutriNeuro Institute (UMR1286 INRA/University of Bordeaux) and co-acting head of the International Associated Laboratory OptiNutriBrain. She is a renowned scientist in the field of psychoneuroimmunology. She was the first to demonstrate that dietary omega-3 impacts on the endocannabinoid

system to modulate emotional behaviors. She has authored more than 105 original scientific articles and 14 book chapters. She is reviewer for more than 15 international scientific journals. She has organized more than 30 international congresses and conferences, given more than 110 conferences, and participated in more than 80 press releases in the media. She received the prestigious Scientific Breakthrough Award, Laurier de l'INRA, in 2015.

Véronique Pallet, PhD, is a professor at the Bordeaux Institute of Technology and co-head of the NutriNeuro Institute (UMR1286 INRA/University of Bordeaux). She is a renowned scientist in the field of nutrition and its impact on age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative processes. She is recognized in the field of vitamin A and cognition, and her team has demonstrated the role of this liposoluble vitamin in maintaining cognitive abilities

during aging. She is also investigating the role of polyphenol in memory processes in the Neurophenols Project. She recently conducted two clinical trials, conducted in France and Québec, investigating the beneficial impact of nutritional supplementations on cognitive abilities and well-being assessed in aged subjects. She has authored more than 60 scientific articles and reviews in high-impact journals.

Contents

**Section 1**

**Section 2**

**Section 3**

**Section 4**

**Section 5**

*and Amadeo Puerto*

*by Corinne Joffre*

Function throughout Life? *by Clémentine Bosch-Bouju*

**Preface III**

Introduction **1**

**Chapter 1 3** Introductory Chapter: Feed Your Mind - How Does Nutrition Modulate Brain

PUFA Metabolism in the Brain **11**

**Chapter 2 13**

Carbohydrates and the Brain **37**

**Chapter 3 39**

Diet and Autophagy in the Brain **53**

**Chapter 4 55**

Brain-Visceral Interactions in Enteral Feeding **77**

**Chapter 5 79**

Enteral Feeding: Brain-Visceral Interactions in the Processing of Nutrients *by María Angeles Zafra Palma, Javier Mahía, María J. Simón, Filomena Molina*

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Metabolism in the Brain and Brain Cells

Dietary Impact on Neuronal Autophagy Control and Brain Health

Carbohydrates and the Brain: Roles and Impact

*by Claudia Ntsapi, Andre du Toit and Ben Loos*

*by Xavier Fioramonti and Luc Pénicaud*

## Contents

Preface

Modern societies have recently experienced several transitions in dietary habits. The last few centuries have emerged from famine by increasing the consumption of cereals. Also, food production has been industrialized, which enhances the diversity of food products. However, food industrialization also induces a rise in saturated fats and sugars in the diet, paralleled by a reduction in physical activity. More developed countries are now in a new transition phase fueled by the desire for healthier and less processed food. With these dietary transitions, human health has evolved, following the famous adage "We are what we eat." The most obvious example is the important escalation in diabetes occurrence over the last 30 years or so. Therefore, nutrition is a critical environmental factor modulating health throughout life.

Over the past decades, scientific interest has been focused on the impact of nutrition specifically on brain function. Several years of research have established that nutrients such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, polyphenols, essential amino acids, and sugar are the basis for brain function and their imbalance can

Most nutrients can cross the blood–brain barrier to impact brain physiology. Nutrients in the brain can either fuel brain cells, contribute to tissue architecture, or initiate signaling pathways through their derivatives. Nutrients ultimately participate in brain development, cognitive and emotional behaviors, and can influence the susceptibility to develop brain pathologies. Despite the huge amount of knowledge brought about by the scientific community, a lot still needs to be unraveled.

Beyond dietary habits, nutrients can also be isolated and formulated to serve as therapeutic agents. Indeed, they are less prone to develop secondary effects than pharmaceuticals since the organism has the machinery to metabolize them. In addition, they can enter the brain more easily than synthetic molecules, which is

More recently, the field of brain nutrition has been enlarged by considering bidirectional interactions between the brain and the periphery, including microbiota and the enteric system. For example, some microbiota species release derivatives following digestion and can have a direct effect on brain function. In the other direction, it is now clear that the brain can control digestion and metabolism, not only through the hypothalamus, but also through mechanisms and circuits that are highly sophisticated, which delay their precise understanding. In addition, these bidirectional interactions between the brain and the periphery for nutrition are

*Feed Your Mind: How Does Nutrition Modulate Brain Function throughout Life?* is a selection of current research on the impact of diet on brain function. The book is organized into five chapters, opening with the editor's Introductory chapter.

Chapter 2 is dedicated to the role of lipids in the brain. In particular, polyunsaturated fatty acids are highly enriched in the brain and brain cells. This chapter

essential to reach therapeutic efficacy for brain-related disorders.

interdependent, which further complicates the picture.

cause or precipitate brain dysfunction.


**Figure 1.** *The main photocatalytic process of TiO2 [9].*

TiO2 shows a regular lattice structure. There are three crystalline forms of TiO2 in nature: anatase, rutile, and brookite [6]. Anatase has a tetragonal crystal system. However, it will slowly transform into rutile after heating at about 610°C [7] and completely transform into rutile at 915°C. The latter also has a tetragonal crystal structure, each unit contains six atoms, and its oxygen atoms are densely packed, so rutile shows the highest stability [8]. Compared with anatase, rutile exhibits higher density, hardness, refractive index, and dielectric constant.

TiO2 has excellent physical and chemical properties, however, TiO2 surface has a photocatalytic active site (**Figure 1**). After absorbing ultraviolet light energy, electron–hole pairs (the charge carrier) are generated [10]. The valence band hole (h+ ) is highly oxidizing while the conduction band electron (e) is highly reducing [11]. The h+ oxidizes H2O or OH ion to the hydroxyl radical (OH• ), the e reduces adsorbed oxygen (O2) species to superoxide (O2 • ) and then undergoes a series of reactions to give the OH• radical. These radicals will react with surrounding organic substances, resulting in the decomposition of the organic matrix [12]. What's worse, TiO2 particles are easy to agglomerate due to the high special surface area, causing poor dispersion in the organic matrix [13].

To overcome the drawbacks of TiO2 mentioned above, one can use coatings. The coating of TiO2 by inorganic oxides, such as alumina, silica, and zirconia [14], can effectively inhibit the oxidative degradation of the organic matrix, finally improving the light and weather resistance [15, 16]. The poor dispersion of TiO2 can also be effectively solved by coating [17]. Therefore, it is of great social significance and economic value to study the coating of TiO2 to improve the physical stability and dispersion, extending new applications of TiO2. In this chapter, we introduce the modification strategies of TiO2 to the readers. To fully describe the modification mechanism, processes and properties of modified TiO2 will be discussed.


**2.1 Eligibility criteria**

Out of variables controlling, this review merely focuses on studies asking subjects to use MI to control a BCI game. In detail, we select experiments with all healthy and disabled human participants using MI solely to control a BCI device to play a game (actively non-invasive MI-BCI). The BCI device must be non-invasive. Additionally, metrics cover both quantitative and qualitative learning outcomes. A Hybrid MI-BCI control system, BCI for assessing MI function, or no human experiment would exclude. Summarization of all the critical aspects of the eligibility criteria is presented in **Table 2**.


**1. Introduction**

88 Some Critical Issues for Injection Molding

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Powder injection molding (PIM) has been shown itself to be a successful shaping technique for producing complex-shaped ceramic, metal or cermet parts. The process starts with preparing a high solid loading suspension, where ceramic or metal powder is mixed with a thermoplastic material. At high temperature the suspension is fluid and can be injected into molds by applying a pressure. Inside the mold the suspension takes the shape of the mold and then cools below the melting point of the thermoplastic material and solidifies into a green body. After the molding cycle the green body consists of solid particles held together by the thermoplasic phase, which serves as a binder.

The challenging and time-consuming operation in the powder-injection molding process is removing the binder from the green bodies prior to the sintering, without causing any deformation or cracks. The debinding process is difficult because green bodies contain relatively large amount of poorly volatile binder in the solid state, i.e. below the melting point. Debinding is usually achieved by slowly heating the green bodies, causing the binder to decompose and vaporize. This is the thermal debinding process. The difficulties are especially severe in low-pressure injection molding, since in this case the binder does not contain a backbone polymer that would hold the particles firmly in place during the debinding. Lowpressure injection molding (LPIM) is a variant of injection molding where relatively low pressures are used, typically less than 0.7 MPa, and the pressure is applied using compressed air instead of a screw (like in the more common high-pressure variant). The liquid medium in the feedstock is a low-melting-point wax, which is crucial for the low viscosity of the molten feedstock. The advantages of LPIM, in comparison with other ceramic injection techniques, include the lower cost of the molds, less die wear and less expensive and simpler equipment for the injection molding (Zorzi et al., 2003; Cetinel et al., 2010; Loebbecke et al., 2009; Gorjan et al., 2010). The method has also been shown to be appropriate for the shaping of microcomponents (Cetinel et al., 2010; Bauer & Knitter, 2002; Wang et al., 2008).

However, an effective way of reducing the formation of defects in the process of binder removal exists. That is, to introduce an additional debinding step – debinding in a wicking embedment (Curry, 1975; German, 1987; Wei, 1989; Liu, 1999; Bao & Evans, 1991; German,

Wick Debinding – An Effective Way

easily spreads over the surface.

the liquid (Bouzid et al., 2011).

of Solving Problems in the Debinding Process of Powder Injection Molding 91

and the atmosphere. The smaller the wetting angle the better is the wetting and the liquid

Fig. 3. Sketch of a droplet of liquid on a solid surface showcasing the wetting phenomenon, characterized by the wetting angle (Φ). When a liquid wets a surface it spreads over it.

An interesting phenomenon occurs when the liquid is inside a small pore. When the liquid wets the surface of a small pore at a certain angle (Φ), the surface becomes concavely curved as is sketched in Fig 4. Any curved liquid surface causes a pressure difference across the

Fig. 4. The liquid, that wets the surface, inside a small, cyllindrical pore forms a concave

where *ΔP*c [Pa] is the pressure difference between the liquid phase and the air phase, *γ* [N/m] is the surface tension, and *R*1 and *R*2 are the principal radii of curvature. As the capillary surface is concave towards the atmosphere, the liquid pressure is lower than that of the atmosphere, possibly reaching negative values, which is called a tensile stress inside

In the case of a small, cylindrically shaped, pore channel the surface of the liquid is symmetrical and *R*1 = *R*2 = *R* . On small scales gravity is not strong enough to significantly

1 2 1 1

*PPP c LV R R* (1)

spherical surface that causes a pressure difference between the liquid phase.

The equilibrium pressure difference is described by the Laplace-Young equation:

interface (Δ*P*c = *P*V - *P*L) between the liquid and the surrounding atmosphere.

1990) or wick-debinding. A wicking agent can be in the form of a porous solid substrate plate or in the form of a loose powder or granulate. The granular form offers a gentle physical support for samples, regardless of their shape, and thus prevents certain flaws, such as distortion and cracking. The capillary extraction is uniform over the entire surface of the green body, which ensures that debinded parts also have, as much as possible, a uniform structure after the wick-debinding. A solid plate does not offer so many benefits; however it has one advantage over the granular form of wicking agent, i.e., there are fewer practical problems when handling the compacts after the debinding. The wick-debinded parts do not have to be cleaned and are simply transferred to the sintering furnace.

Fig. 1. Wick-debinding on a porous plate. The molten binder is extracted from the green body into the porous supporting plate.

Fig. 2. Wick-debinding in a embedment of porous powder or granulate. The molten binder is extracted in all directions from the green body.

The wicking embedment can be utilized with great success in either the high- or the lowpressure injection molding. However, its use is more beneficial in the low-pressure variant, where the debinding is a more delicate operation.


**22. Enamine catalysis: β-arylation of ketones**

The α-functionalization of carbonyl compounds is easily carried out, whereas functionalizing at the β-position is not easy and requires multiple synthetic operations. With creativity and with clear understanding of radical chemistry using a VLPC protocol, these authors have enolized the cyclic ketones; thereby a double bond is formed, and the radical chemistry created an allyl radical at the β-position. In the reaction medium, the iridium-based catalyst generated arene radical cation from cyanoarenes, which reacts with the allyl radical and forms the β-substituted ketones with the elimination of the cyanide group from the arene (**Figure 29**).

**Figure 29.** *Ketone β-arylation.*