**4. Application**

$$\begin{aligned} \, \_0D\_t^q[\mathbf{x}(t) + p\mathbf{x}(t-\tau)] &= \, \_-a\mathbf{x}(t) + b\tanh\mathbf{x}(t-\sigma) \quad t > 0, \\ \mathbf{x}(t) &= \, \_0\mathbf{q}(t), \quad t \in [-\kappa, 0], \end{aligned} \tag{24}$$

for 0 < *q* ≤ 1, the state vector *x*(*t*) ∈ R, *a*, *b*, *p* are real constants with |*p*| < 1, *τ*, *σ* are positive real constants ∈ *C*([−*κ*, 0]; R) with *κ* = max{*τ*, *σ*}.

**Corollary 3.** *If there are positive real constants ki*(*i* = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) *and real constants qj*(*j* = 1, 2, 3) *such that satisfy*

$$
\begin{bmatrix}
\ast & 2q\_2 + k\_2 + k\_3 + k\_4\tau + k\_5 & q\_2p + q\_3 & 0 & 0 \\
\ast & \ast & 2q\_3p - k\_2 & 0 & 0 \\
\ast & \ast & \ast & -k\_5 - \sigma & 0 \\
\ast & \ast & \ast & \ast & -k\_3 + \sigma
\end{bmatrix} < 0. \tag{25}
$$

*Then the Equation* (24) *is asymptotically stable.*

**Proof of Corollary 3.** For positive real constants *ki*(*i* = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and real constants *qj*(*j* = 1, 2, 3). Consider the Lyapunov-Krasovskii functional

$$V(t) = \sum\_{i=1}^{2} V\_i(t),\tag{26}$$

for

$$\begin{aligned} V\_1(t) &= \begin{array}{rcl} k\_{1t\_0} D\_t^{q-1} \Psi^2(t) \\ V\_2(t) &=& k\_2 \int\_{t-\tau}^t \mathbf{x}^2(\mathbf{s}) ds + k\_3 \int\_{t-\sigma}^t \mathbf{x}^2(\mathbf{s}) ds \\ &+ k\_4 \int\_{t-\tau}^t (\tau - t + \mathbf{s}) \mathbf{x}^2(\mathbf{s}) ds + k\_5 \int\_{t-\sigma}^t \tanh \mathbf{x}^2(\mathbf{s}) ds. \end{array} \end{aligned}$$

According to Theorem 1, we present the asymptotic stability criterion (25) of system (3).

#### **5. Numerical Examples**

**Example 1.** *The fractional neutral system :*

$$\begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{1}\_{t\_0} D\_t^q [\mathbf{x}(t) + \mathbf{C} \mathbf{x}(t-0.5)] \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} -A\mathbf{x}(t) + B\mathbf{x}(t-\sigma) + f(\mathbf{x}(t-\sigma)) \end{bmatrix} \tag{27}$$

*Solving the LMI* (10) *when A* = '1.45 0 0 1.45( , *B* = ' 0 0.4 0.4 0 ( , *C* = '−0.1 0 0 −0.1(*, we have a set of parameters that ensures asymptotic stability of system* (27) *which η* = 5 × 103*, δ* = 1 *and σ* = 0.5 *as follows: K*1 = 108 × '3.5993 0 0 3.5993(*, K*2 = 107 × '1.3106 0 0 1.3106(*, K*3 = 108 × '1.5730 0 0 1.5730(*, K*4 = 106 × '9.7620 0 0 9.7620(*, K*5 = 108 × '3.5456 0 0 3.5456(*, Q*1 = 108 × '2.9931 0 0 2.9931(*, Q*2 = 108 × '−3.0980 0 0 −3.0980(*, Q*3 = 107 × '−2.2267 0 0 −2.2267(*.*

*Moreover, the least upper bound of the parameter σ that ensures the asymptotic stability of system* (27) *is* 1.3227 *when η* = 5 × 103 *and δ* = 1*. Table 1 represents the least upper bound σ of this example for various values of η, δ.*

**Table 1.** The least upper bound of *σ* for Example 1.

**Example 2.** *The fractional neutral system :*

$$\left[\mathbf{x}\_{t0}D\_t^q\mathbf{\dot{x}}(t) + \mathbf{C}\mathbf{x}(t-\tau)\right] \quad = \quad -A\mathbf{x}(t) + B\mathbf{x}(t-1.2). \tag{28}$$

*Solving the LMI* (18) *when A* = '1.45 0 0 1.45( , *B* = ' 0 0.4 0.4 0 ( , *C* = '−0.1 0 0 −0.1(*, we have a set of parameters that ensures asymptotic stability of system* (28) *which τ* = 0.6 *as follows:*

$$\begin{aligned} K\_1 &= \begin{bmatrix} 44.0782 & 0 \\ 0 & 44.0782 \end{bmatrix}, \quad K\_2 = \begin{bmatrix} 32.9861 & 0 \\ 0 & 32.9861 \end{bmatrix}, \quad K\_3 = \begin{bmatrix} 32.6501 & 0 \\ 0 & 32.6501 \end{bmatrix}, \\\ K\_4 &= \begin{bmatrix} 31.8793 & 0 \\ 0 & 31.8793 \end{bmatrix}, \quad Q\_1 = \begin{bmatrix} 14.6090 & 0 \\ 0 & 14.6090 \end{bmatrix}, \quad Q\_2 = \begin{bmatrix} -56.7801 & 0 \\ 0 & -56.7801 \end{bmatrix}, \\\ Q\_3 &= \begin{bmatrix} -3.3600 & 0 \\ 0 & -3.3600 \end{bmatrix}. \end{aligned}$$

*Moreover, the least upper bound of the parameter τ that ensures the asymptotic stability of system* (28) *is* 3.7 × 1022*.*

**Example 3.** *The fractional neutral system :*

$$\left[\mathbf{A}\_{t0}D\_t^q\right]\mathbf{x}(t) + \mathbb{C}\mathbf{x}(t-\tau)\left[\mathbf{ \ = }-A\mathbf{x}(t) + B\mathbf{x}(t-\tau)\mathbf{.}\tag{29}$$

*Solving the LMI* (21) *when A* = '3 −1 0 1 ( , *B* = '0.2 0.1 0 0.1( , *C* = '0.1 0 0 0.2(*, we obtain the least upper*

*bound of the parameter τ that ensures the asymptotic stability is* 2.86 × 1024*. By the criterion in [35], the least upper bound of the parameter τ is* 2.99 × 1021*. This example represents our result is less conservative than these in [35].*

**Example 4.** *The differential equation, which is considered in [25,27,30–32]:*

$$\frac{d}{dt}[\mathbf{x}(t) + 0.35\mathbf{x}(t-0.5)] = -1.5\mathbf{x}(t) + b\tanh\mathbf{x}(t-0.5). \tag{30}$$

*By using linear matrix inequality* (25)*, the comparison for the least upper bound b that ensures asymptotic stability of Equation* (30) *are represented in Table 2.*

**Table 2.** The least upper bound of *b* for Example 4.

**Example 5.** *The differential equation in [27,30,31,38]:*

$$\frac{d}{dt}[\mathbf{x}(t) + 0.2\mathbf{x}(t-0.1)] = -0.6\mathbf{x}(t) + 0.3\tanh\mathbf{x}(t-\sigma). \tag{31}$$

*By using linear matrix inequality* (25)*, the comparison for the least upper bound delay σ that ensures asymptotic stability of Equation* (31) *are represented in Table 3.*

*:*

**Table 3.** The least upper bound of *σ* for Example 5.

**Example 6.** *The fractional neutral equation*

$$\_{t\_0}D\_t^q[\mathbf{x}(t) + p\mathbf{x}(t-0.5)] = -a\mathbf{x}(t) + b\tanh\mathbf{x}(t-0.5).\tag{32}$$

*Solving the LMI* (25)*, we have a set of parameters that ensures asymptotic stability of Equation* (32) *which a* = 0.75, *b* = 0.3 *and p* = 0.4 *as follows:*

*k*1 = 3.1544, *k*2 = 1.0324, *k*3 = 1.0749, *k*4 = 0.7170, *k*5 = 0.7385, *q*1 = 0.7587, *q*2 = −1.9721, *q*3 = 0.4433*.*

*Furthermore, the least upper bound of b that ensures the asymptotic stability of Equation* (32) *is* 0.6873 *with a* = 0.75, *p* = 0.4*. Table 4 represents the least upper bound b of this example for various values of a*, *p.*

**Table 4.** The least upper bound of *b* for Example 6.

## **6. Conclusions**

The aim of this paper is a novel asymptotic stability analysis of differential and Riemann-Liouville fractional differential neutral systems with constant delays and nonlinear perturbation by applying zero equations, model transformation and other inequalities. The new asymptotic stability condition is given in the form of LMIs. Then we show the new delay-dependent asymptotic stability criterion of a differential and Riemann-Liouville fractional differential neutral system with constant delays. Furthermore, we propose the improved delay-dependent asymptotic stability criterion of differential and Riemann-Liouville fractional differential neutral systems with single constant delay and the new delay-dependent asymptotic stability criterion of differential and Riemann-Liouville fractional differential neutral equations with constant delays. Numerical examples illustrate the advantages and applicability of our results.

**Author Contributions:** All authors claim to have contributed significantly and equally to this work. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This work is supported by Science Achievement Scholarship of Thailand (SAST), Research and Academic Affairs Promotion Fund, Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Fiscal year 2020 and National Research Council of Thailand and Khon Kaen University, Thailand (6200069).

**Acknowledgments:** The authors thank the reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions, which led to the improvement of the content of the paper.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


3.9.4. Modulated Expression of Transporters

Aquaglyceroporin (AQP1) (LinJ.31.0030), UDP-galactose transporter (LPG5B) (LinJ.18.0400), and ATP-binding cassette protein subfamily G, member 1, putative (ABCG1) (LmjF06.0080) were upregulated in K133 AS-R parasites. On the other hand, an ABC transporter family-like protein (LinJ.33.3410A), nuclear transport factor 2 (LinJ.10.0900), and amino acid transporters, AAT19 (LinJ.07.1340) and AAT22 (LinJ.22.0100), showed downregulated expression.


*Edited by İbrahim Kahramanoğlu*

Producers spend a great deal of money, natural resources (especially water and soil), labor, and time every year in order to feed the world's population. However, almost one-third of the products produced as a result of all these efforts are lost before reaching consumers due to postharvest losses, which threaten both the food supply and agricultural sustainability. For this reason, it is extremely important to prevent postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables. In this context, this book provides general and new information about the physiology of postharvest losses and the latest technological developments in postharvest systems. Each chapter provides up-to-date information about the postharvest physiology and technology of fruits and vegetables for students, teachers, professors, scientists, farmers, food packers and sellers, and entrepreneurs engaged in the fresh food preservation industry.

Published in London, UK © 2023 IntechOpen © Vadim Zhakupov / iStock

New Advances in Postharvest Technology

New Advances in

Postharvest Technology

*Edited by İbrahim Kahramanoğlu*


**About the Editor**

**Vlassios Hrissanthou** is Emeritus Professor at the Civil Engineering Department of Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Xanthi, Greece. He studied Civil Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH), Greece, obtaining the Civil Engineer diploma. He then undertook postgraduate and doctoral studies in Hydrology and Hydraulic Structures at the University of Karlsruhe (KIT), Germany. Subsequently, he completed his postdoctoral studies in Hydraulics and Hydraulic Structures at the University of the Armed Forces Munich (UniBw Munchen), Germany. ¨ He is the principal investigator or leader of many competitive German, Greek and international research projects. His teaching work includes the following graduate and postgraduate study courses: Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics, Engineering Hydrology, River Engineering, Hydropower Engineering, Water Resources Management, Open Channel Hydraulics, Hydrology of Groundwater, Advanced Engineering Hydrology, Sediment Transport, Reservoir Design, Time Series Analysis, Selected Chapters of Hydropower Engineering and Hydraulics of Stratified Flows. He has supervised a large number of diploma, post-diploma and doctoral theses. He is the author or co-author of 44 publications in scientific journals, 86 publications in conference proceedings, 11 publications in book chapters, and 44 technical reports. He is also the editor of 3 books and the author of 1 book. His publications are available in English, Greek, and German and have around 470 citations (excluding self-citations). Finally, he has reviewed numerous publications for 43 international scientific journals in addition to serving as a member of the Reviewer Board of the MDPI journal Sustainability.


*2.1. Functionalization and Preparation Process*

Since the raw materials of GNPs and Gr are hydrophobic and cannot dissolve in polar solvents like H2O, a suitable way to make PEG@GNPs and PEG@TGr hydrophilic is to present the covalent functionalization via acid treatment. The process will dope the surface of GNPs and Gr with -OH- and -COOH. In a typical experiment [24], the chemical reactions were performed by dispersing GNPs (1 g) and Gr (1 g) in the acid medium of AlCl3 (18.54 g) and HCl (10 mL), followed by 1 h microwave radiation. Then, the solution was separated at 11,500 rpm and filtered through a polycarbonate filter (0.45 µm) before sequential washing with DMF, THF, diluted HCl, and enough DI-water to eliminate unreacted AlCl3 and PEG overnight at 60 ◦C. Furthermore, the dry aluminum oxide (Al2O3-NPs = 50 nm) and silicon dioxide (SiO2-NPs = 50 nm) were ultrasonicated for 1 h to avoid agglomeration/settlement. Nanomaterials were mixed with DW by an ultrasonic probe (Sonics Vibra-Cell, VC 750, Sonics & Materials Inc., Newtown, CT, USA) with an output power of (750 W) and a power supply of (20 kHz) frequency. The production process and nanofluid preparation method were shown in Figure 1 [25].


**1. Introduction**

In the past few decades, there has been a worldwide surge of research interests in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. It has been realized that it has an impeccable potential to revolutionize the modern technology in countless ways. The field of "nanoscience" has attracted much attention from scientists and engineers due to its interesting scientific aspects, and the materials thus formed have novel physicochemical properties. In the beginning, the "miniaturization" of new devices and systems being the central theme of modern technologies was considered, but these days the subject of "nanomaterials" indeed happens to be very demanding. It has overwhelming contribution in technological advancement which has already started to have a global commercial impact.

In scientific terms, nanomaterials are basically any substance having a size of the order of 10−9 m, i.e., a billionth of a meter, and they are generally considered as "nanomaterials" when their sizes are typically lesser than 100 nm. In other words, nano-sized materials are the "collection of distinguishable units," each of which is made up of a limited number of atoms. These units have specific shape and crystallinity and have at least one of its dimensions of about a few nanometers. A few common examples of naturally occurring nanomaterials are particulate matter from volcanic eruptions, different types of bacteria, cosmic dust, protrusions on lotus leaf that limits its wettability, etc. Also there are numerous man-made nanomaterials which include but are not limited to fullerenes, graphene, single-/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs), silver nanoparticles, metal oxide nanorods, quantum dots, etc. These nanomaterials have fascinating properties and, hence, are technologically important. For instance, due to the appropriate magnitudes of tensile strength, stiffness, and conductivity, graphene or CNTs have potential applications in catalysis, sensors, and drug deliveries. Nano-sized silver has displayed its capability of oxygen inhibition which could be utilized to pacify the burn injuries of living organisms. On the other hand, quantum dots of semiconducting materials are best suited in display and device technologies related to LED, memory storage, and solar cells [1–3]. In this manner, a variety of nanomaterials are potentially applicable in every sphere of modern technology which includes automotive, aerospace, cutting and device manufacturing industries, printing and color imaging, armor, computer chips, and biomedical and pharmaceutical fields as well.

The fact that attributes a special character to nanomaterials and variation in their overall behavior is their significantly small size. This generates "statistical size effect" that plays a vital role in altering most of the physical and chemical properties of these materials. Due to the reduction of the size to very small dimensions, typically 1–100 nm, more and more atoms are exposed to the surroundings and result into a vast increment of surface area to volume ratio for that material. This material property is particularly responsible for assigning high specific surface area to the material, which remarkably improves many processes such as adsorption, catalysis, charge storage, and transfer on the surface of the material and hence opens avenues for its applications in sensors, supercapacitors, and batteries as well. Another feature associated to the reduction of particle size down to nano-regime is "quantum confinement effect." The valence and free electrons of atoms in these nano-sized assemblies undergo considerable variations in their energy states as compared to their features in the macroscopic state. This affects the electronic band structure of the material in such a way that the separations between the continuous energy bands or the individual electronic energy levels alter. Subsequently the occupation and transition of electrons in these levels also change substantially which results into variation in the electronic, magnetic, and optical properties of that material [4]. There are numerous such examples wherein physical/chemical properties have been remarkably improved or modified through controlling the sizes and shapes of nanostructures. These interesting variations highlight the need of nanomaterials in newer technologies, and hence the designing and development of nanomaterials with tailor-made properties fitting specific applications happens to be the current goal of researchers working in this field. Efforts are also being taken to synthesize nanomaterials in different shapes such as nanorods, nanoparticles, nanobelts, nanotubes, and nanoshells with variations in their compositions as well.

Efficient synthesis of nanomaterials has always been a worldwide challenge. Numerous methods have already been devised and are also evolving continuously to fulfill this need. Methods such as auto-combustion, hydrothermal, coprecipitation, and sol–gel can be categorized as chemical methods to synthesize nanomaterials [5–8], whereas the methods such as solid-state route and high-energy mechanical milling can be termed as the physical methods. Also there are some more sophisticated techniques such as thermal evaporation, chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, pulsed laser ablation, pyrolysis, spin coating, etc. for the synthesis of high-quality thin films having nanocrystalline properties [9–11]. Every technique has its own merits and peculiarities for the synthesized nanomaterial. The solidstate methods are simple to yield the final product but may require high temperatures for the formation of desired compound. On the other hand, the deposition techniques are far more sophisticated than the other methods and hence become expensive; however, the synthesis can be controlled multi-parametrically which yield nanocrystalline thin films of superior quality. Using these techniques, variation in most of the properties such as morphology, composition, grain size, shape, thickness, crystal structure, and even non-equilibrium phases of synthesized materials could be achieved. With the advent of highly sophisticated analytical equipment such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), it is possible to observe and study these nano-sized materials from the point of view of future technological applications.

In the context of synthesizing nanomaterials, recently Ameen et al. discovered a fast and highly effective growth method for thin film of nanocrystalline tungsten oxide (WO3) through one-step hot filament chemical vapor deposition (HFCVD) method at low temperature. The grown monoclinic WO3 crystal structure exhibited the morphology of cauliflower-like nanostructure (WCNs). The grown WO3 thin film was applied for the detection of hydrogen (H2) gas at 100 ppm [11]. From the H2 sensing behavior of WCN thin film, the appreciable sensitivity of the WCN thin film was obtained only after ~200°C and reached a

**3**

**Figure 1.**

*grown WO3 thin film. Reproduced from reference [11].*

*Introductory Chapter: Prospects of Nanostructured Materials*

hexagonal disks formed pyramid-like structures.

growth of highly dense NCa-PANI NW structures (**Figure 3**).

FET sensor showed the high sensitivity of ~62.28 μA μM−1

response time (10 s) towards hexahydropyridine chemical.

the UV light irradiation [15].

high magnitude of ~87% at optimum operating temperature of ~250°C, as shown

Nonenzymatic glucose biosensor was developed by utilizing the electrochemically grown nanocages-augmented polyaniline nanowires (NCa-PANI NWs) on silicon (Si) substrate [13]. Figure exhibits that the grown NCa-PANI NWs are distributed uniformly on the entire surface of silicon (Si) substrate, confirming the

Kim et al. designed field effect transistor using iron-nickel co-doped ZnO nanoparticles, Zn0.97Fe0.01Ni0.02O NPs, for the electrochemical detection of hexahydropyridine chemical, as shown in **Figure 4** [14]. Zn0.97Fe0.01Ni0.02O NP-modified

tion limit of ~79 μM with correlation coefficient (R) of ~0.96405 and a short

**Figure 5** shows the synthesized ZnO nanoflowers (NFs) for the photocatalytic degradation of bromophenol (Bph) dye. ZnO NFs as catalysts displayed a rapid degradation of Bph-dye with the degradation rate of ~96% within 120 min under

Jang and co-workers synthesized porous cobalt oxide (Co3O4) nanocubes (NCs), as shown in **Figure 6**, and investigated the capacitive properties of porous Co3O4

*(a) Gas sensing response of grown WO3 thin film to H2 gas at various temperatures, (b) response recovery profile with dynamic repeatability at ~250°C for 100 ppm H2, and (c) illustration of H2 sensing mechanism on*

cm−2

and a good detec-

In year 2019, another work by Ameen and co-workers was reported on the synthesis of hexagonal zinc oxide (ZnO) nanopyramids (NPys) for the application of electrochemical sensor [12]. The synthesized hexagonal pyramid shape structures possessed the average size of ~2–3 μm with the base length of ~2 μm and a top length of ∼600 nm. From **Figure 2**, it is seen that the agglomeration of several

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90757*

in **Figure 1**.

*Introductory Chapter: Prospects of Nanostructured Materials DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90757*

*Nanostructures*

material. This material property is particularly responsible for assigning high specific surface area to the material, which remarkably improves many processes such as adsorption, catalysis, charge storage, and transfer on the surface of the material and hence opens avenues for its applications in sensors, supercapacitors, and batteries as well. Another feature associated to the reduction of particle size down to nano-regime is "quantum confinement effect." The valence and free electrons of atoms in these nano-sized assemblies undergo considerable variations in their energy states as compared to their features in the macroscopic state. This affects the electronic band structure of the material in such a way that the separations between the continuous energy bands or the individual electronic energy levels alter. Subsequently the occupation and transition of electrons in these levels also change substantially which results into variation in the electronic, magnetic, and optical properties of that material [4]. There are numerous such examples wherein physical/chemical properties have been remarkably improved or modified through controlling the sizes and shapes of nanostructures. These interesting variations highlight the need of nanomaterials in newer technologies, and hence the designing and development of nanomaterials with tailor-made properties fitting specific applications happens to be the current goal of researchers working in this field. Efforts are also being taken to synthesize nanomaterials in different shapes such as nanorods, nanoparticles, nanobelts, nanotubes, and nanoshells

Efficient synthesis of nanomaterials has always been a worldwide challenge. Numerous methods have already been devised and are also evolving continuously to fulfill this need. Methods such as auto-combustion, hydrothermal, coprecipitation, and sol–gel can be categorized as chemical methods to synthesize nanomaterials [5–8], whereas the methods such as solid-state route and high-energy mechanical milling can be termed as the physical methods. Also there are some more sophisticated techniques such as thermal evaporation, chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, pulsed laser ablation, pyrolysis, spin coating, etc. for the synthesis of high-quality thin films having nanocrystalline properties [9–11]. Every technique has its own merits and peculiarities for the synthesized nanomaterial. The solidstate methods are simple to yield the final product but may require high temperatures for the formation of desired compound. On the other hand, the deposition techniques are far more sophisticated than the other methods and hence become expensive; however, the synthesis can be controlled multi-parametrically which yield nanocrystalline thin films of superior quality. Using these techniques, variation in most of the properties such as morphology, composition, grain size, shape, thickness, crystal structure, and even non-equilibrium phases of synthesized materials could be achieved. With the advent of highly sophisticated analytical equipment such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), it is possible to observe and study these nano-sized materials

with variations in their compositions as well.

from the point of view of future technological applications.

In the context of synthesizing nanomaterials, recently Ameen et al. discovered a fast and highly effective growth method for thin film of nanocrystalline tungsten oxide (WO3) through one-step hot filament chemical vapor deposition (HFCVD) method at low temperature. The grown monoclinic WO3 crystal structure exhibited the morphology of cauliflower-like nanostructure (WCNs). The grown WO3 thin film was applied for the detection of hydrogen (H2) gas at 100 ppm [11]. From the H2 sensing behavior of WCN thin film, the appreciable sensitivity of the WCN thin film was obtained only after ~200°C and reached a

**2**

high magnitude of ~87% at optimum operating temperature of ~250°C, as shown in **Figure 1**.

In year 2019, another work by Ameen and co-workers was reported on the synthesis of hexagonal zinc oxide (ZnO) nanopyramids (NPys) for the application of electrochemical sensor [12]. The synthesized hexagonal pyramid shape structures possessed the average size of ~2–3 μm with the base length of ~2 μm and a top length of ∼600 nm. From **Figure 2**, it is seen that the agglomeration of several hexagonal disks formed pyramid-like structures.

Nonenzymatic glucose biosensor was developed by utilizing the electrochemically grown nanocages-augmented polyaniline nanowires (NCa-PANI NWs) on silicon (Si) substrate [13]. Figure exhibits that the grown NCa-PANI NWs are distributed uniformly on the entire surface of silicon (Si) substrate, confirming the growth of highly dense NCa-PANI NW structures (**Figure 3**).

Kim et al. designed field effect transistor using iron-nickel co-doped ZnO nanoparticles, Zn0.97Fe0.01Ni0.02O NPs, for the electrochemical detection of hexahydropyridine chemical, as shown in **Figure 4** [14]. Zn0.97Fe0.01Ni0.02O NP-modified FET sensor showed the high sensitivity of ~62.28 μA μM−1 cm−2 and a good detection limit of ~79 μM with correlation coefficient (R) of ~0.96405 and a short response time (10 s) towards hexahydropyridine chemical.

**Figure 5** shows the synthesized ZnO nanoflowers (NFs) for the photocatalytic degradation of bromophenol (Bph) dye. ZnO NFs as catalysts displayed a rapid degradation of Bph-dye with the degradation rate of ~96% within 120 min under the UV light irradiation [15].

Jang and co-workers synthesized porous cobalt oxide (Co3O4) nanocubes (NCs), as shown in **Figure 6**, and investigated the capacitive properties of porous Co3O4

#### **Figure 1.**

*(a) Gas sensing response of grown WO3 thin film to H2 gas at various temperatures, (b) response recovery profile with dynamic repeatability at ~250°C for 100 ppm H2, and (c) illustration of H2 sensing mechanism on grown WO3 thin film. Reproduced from reference [11].*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Low (a) and high (b) magnification FESEM images of hexagonal ZnO NPys. Reproduced from ref. [12].*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Low (a) and high (b) magnification FESEM images, element line scanning mapping (c), and its corresponding profile (d) of PANI NW electrode. Reproduced from ref. [13].*

**5**

nanotechnology.

**Figure 5.**

*Reproduced from ref. [15].*

*Introductory Chapter: Prospects of Nanostructured Materials*

NCs electrode by cyclic voltammetry (CV) in 6 M KOH electrolyte. High specific

*(a) Low and (b) high magnification FESEM images, (c) EDX spectrum, and (d) XRD analysis of ZnO NFs.*

retention of up to ~85% after 1000 cycles was shown by the fabricated porous Co3O4 NCs electrode. The porous Co3O4 NCs showed excellent structural stability through cycling with promising capacity retention which suggested a good quality of porous

*(a) A diagram represented the fabricated FET sensor with Zn0.97Fe0.01Ni0.02O NPs and (b) Id-Vg response of FET*

*sensor without and with hexahydropyridine (100 nM) in 0.01 M PBS. Reproduced from ref. [14].*

This prologue provides a glimpse of nanomaterials and the way their properties change and also gives an idea about their potent applicability which can shift the entire technological paradigm. This book has been designed to induce scientific interest in the minds of young researchers and engineers to undertake research in this field and work across the ever-expanding boundaries of nanoscience and

was observed. The capacity

capacitance of ~430.6 F/g at a scan rate of ~10 mV s−1

Co3O4 NCs as electrochemical supercapacitor electrode [16].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90757*

**Figure 4.**

*Introductory Chapter: Prospects of Nanostructured Materials DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90757*

**Figure 4.**

*Nanostructures*

**Figure 2.**

*Low (a) and high (b) magnification FESEM images of hexagonal ZnO NPys. Reproduced from ref. [12].*

*Low (a) and high (b) magnification FESEM images, element line scanning mapping (c), and its corresponding*

*profile (d) of PANI NW electrode. Reproduced from ref. [13].*

**4**

**Figure 3.**

*(a) A diagram represented the fabricated FET sensor with Zn0.97Fe0.01Ni0.02O NPs and (b) Id-Vg response of FET sensor without and with hexahydropyridine (100 nM) in 0.01 M PBS. Reproduced from ref. [14].*

#### **Figure 5.**

*(a) Low and (b) high magnification FESEM images, (c) EDX spectrum, and (d) XRD analysis of ZnO NFs. Reproduced from ref. [15].*

NCs electrode by cyclic voltammetry (CV) in 6 M KOH electrolyte. High specific capacitance of ~430.6 F/g at a scan rate of ~10 mV s−1 was observed. The capacity retention of up to ~85% after 1000 cycles was shown by the fabricated porous Co3O4 NCs electrode. The porous Co3O4 NCs showed excellent structural stability through cycling with promising capacity retention which suggested a good quality of porous Co3O4 NCs as electrochemical supercapacitor electrode [16].

This prologue provides a glimpse of nanomaterials and the way their properties change and also gives an idea about their potent applicability which can shift the entire technological paradigm. This book has been designed to induce scientific interest in the minds of young researchers and engineers to undertake research in this field and work across the ever-expanding boundaries of nanoscience and nanotechnology.

#### **Figure 6.**

*The representation of (a) TEM-EDX including profile and (b–d) elemental mapping images of porous Co3O4 NCs. Reproduced from ref. [16].*


*3.2.1 Initial situation*

*Human 4.0 - From Biology to Cybernetic*

**German steel producer**

*DSS design framework with adaption according to [9].*

**Figure 2.**

ments are made in System II.

remember information.

into six main categories:

**3.1 Foundations of research on cognitive biases**

focuses on specific computational mechanisms based on artificial intelligence techniques such as computer-based reasoning (CBR), rule-based system (RBS), etc.

**3. Cognitive biases in production planning and control: the case of a**

Tversky and Kahneman [5] were the first who questioned the assumption of rational human behavior and introduced the term of cognitive biases. They state that humans taking decisions systematically go wrong, especially in complex and uncertain environments. In further experiments, [14] deepens this research of the underlying factors and describes the cognitive processes of intuition and reasoning. Stanovich and West [15] named these cognitive processes System I (intuition) and System II (reasoning). While System I acts automatically, fast, emotively, and effortlessly and is hardly controllable, System II operates relatively slowly, reflected, and effortful [15]. System I creates spontaneous impressions and persuasions, which form the basis for further decisions and actions of System II. Based on this two-system view, [14] claims that impressions are generated in System I and judg-

This fundamental research made clear that there are plenty of different cognitive

biases that may affect human decision-making. Ref. [6] categorized these biases

1.Memory biases describe biases influencing the storage and the ability to

**70**

We take inspiration from a case study of the steel industry presented by [2]. The analyzed PPC process takes place within a R&D department of a German steel case company. To compete in the global steel market, a short time to market is crucial. Especially in the R&D department, production and analysis processes are hardly to plan, and it is one of the major challenges of production planners to fulfill the customer requested delivery date. Samples of new alloys have to pass sequences of different tests before they can be launched in the market. In the analyzed R&D process, the first orders for different steel samples are placed through external and internal customers. After estimating the planned lead time for several manufacturing and analysis processes, the orders get a due date. For the scheduling of the production orders, a custom-developed DSS is used. In total, a production system with 20 machines and 35 employees in 1 shift was analyzed over a period of 3 years (from 2011 to 2014, 1.023 orders were analyzed). On-site visits, expert interviews, and observation documents were the used research methods. To evaluate the key performance indicator (KPI) development in terms of due date reliability, inventory, and lead times, feedback data from 13 months based on 240 shop floor calendar days were analyzed.

**Figure 3.** *Lead time syndrome in PPC.*

## *3.2.2 Observed behavior of key performance indicators*

The due date reliability was one of the key performance indicators, and 95% was set as a long-term target for the planners. We observed the so-called lead time syndrome active in this context. When planners recognized decreasing delivery reliability, they started to update the initially planned lead times by releasing waiting orders earlier and adding some additional safety lead times in that cases in which the initially lead time was too short to meet the target due date. Thus, more orders are in the production system which causes an increasing WIP level and growing lead times. As a result, the delivery reliability was even lower than before the update of the lead times. The planners feel pressured to improve the current situation, and the circle of updating lead times reinforces, resulting in an even stronger due date aggravation.

**Figure 3** shows the process of the observed planner's behavior.


**3. Etiology of sialorrhea**

impairment in the swallowing mechanism, all of which are necessary to move saliva from the oral cavity to the oropharynx and beyond [1]. Drooling is common in normally developed babies but subsides between the ages 15 and 36 months with the establishment of salivary continence. Sialorrhea after 4 years of age is generally considered pathologic. Pathologic sialorrhea may develop due to hypersalivation, together with numerous neurologic disorders including cerebral palsy (CP), Parkinson's disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or as an adverse effect of medications. In children, the most common cause of sialorrhea is CP, which persists in 10–38% of these patients. In adults, the most common cause of

Whatever the cause is, drooling is bothersome, resulting in physical and psychosocial complications. Physical complications include maceration of the skin around the mouth with secondary infection, bad odor, dehydration, speech disturbance, and interference with feeding. People with drooling are also at increased risk for aspiration of saliva, food, or fluids into lungs, particularly when the normal reflex mechanisms such as gagging or coughing are impaired. The psychosocial complications include isolation, barriers to education (such as an inability to share books or computer keyboards), increased dependency and level of care, damage to electronic devices, decreased self-esteem, and difficult social interaction [3]. Sialorrhea may have a significant negative impact on quality of life for both the patient and caregiver [1].

The major salivary glands include parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands; the largest being the parotid gland. These glands secrete saliva, which has a major role in lubrication, digestion, immunity, and maintenance of homeostasis in the human body [2]. The salivary secretion of parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands is controlled mainly by parasympathetic nervous system, although sympathetic innervation has a minor influence. The parasympathetic fibers originate in the pons and medulla, and they synapse in the otic and submandibular ganglia. Postganglionic fibers originating from the otic ganglion regulate secretory functions of the parotid gland, while the postganglionic fibers from the submandibular ganglion regulate secretory function of the submandibular and sublingual glands. Sympathetic innervation of these glands results in contraction of muscle fibers around the

Salivary secretion is regulated through a reflex arch that produces several actions. The afferent branch contains chemoreceptors in taste buds and mechanoreceptors in the periodontal ligament. Afferent innervations of cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X carry impulses to salivary nuclei in the medulla oblongata. Efferent impulses are mainly parasympathetic as described above; they come from the chorda tympani nerve (a branch of the cranial nerve VII) and travel to the submandibular, sublingual, and other minor glands via lingual nerve (a branch of the

(a branch of cranial nerve IX), which travel through the fibers of auriculotemporal nerve (a

) and reach the gland [2].

). Efferent fibers to the parotid gland are supplied by lesser petrosal nerve

sialorrhea is PD with a rate of 70–80% [2].

38 Salivary Glands - New Approaches in Diagnostics and Treatment

**2. Physiology of salivation**

cranial nerve V3

branch of the cranial nerve V3

salivary ducts, which enhances the flow of saliva [3].

Sialorrhea associated with neurologic illnesses is generally caused by impaired swallowing due to impaired neuromuscular function. Efficient coordination of various structures, namely the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus, is required for the neuromuscular activity of swallowing. The coordination of these structures forms three phases; the oral phase is under voluntary control, followed by the pharyngeal and esophageal phases, which are involuntary. Spontaneous swallowing is essential for the control of drooling. In children with neurologic disorders, drooling is similarly the result of inefficient tongue and/or bulbar control, thus impaired swallowing, rather than hypersalivation [2].

In children, mental retardation and CP are the most common causes of sialorrhea. Roughly, one in three children with CP is reported to have some degree of sialorrhea. Sialorrhea in CP is caused by oral motor dysfunction, dysphagia, and intraoral sensitivity disorder. Though underestimated, sialorrhea has significant clinical and social consequences concerning the overall health of these children, including dysphagia, respiratory health, and socioemotional aspects of both the children and their caregivers [4]. In adults, PD is the most common etiology. Swallowing impairment, mostly in the oropharyngeal phase, is the major contributor to the pathophysiology of sialorrhea in PD patients, while an increase in the speed of salivary excretion might be a minor contributor. No increase in salivary production was demonstrated in scintigraphic studies in PD patients with sialorrhea, while the speed of salivary excretion of parotid glands in PD patients was significantly higher than normal controls with Tc-99 m scintigraphy [6]. Similarly, in ALS, sialorrhea is not caused by increased production of saliva, but by the inability to swallow secretions because of tongue spasticity, weakness of face, mouth and pharyngeal muscles, and loss of oropharyngeal coordination and function [5]. Less common neurologic causes of sialorrhea are pseudobulbar palsy, bulbar palsy, and stroke (**Table 1**).

#### **Systemic causes**

#### **Local causes**

#### **Physiological causes**

• Pregnancy

**Table 1.** Etiology of sialorrhea.

Increased secretion of saliva frequently develops due to inflammation, such as teething, dental caries, and oral cavity infections. Pregnancy is another significant cause of hypersecretion, usually related to hyperemesis gravidarum. It has an abrupt onset in the 2nd and 3rd week of conception with the rise of hormones and usually resolves during 2nd trimester [7]. Other causes of hypersecretion include side effects from medications (i.e., antipsychotics, tranquilizers, anticonvulsants, cholinergic agonists, and lithium), gastroesophageal reflux, toxin exposure (i.e., mercury vapor, poisonous spider bites, mushrooms, insecticides), and rabies [3, 8]. Clozapine, an antipsychotic used in schizophrenia, is a rather common cause of sialorrhea, which manifests in 30–80% of patients taking the drug. Hypersalivation usually develops early in the treatment course and is typically more prominent at night [9].

hypertrophy; nasal blockage, malocclusion, and jaw stability should be assessed. A neurological examination should be carried out investigating the level of alertness, swallowing ability, motor skills, and sensory dysfunction of the patient.  The objective test methods include radioisotope scanning, collection cups strapped to the patient's chin for the measurement of salivary flow, and direct observation of saliva loss such as counting the number of napkins used daily to contain excessive saliva production, measuring the weight of the towels or dental cotton rolls [4, 10]. The importance of objective methods is that they seem to be more sensitive in detecting a reduction in sialorrhea or drooling than purely subjective assessments [11].

A variety of subjective scales for sialorrhea have been described. Subjective scales such as the drooling frequency and severity scale, the drooling rating scale, the drooling impact Scale, and visual analog scales can be given to patients or their caregivers to determine the qualitative and quantitative consequences of the severity and impact of sialorrhea [4]. The drooling frequency and severity scale is an easy comprehensive scale, which rates the severity of drooling on a five-point scale and the frequency of drooling on a four-point scale (**Table 2**) [12]. Subjective scales are useful and appropriate methods to measure changes in sialorrhea, because the impact on families, caregivers, and the patients themselves is of utmost impor-

The management of sialorrhea continues to be a challenge in spite of various effective treatment strategies to diminish saliva production. The flow of saliva from the oral cavity to the esophagus depends on numerous factors, such as cognitive and mental abilities, intact swal-

posture, and emotional state of the patient should also be evaluated [4, 10].

tance when assessing satisfaction with the effectiveness of any treatment [4].

lowing, oral sensibility, lip closure, and ability to keep the head upright [1].

**5. Management of sialorrhea**

**Drooling frequency**

**Table 2.** Drooling frequency and severity scale.

Anatomic abnormalities are usually not the only cause of sialorrhea; however, most of the time, they exacerbate other causative conditions. Macroglossia (enlarged tongue) and oral incompetence may cause salivary spilling. A constantly open mouth due to nasal blockage or malocclusion and other orthodontic problems may compound oral incompetence; treatment of nasal problems and orthodontic correction can alleviate sialorrhea. Surgical defects occurring after major head and neck surgeries may result in sialorrhea as well [3].

### **4. Assessment of sialorrhea**

Assessment of the severity of sialorrhea and its impact on the quality of life for the patient and the caregivers assist in establishing a prognosis and appropriate management of the problem. History should be taken from the patient and the caregiver to understand the etiology and severity of the situation and its impact on the daily life. Use of medications, language and communication skills, cognition, respiratory health, and presence of gastroesophageal reflux disease should be questioned. In physical examination, oral cavity should be examined for sores on the lip and chin, dental problems, tongue size and movement, and tonsillar

**Table 2.** Drooling frequency and severity scale.

Increased secretion of saliva frequently develops due to inflammation, such as teething, dental caries, and oral cavity infections. Pregnancy is another significant cause of hypersecretion, usually related to hyperemesis gravidarum. It has an abrupt onset in the 2nd and 3rd week of conception with the rise of hormones and usually resolves during 2nd trimester [7]. Other causes of hypersecretion include side effects from medications (i.e., antipsychotics, tranquilizers, anticonvulsants, cholinergic agonists, and lithium), gastroesophageal reflux, toxin exposure (i.e., mercury vapor, poisonous spider bites, mushrooms, insecticides), and rabies [3, 8]. Clozapine, an antipsychotic used in schizophrenia, is a rather common cause of sialorrhea, which manifests in 30–80% of patients taking the drug. Hypersalivation usually develops

• Neuromuscular/sensory dysfunction—cerebral palsy, Parkinson's disease, mental retardation, motor neuron

• Medication side effects—antipsychotics (clozapine), tranquilizers, anticonvulsants, anticholinesterases, lithium

• Anatomic—macroglossia, nasal blockage, oral incompetence, dental malocclusion, orthodontic problems, head

Anatomic abnormalities are usually not the only cause of sialorrhea; however, most of the time, they exacerbate other causative conditions. Macroglossia (enlarged tongue) and oral incompetence may cause salivary spilling. A constantly open mouth due to nasal blockage or malocclusion and other orthodontic problems may compound oral incompetence; treatment of nasal problems and orthodontic correction can alleviate sialorrhea. Surgical defects occur-

Assessment of the severity of sialorrhea and its impact on the quality of life for the patient and the caregivers assist in establishing a prognosis and appropriate management of the problem. History should be taken from the patient and the caregiver to understand the etiology and severity of the situation and its impact on the daily life. Use of medications, language and communication skills, cognition, respiratory health, and presence of gastroesophageal reflux disease should be questioned. In physical examination, oral cavity should be examined for sores on the lip and chin, dental problems, tongue size and movement, and tonsillar

early in the treatment course and is typically more prominent at night [9].

ring after major head and neck surgeries may result in sialorrhea as well [3].

**4. Assessment of sialorrhea**

**Systemic causes**

• Infection—rabies

**Physiological causes** • Pregnancy

**Local causes**

• Gastric—gastroesophageal reflux

• Oral Inflammation—teething

and neck surgical defects

**Table 1.** Etiology of sialorrhea.

disease (ALS), pseudobulbar/bulbar palsy, stroke

40 Salivary Glands - New Approaches in Diagnostics and Treatment

• Toxin exposure—mercury vapor, pesticides, snake poisoning, mushrooms

• Infection—dental caries, oral cavity infection, tonsillitis, peritonsillar abscess

hypertrophy; nasal blockage, malocclusion, and jaw stability should be assessed. A neurological examination should be carried out investigating the level of alertness, swallowing ability, motor skills, and sensory dysfunction of the patient. The nutrition and hydration status, head posture, and emotional state of the patient should also be evaluated [4, 10].

Objective and subjective measures have been developed to quantify sialorrhea. The objective test methods include radioisotope scanning, collection cups strapped to the patient's chin for the measurement of salivary flow, and direct observation of saliva loss such as counting the number of napkins used daily to contain excessive saliva production, measuring the weight of the towels or dental cotton rolls [4, 10]. The importance of objective methods is that they seem to be more sensitive in detecting a reduction in sialorrhea or drooling than purely subjective assessments [11].

A variety of subjective scales for sialorrhea have been described. Subjective scales such as the drooling frequency and severity scale, the drooling rating scale, the drooling impact Scale, and visual analog scales can be given to patients or their caregivers to determine the qualitative and quantitative consequences of the severity and impact of sialorrhea [4]. The drooling frequency and severity scale is an easy comprehensive scale, which rates the severity of drooling on a five-point scale and the frequency of drooling on a four-point scale (**Table 2**) [12]. Subjective scales are useful and appropriate methods to measure changes in sialorrhea, because the impact on families, caregivers, and the patients themselves is of utmost importance when assessing satisfaction with the effectiveness of any treatment [4].


3.3.3. IGFBP-4

As an effect of age, IGFBP-4 was significantly decreased between weeks 2 and 7 (*p* < 0.05), increased between week 7 and 11 (*p* < 0.05) and decreased between week 11 and 42 (*p* < 0.001). In all male mice, IGFBP-4 was increased between weeks 4 and 11 (*p* < 0.01) and decreased between weeks 11 and 29 (*p* < 0.001). Again, significant differences present in isolated mouse lines are depicted in Figures 3 and 4.

#### *3.4. E*ff*ects of Growth Selection on the Concentrations of IGFBP-2 to -4*

As a main effect of growth selection and irrespective of age, obese female mice had significantly higher levels of IGFBP-3 in serum (*p* < 0.001). Independent of age, selection for high protein accretion increased IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-2 (*p* < 0.001). In males, selection for high body mass and selection for high protein mass had an effect on the concentrations of IGFBP-2 and IGFBP-3 in serum (*p* < 0.05) over all age groups.

As an interaction of genetic group and age, in growth-selected obese and lean male mice (Figure 4), levels of IGFBP-3 at the age of 11 and 16 weeks were increased if compared to age-matched unselected controls (*p* < 0.05). In lean male mice, IGFBP-3 remained on a higher level also at later time points, with significant differences if compared to obese male mice and unselected controls at the age of 29 and 54 weeks (*p* < 0.05). Growth selection further stimulated the increase of IGFBP-2 from younger ages to week 16, observed in unselected controls, resulting in about 3-fold increased levels of IGFBP-2 in serum from lean male mice (*p* < 0.001). Between 4 and 11 weeks of age, a significant increase of IGFBP-4 was observed (*p* < 0.01) in all males independent of line. In all genetic groups and in both genders, the postnatal increase of IGFBP-3 in serum is lagging behind the increases of IGF-1.

#### *3.5. Longitudinal Molar Ratio of IGF-1 and IGFBP Concentrations in Serum*

In order to estimate the longitudinal molar ratio of IGF-1 with respect to the IGFBPs detected in serum by Western ligand blotting, the concentrations of IGF-1 and IGFBP-2 to -4 were corrected for their respective molecular weights (IGF-1: 7.5 kDa, IGFBP-2: 32 kDa, IGFBP-3: 41 kDa, IGFBP-4: 24 kDa). The longitudinal molar ratio of IGF-1 versus the sum of IGFBP-2, IGFBP-3, and IGFBP-4 is presented in Figure 5. Neither in female nor in male mice of all genetic groups, IGF-1 was in molar excess over the sum of IGFBP-2 to -4. As an effect of age and genetic group, between weeks 2 and 4, there was a significant increase in all groups and genders (*p* < 0.001) with the exception of female controls (*p* < 0.05). At the age of 4 weeks, obese male and female mice have higher ratios of IGF-1/IGFBPs if compared to unselected controls (*p* < 0.05).

**Figure 5.** Molar ratio of IGF-1 to the sum of IGFBP-2, -3, and -4 (left Y-axis) present in serum from mice selected for high body weight (obese), for high protein amount (lean), and in unselected controls at an age of 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, 29, 42, and 54 weeks (*n* ≥ 7 with the exception of obese male at 54 weeks with *n* = 4; different letters indicate significant effects of age; identical letters indicate no statistically significant difference; \*: *p* < 0.05; \*\*\*: *p* < 0.001; b+: significantly different if compared to unselected controls, with *p* < 0.001 for males and *p* < 0.05 for females). On the right Y-axis, daily weight increases, intrapolated from the body weight data in Figure 1 by the Gompertz function, were included.


**4. How and/or why did the patient develop a circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder? Which individuals are of greatest risk of developing a circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder?**

#### **4.1 Advanced sleep-wake phase disorder (ASWPD)**

Genetic studies have shown possible links to mutations in the *PER2* and *CSNK1D* clock genes, both of which are inherited in autosomal dominant pattern [2, 3]. There is an estimated 1% prevalence, with males and females being equally affected. Older adults are more likely to have advanced tendencies. Other contributing factors include decreased responsiveness to evening light, and increased responsiveness to morning light, both of which can shift the sleep–wake cycle earlier than desired.

#### **4.2 Delayed sleep–wake phase disorder (DSWPD)**

The pathophysiology of DSWPD is multifactorial [2, 3] l. It is hypothesized that certain exogenous factors, such as increased exposure to evening light and greater sensitivity to evening light may play a role in development of DSWPD. Genetic factors may play a role, but their exact contribution is less understood than is the case for ASWPD.

DSWPD typically emerges during adolescence and can continue into adulthood. Males and females seem to be affected equally. Peak age appears to be 21 years old in males and 17 years old in females. There is a large variability in its reported prevalence, with population study estimates ranging from <1% up to 10% [1–3]. Patients with hepatic cirrhosis are also affected at much higher rates (33%).

#### **4.3 Irregular sleep-wake rhythm disorder (ISWRD)**

ISWRD is most commonly seen in individuals with neurodegenerative conditions, particularly those with Alzheimer's disease and late-afternoon sundowning [1–3]. It is also more common in those with traumatic brain injury, in children with developmental delay, in patients with schizophrenia, and particularly in patients who are institutionalized. It is hypothesized that intrinsic circadian dysfunction, coupled with decreased exposure to external synchronizing agents such as light and social activity, are factors in ISWRD.


**3. Subunit vaccine candidate antigens**

The advent of recombinant DNA technology has greatly facilitated the development of subunit malaria vaccines by providing the tools with which to synthesise large amounts of parasite protein, and to disrupt gene expression for detailed functional characterisation [40- 42]. Preclinical development for many candidate antigens has been successful and Phase II clinical trials have proceeded for at least eight candidate antigens, with evidence of antimalarial efficacy for MSP2 [6], CSP [43, 44], MSP3 [45] and AMA1 [46].

The release of the first full malaria genome sequence in 2002 allowed the systematic identification of novel malaria vaccine candidates amongst approximately 5300 genes. Genome wide screening for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has been used to reveal loci under positive selection and therefore encoding proteins that may be targeted by the immune response [4, 47]. Proteomics approaches have characterised the "immunome" [48], and measured the abundance of parasite proteins on the parasite surface [49]. A pipeline of bioinformatic screens has also been used to identify surface proteins, gene knockouts and high-throughput immunological assays to identify novel surface antigens (e.g. [50]). In the last 10 years, the list of potential malaria vaccine candidates has rapidly expanded to encompass many antigens about which there is still much to be learnt. Targets that were discovered first are therefore further down the development pipeline rather than novel proteins that may ultimately be more successful.

Below, we describe the most developed malaria vaccine candidates for the two major malaria parasites, *P. falciparum* and *P. vivax* as well as some novel vaccine candidates that have recently been identified for *P. falciparum*. This is not a comprehensive listing, a complete list of preclinical, clinical and inactive or discontinued malaria vaccine projects can be found in the World Health Organisation's Malaria Vaccine Rainbow Tables [51].


**NEW DISCOVERIES IN EMBRYOLOGY**

Edited by **Bin Wu**

### **New Discoveries in Embryology**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/59218 Edited by Bin Wu

#### **Contributors**

Javier García-Ferreyra, Giorgio R. Merlo, Daniele Conte, Luisa Guerrini, Francesca Ciani, Natascia Cocchia, Simona Tafuri, Danila D'Angelo, Luigi Esposito, Eugenio Luigi Iorio, Lucia Abbondante, Leonardo Meomartino, Shigehito Yamada, Tetsuya Takakuwa, Mark Hill, Hiroshi Fujiwara, Yoshihiko Araki, Shigeru Saito, Kazuhiko Imakawa, Satoru Kyo, Minoru Shigeta, Masahide Shiotani, Akihito Horie, Takahide Mori, Nestor Isaias Tovio Luna, Arturo Duica Amaya, Henry Alberto Grajales Lombana, Paulo Dias, Beatriz Veleirinho, Marcelo Maraschin, Rosa Maria Ribeiro-Do-Valle, Simone Kobe Oliveira, Daniela Sousa Coelho, Viviane Polli, Bin Wu

#### **© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2015**

The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted.

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#### **Notice**

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in Croatia, 2015 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia

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**5. Conclusions**

Despite their harmful e ffects on the environment, fossil fuels will continue to be the primary source of power production. A comprehensive discussion of the technologies to reduce emissions from fossil fuels is presented in this review. Post-combustion carbon capture technology requiring separation is the best technology to retrofit the existing fossil fuel power plants. Pre-combustion carbon capture is more suitable in an integrated gasification combined cycle. A post combustion carbon capture process can be applied to the running power plants without much modification.

The separation of CO2 from the gas stream in these processes requires additional energy which leads to an increase of the electricity price. Several technologies are available for separating CO2 from the gas stream. Separation is less costly in precombustion processes because of the higher partial pressure of CO2 in the gas stream. Among the separation technologies, the absorption process has become almost matured, but it requires attention to corrosion of equipment and high cost for regeneration of the solvent. An adsorption process for separation cannot be applied at large scales due to the low CO2 adsorption and capacity and influence of gases on the adsorbents. New adsorbents should be developed to remove the barriers. Membrane technology is less energy intensive than other processes, though it is less e ffective at low concentration of CO2. Also, more research is necessary to determine membrane behavior at high capacity. Formation of clathrate hydrate to separate CO2 from gas mixture needs more attention. Proper additives or promoters should be developed to use in the process to make this process more competitive.

Carbon capture with water condensation is economically more viable to implement due to a simpler design and higher plant e fficiency and better environmental aspects for the life cycle compared to the pre- and post-combustion capture methods. LCA shows that oxyfuel combustion has much less effect on the environment compared to other methods. The combustion characteristics are di fferent in this case from traditional combustion. Due to the di fferent characteristics, further research is necessary to make this technology competitive with others. There still is limited knowledge of many important aspects of oxy fuel combustion. Along with the theoretical achievement, it is necessary to find more experimental data in order to validate theoretical models.

Further research is necessary to properly understand the oxy fuel combustion-based near-zero emission power cycles like the Allam cycle. Successful commercial implementation of these cycles will be a significant step in reducing emissions, thus meeting the challenge of global climate change. Chemical looping combustion has also the potential to become a cost-e ffective way to reduce emissions. It requires attention as a novel technology in this sector. The availability of suitable oxygen carriers and appropriate designing of the reactors can make this process comparable with others. LCA of these new methods is also necessary to properly understand their impact on the environment.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, N.S.S. and Y.H.; methodology, Y.H.; investigation, N.S.S.; writing—original draft preparation, N.S.S.; writing—review and editing, Y.H.; supervision, Y.H.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Acknowledgments:** The research fund provided by Central Michigan University is gratefully acknowledged. The authors wish to express their gratitude to the anonymous reviewers for providing constructive feedback.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.