**2. Previous works on ceramic water filter press design**

At its inception by Fernando Mazariegos, the ceramic pot water filter was shaped by hand on the potters' wheel. But in the 1980s, the Central American Institute of Industrial Research and Technology (ICAITI) introduced the use of hydraulic presses in the shaping of ceramic water filters resulting in more efficient ceramic water filter production and performance [10]. However, other literature [13] reports that the first press and the first set of moulds were developed to standardize the shape of the ceramic water filter (see **Figure 1**).

While the Potters Without Borders (PWB) press design is the most commonly used, other attempts have been made to explore different press designs to improve the workings and efficiency of the presses in the production of ceramic water filters and to meet the specific socio-economic needs of varying localities. The PWB filter press design operates with a 20-ton hydraulic jack and a hand lever for lifting and lowering the H-slide to which the male mould is attached. It produces the flatbottomed ceramic water filters, using a set of aluminium moulds.

A recent study [14] on a multi-component water treatment, reported that they created a simple plastic press mould to shape the ceramic component of their water filtration system with the aim to improve efficiency and allow for easy replication. (see **Figure 2**).

Another study [10] designed a low-cost filter press with the goal of less than \$200 in cost, less manpower requirement and shorter manufacture time. Their work concentrated on designing and prototyping a low-cost, filter press using

**Figure 1.** *Ron Rivera working on the first ceramic filter press [13].*

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 4.**

**235**

*Filter press operated with screw and hydraulic system [11].*

*A low-cost filter press prototype [10].*

*Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

locally-sourced materials. They attempted to achieve a lower filter formation pressure as a key requirement to reducing the cost, considering that using a 2-ton car jack instead of the 20-ton hydraulic jack used by PWB would greatly reduce cost. The press was designed for the round-bottom filters and adopted an inverted design in which the car jack was mounted to the frame headstock and the female mould was suspended on the underside of the jack elevator while the male mould sat on the base [10]. For the moulds, they improvised with the use of inexpensive aluminium bowls (see **Figure 3**).

A group of researchers [11] in their study described the use of a 30-ton manually operated hydraulic press developed and manufactured by MEC Ltd., India. The press makes use of a screw system to lower and lift the male mould which is attached to the die screw connector plate, while the female mould sits on a base plate which is attached to the hydraulic jack (see **Figure 4**). This press produces the flat-bottomed, frustum shaped filters of 23 cm height with 25.5 cm base diameter.

The Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] developed by Pure Home Water, reported two types of press designs for shaping ceramic water filters; the Potters for Peace (PfP) press and the Mani press. The PfP press design as described in the text is a portable press that uses a 20-ton hydraulic jack with a removable female mould while the male mould is attached to a moveable shaft on the frame. It operates a crankshaft system which allows for the lifting and lowering of the shaft that holds

*Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

#### **Figure 3.** *A low-cost filter press prototype [10].*

**Figure 4.** *Filter press operated with screw and hydraulic system [11].*

locally-sourced materials. They attempted to achieve a lower filter formation pressure as a key requirement to reducing the cost, considering that using a 2-ton car jack instead of the 20-ton hydraulic jack used by PWB would greatly reduce cost. The press was designed for the round-bottom filters and adopted an inverted design in which the car jack was mounted to the frame headstock and the female mould was suspended on the underside of the jack elevator while the male mould sat on the base [10]. For the moulds, they improvised with the use of inexpensive aluminium

A group of researchers [11] in their study described the use of a 30-ton manually operated hydraulic press developed and manufactured by MEC Ltd., India. The press makes use of a screw system to lower and lift the male mould which is attached to the die screw connector plate, while the female mould sits on a base plate which is attached to the hydraulic jack (see **Figure 4**). This press produces the flat-bottomed, frustum shaped filters of 23 cm height with 25.5 cm base

The Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] developed by Pure Home Water, reported two types of press designs for shaping ceramic water filters; the Potters for Peace (PfP) press and the Mani press. The PfP press design as described in the text is a portable press that uses a 20-ton hydraulic jack with a removable female mould while the male mould is attached to a moveable shaft on the frame. It operates a crankshaft system which allows for the lifting and lowering of the shaft that holds

bowls (see **Figure 3**).

*Design and Manufacturing*

*Modelled diagram of the press mould and product [14].*

diameter.

**234**

**Figure 2.**

frame. It uses an 8-ton hydraulic jack and works with a pulley system that operates with a hand crank for lifting and lowering the female mould (see **Figure 6**). The mould in the PfP press described in the Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] is made of nylon while the material used to make the Mani press moulds was not stated in their report but can be made of concrete or metal. It, however, concluded that the Mani press delivered greater advantage and ease in use than the portable PfP press. The RDIC manual [12] describes a fully automated hydraulic system-operated ceramic water filter press. It uses a set of metal moulds, most likely aluminium. The male mould is attached to the frame headstock while the female mould is attached to a moveable shaft which is controlled by the

hydraulic system which works with the use of an electric motor (see **Figure 7**). This action controls the press and the release of the clay filter mix in between the

The features of the various designs of ceramic water filter presses reviewed in

After a review of the designs of ceramic water filter presses as discussed hitherto, the PWB ceramic water filter press design was adopted based on the following

A non-electrically operated press was desired to overcome the challenge of poor

the course of this study are presented in **Table 1**.

*Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

electricity supply within the country;

moulds.

**Figure 7.**

**237**

*An electric motor driven hydraulic press [12].*

considerations:

**Figure 5.** *Operating the portable PfP press with crank system [15].*

the male mould. The hydraulic jack is positioned above the male mould after it has been lowered into the female mould which contains the clay (see **Figure 5**).

The Mani press has both its male and female moulds attached; while the male mould is attached to an extendable table, the female mould is attached to the press

**Figure 6.** *The Mani press [15].*

#### *Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

frame. It uses an 8-ton hydraulic jack and works with a pulley system that operates with a hand crank for lifting and lowering the female mould (see **Figure 6**).

The mould in the PfP press described in the Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] is made of nylon while the material used to make the Mani press moulds was not stated in their report but can be made of concrete or metal. It, however, concluded that the Mani press delivered greater advantage and ease in use than the portable PfP press. The RDIC manual [12] describes a fully automated hydraulic system-operated ceramic water filter press. It uses a set of metal moulds, most likely aluminium. The male mould is attached to the frame headstock while the female mould is attached to a moveable shaft which is controlled by the hydraulic system which works with the use of an electric motor (see **Figure 7**). This action controls the press and the release of the clay filter mix in between the moulds.

The features of the various designs of ceramic water filter presses reviewed in the course of this study are presented in **Table 1**.

After a review of the designs of ceramic water filter presses as discussed hitherto, the PWB ceramic water filter press design was adopted based on the following considerations:

A non-electrically operated press was desired to overcome the challenge of poor electricity supply within the country;

**Figure 7.** *An electric motor driven hydraulic press [12].*

the male mould. The hydraulic jack is positioned above the male mould after it has been lowered into the female mould which contains the clay (see **Figure 5**).

**Figure 5.**

*Design and Manufacturing*

**Figure 6.**

**236**

*The Mani press [15].*

*Operating the portable PfP press with crank system [15].*

The Mani press has both its male and female moulds attached; while the male mould is attached to an extendable table, the female mould is attached to the press

#### **Table 1.**

*Features of the various types of ceramic water filter presses reviewed in this study.*

The use of a fully manual system was also not desirable because it will increase the time taken to press one filter; therefore a hydraulic press mechanism was desired;

A lever was preferred for the lowering and lifting of the moulds, to the crank (as in the portable PfP press [15]) and the screw (as in [11]) because it makes the filter pressing more cumbersome and time consuming;

Flow chart of steps taken in fabricating the ceramic water filter press.

It became expedient to fabricate a hydraulic press machine to facilitate the shaping of the ceramic water filters by the press cast method. This is the most suitable method of forming the ceramic filters because the mix is highly non-plastic and hence cannot withstand other ceramic forming techniques besides slip casting which is not very feasible at the desired dimensions of ceramic water filters.

For this study to ensure the economic feasibility, sustainability and hence the scalability of the manufacture of the ceramic water filter press in Nigeria, it was important to set a cost limit for fabricating the press; and this was set at 350000 naira (approximately \$1000). This was done considering the issue of low access to capital for start-ups, which is common in the country. This study, however, intends to encourage local potters to venture into the production of ceramic water filters by alleviating some of the cost-related challenges of setting up a filter production unit.

**3. Fabricating the hydraulic press machine**

*Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

**239**

The moulds were preferred fitted to the press frame to overcome the challenge of misalignment of moulds, possible in removable moulds, and as well, the inconvenience and health hazard of lifting heavy moulds in each process of filter pressing (as in the portable PfP press [15]).

Based on these specific requirements, the Potters Without Borders (PWB) ceramic water filter press design was adapted for manufacture in Akure, Nigeria. The PWB ceramic water filter press is said to have several benefits with respect to design and operation. Its high-strength (20-ton) design allows the pressing of flatbottom filters [10] while creating stability and preventing deformation in the shaped filters. The flat-bottom filters are said to provide more surface area and therefore higher flow rates [10]. Some of the adjustments made to the PWB filter press design, included the replacement of the hydraulic car jack with a locally fabricated industrial hydraulic jack, as well as the design and manufacture of the press mould to fit locally available wide-rimmed plastic containers to meet the water needs in larger households.

Flow chart of steps taken in fabricating the ceramic water filter press.


**2.3 What are the BodyTite and RFAL specifications?**

BodyTite is the RFAL (Radiofrequency assisted Lipo-coagulation or Liposuction) applicator used for lipo-coagulation and Suction Assisted Lipoplasty of moderate to larger sized patients. And is powered by the BodyTite Workstation (**Figure 3**). The BodyTite 2.4 mm diameter applicator has an internal electrode that is silicone coated, silastic capped and 2.4 mm in diameter and 17 cm long. In international (in non-USA markets) there is also a BodyTite 3.9 mm diameter internal electrode, with a 25 cm applicator, which shares the exact same thermal and monitored safety features as the 2.4 mm RFAL applicator. The FaceTite is a 1.2 mm internal electrode that is 12 cm long. The Facetite external electrode is proportionately much larger in diameter than the BodyTite 2.4 mm applicator. The smaller RFAL BodyTite applicator external electrode geometry means the power density and RF skin heating capability is much more efficient than the FaceTite (**Figure 4**).

The BodyTite workshop station can emit up to 70 W of energy and this is more than enough for large volume lipo-contouring patients because of the much higher power density of the smaller 2.4 mm RFAL external electrode. 120 seconds of continuous treatment time is allotted before having to double click the foot pedal. The surgeon does not enter the fluence, rather the machine delivers only the amount of RF energy needed to ensure the rate of rise of tissue temperature is <20 degrees Celsius/cm3/second.

#### **Figure 4.**

*The BodyTite external electrode (top) is much smaller than the FaceTite (bottom), with a larger internal RF emitting electrode (2.4 mm vs. 1.2 mm) and this creates a much stronger power density and coagulation for at the same wattage. Up to 70 W of energy will be emitted automatically, as much as is required (raising and lowering automatically) depending up the rate of rise of adipose tissue.*

*Internal and External Radiofrequency Assisted Lipo-Coagulation (RFAL) in the Control of Soft… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97378*

Unlike the FaceTite, where the distance between the internal and external electrode is controlled simply by pinching the proximal hand piece, which brings the two electrodes closer together to achieve the desired inter-electrode distance, with the BodyTite RFAL hand pieces there is electrode dial to set the desired interelectrode distance. With the BodyTite, there is an actual dial on the hand piece that controls and fixes the distance between the electrodes. There is a relative scale for the inter-electrode distance (**Figure 5**).

Practically speaking, each number on the Inter-electrode distance dial, corresponds to the number of centimeters between the external and internal electrode (**Figure 6**).

The high tech, industry leading thermal, high and low impedance, contact sensed, and TSP safety features are the same for the BodyTite as for the FaceTite. The internal electrode is silicone coated with silastic, bullet shaped cap on the end and has thermistor temperature-controlled RF release and adjustable cut off temperatures as high as 70 degrees Celsius. The External electrode houses the contact sensor, external skin thermistor for continuous temperature-controlled skin temperature monitoring, with cut offs ranging from 36 degrees – 42 degrees Celsius, high and low impedance sensor and finally, the Temperature Surge Protection sensor (**Figure 7**).

**Figure 5.**

*On the BodyTite RFAL handpieces, there is an inter-electrode distance control dial, numbered 1–6, which determines the distance between the internal and external electrode.*

#### **Figure 6.**

*The dial has settings numbered 1 through 6. Below is the practical inter-electrode distance for each level on the BodyTite dial.*

#### **Figure 7.**

*BodyTite handpiece. RF flows from the internal electrode, where the temperatures a very strong and coagulative, with FSN contraction and adipose liquefaction, to the external electrode where the temperature is more moderate and the effect is a non-ablative heating, remodeling and tightening of the papillary and reticular dermis.*

Over the past 10 years, through constant RnD and innovation, InMode has delivered to the marketplace and its physician users increasingly smaller and smaller, more elegant RFAL handpieces, culminating the in the AccuTite (and Aviva on the

*Internal and External Radiofrequency Assisted Lipo-Coagulation (RFAL) in the Control of Soft… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97378*

#### **Figure 8.**

*The InMode RFAL family of handpieces. All the handpieces, even the tiny AccuTite have the same elegantly engineered thermistors and sensors that make the treatments effective and safe.*

EmPower RF Gynecologic system), which are no bigger than the palm of your hand (**Figure 8**). All the RFAL applicators, even the tiny ones, operate on the same RF principle and with the same array of thermistors and ACE sensed and automated controlled RF delivery for the responsible delivery of soft tissue heat.

#### **2.4 AccuTite: the injectable skin tightening handpiece**

#### *2.4.1 Injectable skin tightening? What does that mean?*

The AccuTite RFAL has become so small and easy to use, it has created a whole new category of anti-aging treatment I call, "*Injectable skin tightening".* What does this mean? The AccuTite RFAL is so small and elegantly engineered, that is now smaller than the microcannula systems I use to inject my soft tissue dermal fillers (**Figure 9**). The microcannula technique facilitates the safe, quick and even injection distribution of Hyaluronic Acid gel fillers into the subcutaneous and supraperiosteal space. With the AccuTite being actually a smaller diameter than my microcannula, I can now use the microcannula port to "inject RF, inject heat, inject subdermal skin remodeling and tightening. What an awesome concept?

In esthetic non-invasive medicine, for too long now, we have *tended to over inject* our patients suffering from skin laxity with soft tissue fillers to provide and lift and tightening effect. And while this Filler, VolumaLift, Liquid Lift (many names) strategy works for modest laxity and in certain facial zones, when laxity increases, we use more fillers and end up with the dreaded **"FILLER FACE",** or **"PILLOW FACE",** an unattractive, over injected, over-filled look. Would it not be nice to tailor our treatments and Inject Skin Tightening where required and volume only where needed and only to replace what was lost….. **AND THAT IS THE CONCEPT OF ACCUTITE, the INJECTABLE SKIN TIGHTENER. NO SUCTION NEEDED! Just simple AccuTite injection of RF thermal skin contraction in the subdermal space** (**Figure 10**).

#### **Figure 9.**

*The AccuTite RFAL handpiece is smaller than the actual microcannula I use to inject my soft tissue dermal fillers (a 22 g, 2 inch, Dermasculpt, blunt tipped, rigid cannula).*

Now, when treating the aging skin envelope of the face or neck, I will add the necessary neuromodulator to shape the face, use the *AccuTite to Inject Skin and Soft Tissue Tightening* where needed and, using the same access port, I will use my #22 g microcannula to add the necessary judicious and artistic soft tissue filler. Add to that Formula, fractional RF skin resurfacing, and you can now achieve truly amazing non-excisional, minimally invasive skin rejuvenation.


**4. Patient selection for ECPR**

ECPR is a final effort employed in a patient with a deep circulatory shock after CA that is refractory to all standard treatments, and no further intervention will assuredly lead to the patient's demise. ECMO is brought in this scenario to assist with shock state while dithering to elucidate the cause of CA and later allows reversal if possible [41]. The American heart association guidelines advised that ECPR should be instituted in a patient if ECMO is rapidly available and deployable within a facility, patient has a brief duration from collapse, and the underlying condition is reversible [42]. As ECPR is a complex technique that requires an experienced and well-trained paramedic team, careful precision, teamwork, and coordinated efforts of a lot of persons to institute ECMO with ongoing, patients with CA should be carefully selected who can potentially benefit from ECPR [43].

In patient with OHCA, prognostic factors associated with better survival and neurological outcome are patient age <70 years, shorter duration of low flow, a sustained shockable rhythm, effective CPR with a target end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) > 10 mmHg during resuscitation, lower lactate level, higher pH, and lower SOFA score [44]. While these all criteria increase the likelihood of a favorable outcome, there are no universal selection criteria. Although there are no clearly defined indications, most

*VT = ventricular tachycardia, VF = ventricular fibrillation, ROSC = return of spontaneous circulation, DNR/DNI = do not resuscitate or intubate, CA = cardiac arrest, ETCO2 = end tidal carbon dioxide.*

#### **Table 2.**

*Positive and negative predictors of ECPR.*

centers perform ECPR for young patients with an initial shockable rhythm or presumed correctable cause and those with a witnessed collapse and bystander CPR without ROSC within 10–20 minutes of CCPR. In patients with IHCA, ECPR is useful in patients with CA in the cardiac surgical ICU, medical cardiac ICU, cardiac catheterization laboratory, and CA before or after cardiac surgery or intervention. When a cardiac diagnosis is irreversible pathology, cardiac replacement therapy, such as heart transplantation or artificial heart, should be considered [45, 46]. Poor prognostic factors after ECPR are patients with poor physical activity levels such as those confined to bed; severe permanent neurologic injury; noncardiopulmonary cause of arrest, such as severe sepsis; prolonged CCPR without ROSC; inadequate ACLS, such as failed advanced airway or ineffective chest compression due to severe hypovolemia or unfavorable chest wall anatomy (e.g., aortic rupture or severe pectus excavatum); and pre-existing severe multiple organ failure. However, no single one can be considered an absolute contraindication for ECPR; the physician in charge of a patient's care should discuss resuscitation with leaders of the CPR and ECLS teams if the situation arises. Prognostic factors can be broken down into positive/negative factors influencing outcomes explained in **Table 2** [46].


*2.2. Sample Preparation*

The 30 common Chinese teas are widely consumed and famous in China. The basic information of these teas is presented in Table 1. The fat-soluble, water-soluble, and bound-insoluble fractions of these teas were acquired using tetrahydrofuran, methanol-acetic acid-water (50:3.7:46.3, *v*/*v*/*v*), and diethyl ether-ethyl acetate (1:1, *v*/*v*) with alkaline digestion according to the procedures described in the literature [16–18]. All extracts were preserved at −20 ◦C before being subjected to relevant tests.

#### *2.3. Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay*

The ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay was conducted according to the method established by Benzie and Strain [19]. FeSO4 was used as the standard, and the value was presented as μmol Fe(II)/g dry weight (DW) of the tea.

#### *2.4. Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) Assay*

The Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay was performed based on the procedure reported by Re et al. [20]. Trolox was applied as the standard, and the value was displayed as μmol Trolox/g DW of the tea.

#### *2.5. Determination of Total Phenolic Content (TPC)*

Determination of total phenolic content (TPC) was carried out as described by Singleton et al. [21]. Gallic acid was adopted as the standard, and the value was described as mg gallic acid equivalent (mg GAE)/g DW of the tea.

#### *2.6. Detection of Phytochemicals by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)*

Ca ffeine, theaflavine, and polyphenols in the extracts were detected by HPLC based on the literature reported by Cai et al. [22] with small alterations. Briefly, the testing system was comprised of a Waters (Milford, MA, USA) 1525 binary HPLC pump separation module with an auto-injector, a Waters 2996 photodiode array detector (PDAD) and an Agilent Zorbax Extend-C18 column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm, Santa Clara, CA, USA). Gradient elution was performed at 35 ◦C with the mobile phase composed of methanol (solution A) and 0.1% formic acid solution (solution B), which were routinely delivered at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min according to the procedure: 0 min, 5% (A); 10 min, 20% (A); 15 min, 22% (A); 20 min, 25% (A); 40 min, 40% (A); 50 min, 42% (A); 60 min, 50% (A); 70 min, 95% (A); 70.10 min, 5% (A); 75 min, 5% (A). A 20 μL of extract sample was injected for HPLC analysis. The spectra were recorded between 200 and 600 nm, and the targeted compounds were identified by retention time and UV-Vis spectra in comparison with the standards and quantified based on the peak area under the maximum absorption wavelength. The value was expressed as mg/g DW of the tea.

**Table 1.** Basic information about the 30 Chinese teas.


*Communication* **Glossiness Evaluation of Coated Wood Surfaces as Function of Varnish Type and Exposure to Different Conditions**

**Emilia-Adela Salca 1,\*, Tomasz Krystofiak 2, Barbara Lis 2 and Salim Hiziroglu 3**

**Abstract:** The objective of this study was to evaluate the glossiness of black alder wood (*Alnus glutinosa* L.) samples coated with two varnish types as a function of exposure to dry heat and artificial aging. The chemical resistance of the coated samples to cold liquids was also evaluated. Based on the findings in this work, it appears that the varnish types and their structural differences influenced the overall glossiness of the coated samples. The UV varnish exhibited higher gloss values than those coated with the water-borne product within the range of silky gloss and silky matte grades. The heat exposure influenced the surface glossiness of the UV-coated samples more than the samples coated with water-borne varnish. The overall gloss values of the samples decreased with the exposure time to artificial aging, resulting in no layer cracks. The cold household liquids left less visible traces on the surfaces and alcohol was found to be the strongest agent. This study could have practical applications in the furniture industry to produce value-added furniture units according to their specific conditions of indoor use.

**Keywords:** artificial aging; coating; gloss; properties; varnish; black alder wood


Urban Green Spaces

## *Edited by Rui Alexandre Castanho and José Cabezas Fernández*

Published in London, United Kingdom

Urban Green Spaces http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97910 Edited by Rui Alexandre Castanho and José Cabezas Fernández

#### Contributors

Vasco Barbosa, Mónica Marcela Suárez Pradilla, Juan Eduardo Chica-Mejía, Jairo Eduardo Galvis Bonilla, Cristina Santos, Cristina M. Monteiro, Prashanti Rao, Somaina Islary, Kapil Natawadkar, Akanksha Sangwan, Nand Kumar, Ashwani Kumar, Anjali Saraswat, Satish Pipralia, Ruffina Thilakaratne, Jaran R. Wood, Kim Rosembom, Başak Kılıç Taşeli, Rui Alexandre Castanho, Teresa Batista, Salustiano Torre, José Fermoso, Nuno Morais, Ramona Avila, José Cabezas Fernández, Carlos Pinto Gomes

#### © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2022

The rights of the editor(s) and the author(s) have been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECHOPEN LIMITED. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECHOPEN LIMITED's written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECHOPEN LIMITED rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com).

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Individual chapters of this publication are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License which permits commercial use, distribution and reproduction of the individual chapters, provided the original author(s) and source publication are appropriately acknowledged. If so indicated, certain images may not be included under the Creative Commons license. In such cases users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. More details and guidelines concerning content reuse and adaptation can be found at http://www.intechopen.com/copyright-policy.html.

#### Notice

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in London, United Kingdom, 2022 by IntechOpen IntechOpen is the global imprint of INTECHOPEN LIMITED, registered in England and Wales, registration number: 11086078, 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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**6. Conclusions**

To achieve steady-state fasting levels for many metabolic substrates which are found in blood draws taken from patients, the patients are required to fast 8–12 hours. This evidence can show us that even a single fasting interval in humans (e.g., overnight) can reduce basal concentrations of metabolic biomarkers related with T2D, such as insulin and glucose. Intermittent fasting regimens may be a promising approach to losing weight and improving metabolic health. Moreover, these eating regimens may offer promising nonpharmacological approaches to improving health in general and specifically improve T2D condition.

The question in this study is not how to lose weight but to answer the question of which of the people suffering from T2D can benefit through an intermittent fasting approach and what is the best type of intermittent fasting for a particular person. This it offers a recommendation system based on data from several clinical trials for answering those questions. The recommendation system selects the optimal intervention to improve the health of prediabetes individuals or people with T2D. The improvement in health reflected in reducing their glucose and insulin levels which are considered T2D risk parameters and composed the HOMA-IR equation. The procedure in this study is built using a machine learning approach and is the results are presented by a decision tree. The conclusions from the decision rules derived from the tree are that males and females have a different set of rules because the node gender comes first in the tree. The success of intervention in males depends on the duration of the IF. Therefore, males are indifferent to the type of intervention. Moreover, males with a smaller BMI will be more likely to have a successful intervention in case the duration of intervention is equal or less than 2.5 weeks. On the other hand, if the duration of the intervention is more than 2.5 weeks for males than age will be important to its success. Reasonably, younger age will serve as a benefit. The level of basal fasting insulin is the most important attribute for a successful intervention in female. There are some cases where no intervention within the dataset of this study can assist in improving HOMA-IR for example if a female with a basal fasting insulin equal or less than 37.1 pmol/L (for moderate insulin resistance the fasting insulin should be in the range of 18–48 pmol/L) and age exceeding 52.

To apply for a wider population additional clinical trail's data should be used. Moreover, a larger dataset will make it possible, to build a software which would assist physicians in advising an optimal intervention to their patients and by that providing a better personalized medical service to their patients.


**3.3.4 Physical quantity assessment**

In the following Physical Quantity Assessment process, with the help of data reported by local government, we carefully assessed the physical quantity of houses, roads, power facilities, communication facilities, water conservation facilities, municipal utilities and land resources in UAV and airborne images to estimate approximate direct economic loss. It is worth to mention that some damage quantity ignored in field investigation was detected in remote sensing images, such as submerse street trees, telegraph poles, smart street pavilions.

 In flooded region, collapsed building area was around 419,827 m2.

High Resolution Remote Sensing Images Based Catastrophe Assessment Method 199

Throughout the three cases discussed in this chapter, one interesting thing is that the importance of remote sensing images is increasing in the whole process of disaster assessment: preliminary assessment step, disaster scope and damage assessment step, and physical quantity assessment. Also, the resolution of remote sensing images is improved, from 0.5m to 0.2m, providing more accurate data for assessment and decision making.

Although the whole process of integration of remote sensing images and data from ground investigation has been growing mature, the sample region choosing, physical quantity

Another thing to notice is that, automatic operation system is needed to connect the whole disaster assessment flow to provide efficient and accurate data for decision making. The satellite-airplane-ground disaster monitoring and assessment system is the trend we are and

This chapter is sponsored by High Resolution Earth Observation System Project of China.

Chen, S.; Ma, H. & Fan, Y. et al. (2008). Road Damage Assessment from High Resolution

Fan, Y.; Yang, S. & Wang, L. et al. (2008a). Study on Urgent Monitoring and Assessment in

Fan, Y.; Yang, S. & Wang, W. et al. (2008b). Comprehensive Assessment of Disaster Scope,

Shi, F.; He, H.; Zhang, Y. (2010). Remote Sensing Interpretation of the MS7.1 Yushu

The sixth editing room of Press of China Standards (2010). *Compilation of Earthquake and*

Wen, Q.; He H. & Wang X. et al. (2011). UAV remote sensing hazard assessment in Zhouqu

Xie, L.; Zhang, J. (2000). Application of Satellite Remote Sensing Technology in Earthquake

Yang, S.; Liu, S. & Wu, W. et al. (2011). Remote Sensing Applications in Qinghai Yushu

*Sensing*, Vol.12, No.6, pp. 949-955, ISSN 1007-4619.

No.2, pp. 220-227, ISSN 1673-5722.

90-96, ISSN 1673-8748.

103), Science Press, ISBN 978-7-03-023855-9, Beijing, China.

9780819488022, Prague, Czech Republic, September, 2011.

Satellite Remote Sensing Imagery in Wenchuan Earthquake. *Journal of Remote*

Wenchuan Earthquake. *Journal of Remote Sensing*, Vol.12, No.6, pp. 858-864, ISSN

In:*Comprehensive Analysis and Assessment of Wenchuan Earthquake*, Zhu, H., pp. (94-

Earthquake Surface Ruptures, *Technology for Earthquake Disaster Prevention*, Vol.5,

*Related Standards*, Press of China Standards, ISBN 978-7-5066-5651-1, Beijing, China.

Debris Flow Disaster, Proceedings of SPIE European Remote Sensing, ISBN

Disaster Reduction, *Journal of Natural Disasters*, Vol.9, No.4, pp. 1-8, ISSN 1004-4574.

Earthquake Monitoring and Assessment, *Spacecraft Engineering,* Vol.20, No.6, pp.

**4. Conclusion**

assessment still need further improvement.

will realize in the near future.

1007-4619.

**5. Acknowledgment**

**6. References**

Fig. 29. Housing damage assessment map

Roads were divided into 3 classes (Figure 30): provincial road, urban road and rural road. According to remote sensing assessment result, 2 provincial roads were damaged, with a length of 2 km; 25 urban roads were damaged, with a length of 7.5 km; 5 rural roads were damaged, with a length of 4.8 km. Three bridges of a total length of 242 meters were out of function.

Fig. 30. Road and bridge damage assessment map

The physical quantity assessment results were used for direct economic losses estimation. It is for the first time for China that remote sensing images are integrated into the national catastrophe assessment flow as a major data source.


**Preface to "Plant Response and Tolerance to Abiotic Oxidative Stress: Antioxidant Machinery as a Paradigm of Defense"**

Plants are continuously exposed to a large number of abiotic stress factors during their life cycles. These influence their cellular metabolisms, physiological processes, and growth as well as development. Thus, plants have evolved inherent strategies with which to acclimatize to changing abiotic stress conditions and adapt through in-built tolerance mechanisms; however, drastic changes in climatic conditions further aggravate the impact of stress on plants, which exceeds plants' tolerance capacities. Factors such as low or high temperatures, drought or waterlogging, high salinity, ultraviolet radiation, heavy metals, nutrient stress, etc., are grouped under abiotic stress, which generates the excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing oxidative stress. One of the essential ways through which to improve plants' tolerance and relieve the pressure of abiotic-stress-induced oxidative changes for the survival of plants is to improve the capacity of antioxidant machinery. The research/review articles included in this book provide collective knowledge on the antioxidant machinery for abiotic stress tolerance mechanisms.

> **Nafees A. Khan** *Editor*


*Gamification as a Tool for Inclusion DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113229*

Gamification presents exciting opportunities for promoting inclusivity and a sense of belonging in educational settings [45]. By incorporating gamification elements, students can be motivated to take an active role in their own learning and assume responsibility for their progress. Through the use of effective techniques, success stories, and available tools and resources, gamification has the potential to revolutionize the learning experience and foster an inclusive and enriching environment [46].


Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) (15K00571) and Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas (15H05946). We thank Takashi Fujimitsu, Kenji Kataoka, and Yuina Ishimoto for technical assistance during this work.


**4. Discussion**

#### *4.1. Litter Dynamics in Different Years*

Litter volume is a component of the forest ecosystem biomass, which reflects the primary productivity level of the forest ecosystem and reflects the functions of the forest ecosystem [26,67–70]. The global annual change range of forest litter is 0.13 (Alaska's Picea crassifolia forest in the United States)—15.3 (Congo's tropical rain forest) t·hm−2 [28,42], and it can be divided into tropical, subtropical, temperate, and cold temperate zones according to climatic conditions. The forest litter yield in different climatic zones shows a downward trend with the increase in latitude. On average, Eurasian forests are tropical (8.40 t·hm−2) > subtropical (5.25 t·hm−2) > temperate (3.81 t·hm−2) > cold temperate (t·hm−2) [21,37,43,71]. The annual litter amount of different forest types in different climate zones in the world also varies greatly. The annual litter amount of main forest types in different climate zones can be shown as the maximum average annual litter amount of tropical rain forest and seasonal rain forest, which is 9.98 t·hm−2. It is followed by evergreen broad-leaved forest, with an average annual litter of 6.96t·hm−2. Then, 5.79 t·hm−2 in coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest; deciduous broad-leaved mixed forest 5.1 t·hm−2; The coniferous forest with the smallest litter is 4.77 t·hm−2 [72]. The subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest in the study area is located in the north-south transition zone between the middle subtropical climate and the south subtropical climate. In this study, the average annual total litter in 2005, 2010, and 2015 is 8.18 t·hm−2, which is within the range of subtropical forest changes (1.01–13.00 t·hm−2). Compared with the evergreen broad-leaved forest in different regions of the subtropical zone, its annual litter is less than that of the Dinghushan monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest in the south subtropical zone (8.45 t·hm−2) [17], greater than that of the Tiantong evergreen broad-leaved forest in the north subtropical zone (5.55 t·hm−2) [73–75], but similar to that of the Xiaokeng subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest in the middle subtropical zone (7.99–8.450 t·hm−2), It shows that the litter of wet evergreen broad-leaved forest in Ailao Mountain is similar to the geographical location and stand composition structure of the middle subtropical forest [70].

In different years, each component of litter and its proportion in the total forest litter are the largest, and the sum of the two reaches 76.17% of the total, which is consistent with the general situation of plant growth and litter, and basically consistent with the proportion sequence of each component of litter in other research results [71,76–79]. The total amount of litter in the study area in 2005 (normal year without extreme weather interference), 2010 (affected by extreme arid weather), and 2015 (affected by extreme ice and snow weather) are 8.82, 7.70, and 8.01 t·hm−2, respectively, of which the proportion of litter is 49.96%, 61.52%, and 41.30%, respectively, and the proportion of litter branches is 25.82%, 17.26%, and 32.05%. Compared with other subtropical forests of the same type, the annual average percentage of leaves (50.89%) is lower, while the three-year average percentage of branches (25.28%) is higher. In 2005, the proportion of litter branches in the study area was less than 30%, which was still in the middle and early stages of succession. The proportion of litter branches was small. With the succession, the proportion of litter branches should have gradually increased, but the proportion of litter branches in the region from 2005 to 2010 was gradually decreasing, reached the valley in 2010, and then gradually increased from 2010 to 2015. This is because of the rare serious drought in Yunnan in 2010. After the forest was disturbed by the extreme arid weather for a long time, the characteristics of the plant community degenerated toward the type of low-grade community, and secondary succession occurred within the community. At the same time, because the soil was lack of water for plant growth in this dry season, some leaves fell, so the proportion of branches and litter was less than that when the forest was not disturbed, The proportion of leaf litter also increased correspondingly [42,43], indicating that extreme drought weather interference seriously hindered the normal succession process of forests. In 2015, the proportion of litter leaves was less than that of undisturbed years, but the proportion of litter branches increased accordingly, which is consistent with the short duration of this extreme ice and snow weather disturbance. The wood litter in the forest, such as branches, is quite random. The litter collected every month is the litter branches that died on the trees before. Therefore, the litter of branches is usually not directly related to phenology but is greatly affected by climate factors. It also shows that although the evergreen broad-leaved forest in Ailao Mountain is affected by extreme ice and snow weather, However, due to the rich species and complex community structure in Ailao Mountain, the forest ecosystem has the ability of self-regulation and high early post-disaster recovery, which makes the evergreen broad-leaved forest vegetation in Ailao Mountain recover slowly. Thus, the litter amount of evergreen broad-leaved forest in Ailao Mountain after being disturbed by extreme weather is close to that of evergreen broad-leaved forest in the same latitude in normal years [37,71]. To sum up, the impact of extreme drought weather on litter yield and nutrients in the study area is greater than that of extreme ice and snow weather interference, and it mainly has a greater impact on litter branches, litter leaves, and the total amount of litter, while the impact on other litter components is relatively small [56].

Due to the influence of external environmental factors, the dynamic changes of litter in different years show some regularity but also show some differences [70–72]. The cause of the occurrence of the litter rhythm is mainly determined by the climate change factors and the biological characteristics factors of the tree species that make up the community [1,3,23,47]. The monthly dynamic performance patterns of litter in 2005, 2010, and 2015 are different, including single peak, two peaks, and four peaks, with different peak sizes, and all of them play a leading role in litter amount. In the normal year 2005, the maximum peak value of withering occurred in the rainy season, while in the two special years, 2010 and 2015, the peak value of withering mainly occurred in the dry season.

In 2005, the total amount and each component of litter reached the maximum in August, which was affected by the external temperature and accelerated the rate of metabolism, prompting a large number of plants to litter. The temperature in August is suitable for the vigorous growth of plants. The rising temperature of evergreen trees during the germination period will promote the sprouting of new leaves and accelerate the aging and apoptosis of old leaves. When the nutrients required for the growth of new leaves exceed

the nutrients absorbed from the soil, the plants will preferentially transfer the nutrients stored in the old leaves for the growth of new branches and leaves, and the transfer and reabsorption of nutrients will accelerate the apoptosis of old leaves [17,39,71]. The other peak months in 2005 are basically the same as those in 2010. Although the plants in the evergreen broad-leaved forest gradually change leaves throughout the year, the temperature rises at the beginning of the rainy season (April and May), and a large number of new leaves germinate and grow vigorously. In these growing seasons, new leaves compete with old leaves for limited mineral elements. Because the strong vitality of new leaves makes the elements that can be transported from old leaves to new leaves, and finally causes the senescent leaves to fall off one after another, During this period, the rainfall increased, so the first short and concentrated peak of leaf litter appeared in April, basically in line with the physiological characteristics of evergreen broad-leaved forest. Another secondary peak of litter in the study area is at the end of the rainy season in November. The occurrence of the second peak of litter is related to the defoliation period of the dominant tree species of the evergreen broad-leaved forest in this area, Kaempferous, and because of the sudden drop in humidity and temperature in autumn and winter, the leaves of some evergreen broad-leaved forests lose their vitality in dry air and wither [17,70,71].

In January 2015, the study area had an extremely strong ice and snow weather. Because a large number of leaves on the crown of evergreen tree species condensed with ice and snow when the ice and snow disaster occurred, and some tree species were easy to break, strong wind, heavy rain and heavy snow can blow and break the litter branches of the previous period to the ground [5,14,37,42,70], After the interference of extreme ice and snow weather, the leaves were violently shaken by strong external forces, resulting in non physiological shedding, which led to a sharp increase in the amount of litter in January 2015 and a peak. This randomness can cause great changes in the number of litter branches at different times, which also indicates that the weather conditions in 2015 were worse than those in 2005 and 2010. In addition, after the interference of extreme ice and snow weather, a large number of trees fell down, branches were crushed and dropped by heavy snow, forest canopy was seriously damaged, forest canopy density was reduced, and insect food in habitats with severely damaged vegetation was reduced, so the amount of litter brought by insects was reduced successively, thus significantly reducing the amount of litter after the peak in January. However, the rose fluctuation amplitude of the litter after the forest was disturbed by the extreme ice and snow weather decreased significantly and tended to be stable, indicating that the extreme ice and snow weather caused great damage to the physiological structure of the tree species, leading to changes in the subsequent litter patterns. In a word, the litters in the three years have their own distinct littering rhythms, which may be because the species composition of evergreen broad-leaved forests in the study area, the climatic conditions and the degree of interference vary greatly in different years, and the litters are very vulnerable to the biological characteristics of forest species, climatic conditions, and other environmental factors, making the seasonal dynamics of each year different [20].

#### *4.2. Nutrient Concentration Dynamics and Nutrient Return of Litter*

The return of nutrients from the litter to the soil maintains soil fertility and promotes nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems, which is important for improving the habitat conditions of forest trees [2,26–30]. Analyzing the dynamics of nutrient concentrations and return in the litter is necessary for understanding the function of forest ecosystems [5,8,9,31,43,74,80].

The nutrient content of litter can reflect the nutrient utilization efficiency of plants. In this study, the total amount of litter and the different nutrient concentrations of each component have the same order, with the highest content of C, followed by the content of Ca and N, and the content of K, Mg, S, P, and other elements is relatively low [14,39,48]. The formation of this sequence is because the fresh litters in the study area are in the early stage of decomposition, and the initial content of N element is high, while the elements

with low content of P and K in the litters are reusable elements, which can be transferred in large quantities before the leaves fall, and then the nutrient reuse is realized through the plant transfer mechanism, which indicates that the evergreen broad-leaved forest plants in this area have high nutrient utilization efficiency. However, the strong seasonal dynamics of nutrient concentration of each component also show that the transfer amount of different elements is different in different seasons, and the decomposition rate of litter is faster due to the rapid leaching and degradation of P and K [70,71,81]. The content of nutrient elements is greatly affected by their physiological functions. The subtropical climate is hot and rainy, so the leaching effect of litter is very strong. The rainy season in this region is long, mainly concentrated in summer and autumn, and the physiological functions of each element are different [66]. Among them, K and P are easy to be lost due to rainfall, but P is a limiting factor for plant growth and development in tropical and subtropical regions. For this reason, most organisms in the subtropical ecosystem have a mechanism to maintain that P is not leached out under high temperature and humidity conditions, which makes the K and P contents in the litter lower in spring and summer as a whole, but P content is far lower than K content [3,4,26]. Ca, N, and other elements are relatively stable and not easy to be washed away by rain, which makes the seasonal variation of various nutrient elements in different years and different components inconsistent, and there is no obvious correlation. These nutrient elements will eventually return to the soil, which is of great significance for maintaining the long-term productivity of the forest land [82].

The chemical properties of litter are the internal factors affecting litter decomposition. C/N and C/P in the litter are common indicators of litter decomposition. N/P also has a certain characterization ability for litter decomposition. Since N can affect the growth and turnover of soil microbial communities, the C/N ratio can best reflect the rate of litter decomposition [42]. N and P control the important process of litter decomposition through coupling with C. The C/N ratio of the litter in the study area in 2005 (the normal year without extreme weather interference) is 48.65, which is greater than 25, indicating that N is the main element limiting litter decomposition in the region [51]. From 2005 to 2015, the average C/N ratio was the highest in 2005, and the content of N was the lowest, indicating that the decomposition rate of litter was the slowest in that year, and the extreme weather interference did not weaken the decomposition rate of litter. The C/N ratio of litter branches and litter leaves is not the same each year, so it can be concluded that the response of nutrient content among various organs of forest litter to extreme weather disturbance is also different [82].

The annual total amount of litter in each year is in the order of 2005 (normal year not affected by extreme weather) > 2015 (affected by extreme ice and snow weather) > 2010 (affected by extreme drought weather). From the perspective of the annual amount of nutrient return of litter, the annual amount of nutrient return is roughly proportional to the amount of litter. In addition, leaf litter is the main component of the litter, accounting for more than 50% of the total litter. Compared with other components, the nutrient concentration is generally high and easy to decompose, so leaf litter is the main body of nutrient return of the litter.


**Appendix A**

This appendix lists the smart devices considered before deciding to develop from scratch two dedicated devices.

**Table A1.** List of smart devices revised durin the development of this research.


**5.1.2 Gastric volvulus +/- associated to splenic torsion**

The clinical picture groups together painful symptoms associated to high occlusion with vomiting. In some cases patients can be in a real state of shock.

Gastric volvulus associated to wandering spleen is a rare condition, and its quick clinical improvement with a simple medical treatment often delays the diagnosis and access to proper surgical care (Fiquet-François et al, 2010; François-Fiquet 2009; Spector & Chappell, 2000; Qazi & Awadalla, 2004). The semiological difficulty is quite real when faced with complex clinical pictures associating gastric volvulus, wandering spleen and even in some cases a diaphragmatic hernia (Liu & Lau, 2007).

The combination of wandering spleen and gastric volvulus should be explored by additional imaging exams, and requires a quick and adapted therapeutic care.

### **5.2 Chronic clinical picture**

Between 39% and 43% of children treated for wandering spleen had already presented similar symptoms. (Brown et al, 2003; Fiquet-François et al, 2010). Most often these children had been complaining about non-systematic recurrent but inconsistent abdominal pain for the past months (even several years). Some children were even hospitalized several times before making a proper diagnosis. This is mostly due to the quick clinical improvement when the child was lying down (Fiquet-François et al, 2010; François-Fiquet et al, 2009). The chronic clinical picture once again underlines the difficulty in making a proper diagnosis when faced with an atypical clinical picture.


**1. Introduction**

Magmatic intrusions are commonly emplaced with much higher temperatures compared to their host rocks. Therefore, when emplaced into sedimentary basins, they may influence all parts of the petroleum system [1]. Several studies have shown how such intrusions influence the temperatures and hydrocarbon maturation in sedimentary basins (e.g., [2–11]). Other studies focus on the stress induced by the sills on the host rocks as they intrude (e.g., [12,13]). However, only a few studies have reported on the e ffect magmatic sill intrusions have on the diagenetic processes in sedimentary basins. Haile et al. [14] concluded in their work at Edgeøya (Svalbard) that conductive heat from intrusions did not seem to have a ffected the diagenetic products in the area. However, at Wilhelmøya (Svalbard) there is evidence suggesting that hydrothermal fluid flow originating from sills has a ffected the chemical transformations [15]. In a study of sandstones at Traill Ø (East Greenland) it was concluded that a combination of conductive and convective heat from magmatism enhanced the diagenetic process [16].

In essence, porosity and permeability determine the quality of petroleum reservoirs [17,18]. At the time of sediment deposition, the process of sediment lithification starts [19], driven by mechanical and chemical diagenesis. Mechanical alterations are related to compaction of the sediments by burial,

while chemical alteration is the compaction occurring when chemical compounds are dissolved and re-deposited or new components are precipitated. While the mechanical changes are strictly a result of increasing burial depth and vertical loading, chemical changes are less predictable and highly dependent on the chemical compounds and the temperature (e.g., [20]). Diagenesis results in porosity loss, increased rock densities and seismic velocities (e.g., [21–25]). Due to the sensitivity of chemical diagenesis to temperature, basins subjected to magmatic intrusions are particularly prone to abrupt and sudden changes of physical properties. Laboratory measurements show an increase of physical rock strength (>100%) on the transition of opal A to opal CT [23], which imply that diagenetic processes may also a ffect the way the rocks respond to subsurface stresses.

Diagenetic transformations are reported from sedimentary basins worldwide (e.g., [26–34]). The Monterey Formation in California, USA, has been extensively studied with regard to the transformation of opal A to opal CT (e.g., [35–39]), but diagenetic alterations have also been observed several places in wells and on seismic data from the Norwegian Continental Shelf (e.g., [24,40–47]). All of the latter studies report observed transitions of either opal A to opal CT or smectite to illite in the Vøring Basin, o ffshore mid-Norway. We used a 2D section from the Vøring Basin with numerous sills as the basis for the modeling, as it represents the structures of a magmatic basin better as opposed to a synthetic profile. Modeling of a real 2D section will thus give more realistic results, even though the parameters are of global nature. A detailed case study of the e ffects of magmatic intrusions on diagenesis in the Vøring Basin is beyond the scope of this work.

The main goal of the study is to quantify the e ffect of magmatic intrusions on transitions of opal A to opal CT to quartz, smectite to illite, and quartz diagenesis which was done with basin modeling software (BMTTM, [48]). A second goal is to assess the influence of diagenetic processes and of the sills themselves on the stress field in a sedimentary basin and the potential impact on fracture and fault permeability, which is of significant importance for the petroleum systems. The results show that magmatic sills and related thermal e ffects might have notable implications for the porosity loss due to diagenesis in their vicinity. Diagenetic alterations and the sills themselves influence the location and magnitude of stress accumulations in the basin and thereby have implications for the fault and fracture development, and implicitly for the migration of fluids.

### **2. An Example of the Evolution of a Volcanic Basin—The Vøring Basin**

The Vøring Basin is located o ffshore mid-Norway and is bounded by the Bivrost Lineament to the NE and the Vøring Transform Margin to the SW (Figure 1). The area consists of grabens, basins, and structural highs developed over three main rifting episodes from Carboniferous to Eocene times (e.g., [49] and references therein); (1) Carboniferous-Permian; coincided with the onset of rifting in the North Atlantic [40,50–55]; (2) Late-Mid Jurassic to Early Cretaceous; led to subsidence and development of accommodation space for the thick Cretaceous sedimentary sequence [56,57]; (3) Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene; coincided with the opening of the North Atlantic, development of the Vøring Marginal High, and intrusion of numerous sills in the Cretaceous basin fill [49,58]. Subsequent events were dominated by seafloor spreading and accretion of oceanic crust in the expanding Norwegian-Greenland/North Atlantic Sea [59,60]. In the post-rift phase, the Vøring area experienced localized tectonic uplift, erosion, sediment deposition, subsidence, flexure, and isostatic uplift partly due to numerous glaciations and deglaciations of the Fennoscandian landmasses [61,62].

**Figure 1.** Location of the studied profile (VB-2-87-B) in the Vøring Basin offshore mid Norway. Modified after Sydnes et al. [10].

The sedimentary deposits of the Vøring Basin mainly consist of marine to deep marine sediments (mainly shale) with intercalated shallow marine sediments (mainly sandstone) in the Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous [49]. The Paleocene consists of shale with minor sandstone and limestone deposits [63], and the Lower Eocene consists of shales. The magmatic intrusions were emplaced in lower Eocene time within the entire sedimentary sequence. Oligocene, Neogene, and Quaternary deposits are mainly shales with some ice rafted debris in the Plio-Pleistocene. The outer Vøring Basin was in the Miocene and early Pliocene dominated by deep-water deposits consisting of biosiliceous hemipelagic sediments [46,64].

The utilized 2D transect, VB-2-87-B (Figure 1), is about 100 km long and holds some 20 interpreted sills located at ~3–5 km depth with lateral extension of the sills varying from about 3 to 30 km (Figure 2). A velocity model by Hjelstuen et al. [64] was used for depth conversion of the section. The time of intrusion activity is estimated at ~56 Ma, which is supported by ages derived from zircon dating of magmatic sills in the Vøring area (55.6 ± 0.3 Ma and 56.3 ± 0.4 Ma, 6607/5-2 and Utgard wells; [65]).

From Carboniferous and up to the beginning of Eocene, the Vøring Basin was part of an active rift phase [49]. As the active rifting ceased the Vøring area subsequently experienced thermal subsidence and ridge push due to continental break up and opening of the North Atlantic. Repeated glaciations, mainly since 2.6 Ma, have led to sediment depositions in the Vøring Basin. Currently the regional stress field of coastal and mainland Norway is somewhat affected by post-glacial uplift and erosional unloading/loading [62,66–70] in addition to compressive ridge-push. To make our results generally applicable, the section from the Vøring Basin is solely used as a basis for the modeling, and site-specific parameters such as lithology and rock properties, are substituted by global values.

**Figure 2.** Seismic section and the interpreted, depth converted section of VB-2-87-B in the Vøring Basin offshore mid-Norway. Interpretation is obtained from Blystad et al., [40].

### **3. Methods and Results for Magmatic Intrusion's Influence on Diagenetic Processes**

To perform the modeling of structural evolution, geohistory, thermal development, maturation, and diagenesis, BMTTM (Tectonor AS) was used. All models are in 2D, which infer the third dimension to be infinite. This is a good approximation when sills and faults are modeled, as the third dimension commonly is much larger than the two others (e.g., [12]).