*4.8. Cell Culture*

KITD816V-TSCs were derived from E3.5 blastocysts, which were obtained after mating of R26-LSL-KITD816V mice with Deleter-Cre mice [33]. Cre recombinase expression is controlled by human CMV minimal promoter [54]. Cells were cultured on tissue culture plastic in humidified

incubators (Heracell 240i, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) with 7.5% CO2 at 37 ◦C. TSC were grown in a trophoblast stem (TS) cell medium supplemented with 70% mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) conditioned medium (CM) [45]. TS medium was supplemented with 25 ng/mL human recombinant FGF4 (Reliatech, Wolfenbüttel, Lower Saxony, Germany; #100-017L) and 1 µg/mL heparin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA; #H3149-10KU).


*Edited by Sabar D. Hutagalung*

Materials are important to mankind because of the benefits that can be derived from the manipulation of their properties, for example electrical conductivity, dielectric constant, magnetization, optical transmittance, strength and toughness. Materials science is a broad field and can be considered to be an interdisciplinary area. Included within it are the studies of the structure and properties of any material, the creation of new types of materials, and the manipulation of a material's properties to suit the needs of a specific application. The contributors of the chapters in this book have various areas of expertise. therefore this book is interdisciplinary and is written for readers with backgrounds in physical science. The book consists of fourteen chapters that have been divided into four sections. Section one includes five chapters on advanced materials and processing. Section two includes two chapters on bio-materials which deal with the preparation and modification of new types of bio-materials. Section three consists of three chapters on nanomaterials, specifically the study of carbon nanotubes, nano-machining, and nanoparticles. Section four includes four chapters on optical materials.

ISBN 978-953-51-0193-2

Materials Science and Technology

Photo by ktsimage / iStock


The rapid spread of the Internet in the modern age has enabled the structures and objects around individuals to use the Internet effectively. One cannot deny IoT's functionality in individuals' lives as it is used as one of the most important resources of the Industry 4.0 era. Technology integration in education has opened the doors of Education 4.0, and Education 4.0 offers some models for how to use IoT. Bagheri and Movahed (2017) stated that IoT usage in an education-oriented context will improve students' health status, classroom access, and teachinglearning processes. As a result, Education 4.0 as offered by Industry 4.0 ensures that education is maintained in a more open-to-communication, efficient, and student-centered context.

In this context, the advantages of Education 4.0 can be defined as follows (Kassim & Teng, 2018):

Those advantages facilitate the understanding of school leadership functions in Education 4.0 and shape school leadership practices. School leadership in Education 4.0 includes the different knowledge, skills, and practices based on the characteristics of Education 4.0. When considering knowledge, skills, and practices together, the competencies that school leaders are expected to have become evident.

#### *School Leadership in Education 4.0*

Pedagogy in Education 4.0 has been developed to respond to the demands of Industry 4.0 and has given new impetus to the transformations in education in terms of content, curriculum, and education management (Kin & Kareem, 2019). This dramatic change has caused changes in the future of education (Kassim & Teng, 2018). Managing change involves the competence school leaders have to encourage change, to enable and support others to change, and to make change sustainable (Kin & Kareem, 2018). In the context of Education 4.0, school leadership is regarded as a process that takes place within the framework of technology, communication, cooperation, problem-solving, innovation, professional development, and school leaders' competencies.

The change that first took place with Education 4.0 included directing education in non-traditional ways with technology-based tools and resources instead of traditional teaching materials (Tang et al., 2015). As an example of this, technology leadership competencies and performance evaluations are able to be done with technology tools (Bano˘glu et al., 2016). In this context, technology is regarded as one of the keywords emphasized in Education 4.0.

One of the biggest advantages of Education 4.0 is the ability to realize effective and fast communication. Communication refers to how school leaders can effectively advance their vision and beliefs through direction, words, and actions to achieve school goals (Smith & Riley, 2012). Traditional management is based on theories from Fayol, Taylor, and Weber, which are based on stability and therefore tend to determine central decision-making processes and hierarchical communication channels (Jamali, 2005). Considering the need to implement quality processes and improvement in schools, relationships and communication can be thought of as the basic features in institutions (Jefferson & Anderson, 2017). Communication is also important in making decisions that facilitate transformation in schools because decision-making processes have become more and more interactive (Smoliar & Sprague, 2003). In this context, four of the conditions that leaders must provide in order to develop a school environment that facilitates transformations are based on interpersonal relationships. Those conditions are listed as commitment to collaborative planning, student and community involvement in school policies and decisions, creation of effective coordination strategies, and professional development (Ainscow et al., 2000). Accordingly, communication can be stated to play a key role in today's educational paradigms. Keeping the communication channels open and managing the communication process transparently facilitate cooperation in education management and problem-solving.

Transforming the education system from a system based on facts and procedures to a system based on cooperation and active problem-solving is the main feature of Education 4.0 (Kin & Kareem, 2019). Education 4.0 sets a different future level for today's generation of students. Technology is changing the production system in human nature. Working in the virtual environment while collaborating on productivity and developing new skills are trends in the emerging technological change in the new era (Kassim & Teng, 2018). School administrators must respond to those needs with sufficient competencies to be effective leaders who can bring schools to the frontier of transformation. The task of a school leader includes setting up systems that increase capacities and forming collaborations to achieve teaching goals (Ng & Chan, 2014). Meanwhile, those collaborative structures support a school enriched in terms of learning by affecting performance positively (Fullan, 2010). The new educational approach provides a school environment where innovations are encouraged, and students are located at the center of this process.

Education 4.0 is believed to empower students in terms of innovations; thus, increasing their success levels and learning outcomes. In addition, as teachers and other professional staff are at the center of the educational community, support and professional development for teachers is crucial in any school development process (Díez et al., 2020). In order to meet the increasing demands for excellence in education, school administrators can become effective leaders by systematically and continuously gaining new knowledge, skills, and abilities through effective professional development programs or interventions (Kin & Kareem, 2019). Having leaders who steer innovation adopt approaches that will keep school stakeholders and themselves open to continuous improvement is important.

Certain competencies exist that school leaders are expected to have in order to achieve school leadership in the context of Education 4.0. Kin and Kareem (2019) summarized those competencies as follows:

**Table 1** The features of Education 4.0 and school leadership

levels of digital literacy is how to increase the meaningful use of technology pedagogically (Kin & Kareem, 2018).

Based on those explanations, the features of Education 4.0 and the equivalence of those features in school leadership are summarized in Table 1.

### *Use of Internet-of-Things in Education Management*

In the context of digitalization, changing traditional interaction models is among the main topics of education (Frolova et al., 2020). The Internet of Things (IoT) technology provides new opportunities and perspectives to education in all aspects. In this context, modern education based on digital technologies is a process in which not only knowledge and skills but also self-awareness and personal values are produced (McLay & Renshaw, 2020). IoT technology shows a radical break in educational understanding from our past.

IoT technology challenges the universal success models and reveals new problems and solutions in the field of education as much as it sets the background for the information technologies and communication revolutions of the late twentieth century. IoT can provide meaningful information about how and when students and school staff can access the school (Rodney, 2020). This customized learning process enables students to monitor their performance analytically (Kassim & Teng, 2018). IoT can also monitor students' illnesses, sleep, and general well-being for school attendance and demonstrate proactive approaches that can support parents and school staff (Rodney, 2020). Bagheri and Movahed (2017) stated that IoT technology plays an important role in the following issues: monitoring the learning ecosystem through wearable technologies students use; ensuring school security using classroom registration systems and digital ID cards; monitoring students' health status with smart wristbands or watches; contributing to the creation of the most appropriate physical conditions for learning in the classroom with the help of sensors and reducing training costs by conserving energy; increasing comfort in the education process by creating appropriate physical conditions in learning environments; individualized teaching and learning; increasing student collaboration with mobile devices and virtual learning environments. IoT is thought to change three basic features in the current education system: the reduction of control-based hierarchies, the replacement of financing and standardization-based homeostasis through efficiency, and the more tightly linking educational purpose with student learning (Rodney, 2020). The realization of that change can ensure a quick and effective continuation of the managerial process, emphasize individual assessment, and structure a student-oriented education system.

IoT as a concept works in harmony with various technological structures. Those structures contribute to academic and social planning in addition to monitoring processes. Technological structures are seen to have importance in different fields such as data security, information storage, provision of virtual learning environments, support for individual learning, creation of new pedagogical paradigms, and rearrangement of financial strategies. Various examples are found on the use IoT in educational administration and teaching. Quick Response (QR) codes are one of the most common examples of IoT usage areas. QR codes which are known as a two-dimensional barcodes, are the most frequent and affordable of identification technologies in the world and can store up to 7,089 characters of information (Budak et al., 2018). Those codes are also useful in associating any resource with an online resource. On the other hand, its weak data security, degradation caused by harsh environments, and read-only capability are the main weaknesses of this technology (Budak et al., 2018). Students can receive academic and social feedback by scanning QR codes with their smartphones (Mershad & Wakim, 2018). Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology is another widely used area in IoT. Unlike barcodes that need to be directed toward a scanner to read, RFID tags can store a larger amount of data that can be quickly transmitted, rewritten, and encrypted many times in addition to being readable without line-of-sight requirements as long as they are within the range of the reader (Budak et al., 2018). Shan et al. (2016) emphasized RFID technology to have become widespread through mobile technologies and to contribute to the individualization of learning, based on students' position. Virtual reality (VR) is one of the technologies whose usage rate has increased in today's educational environments. IoTsupported VR applications enable lesson simulations and the creation of interactive learning environments (Mershad & Wakim, 2018). Artificial intelligence (AI) is the field of computer science that focuses on the creation of intelligent machines that work and react like humans. AI can be applied to support and improve learning in the creation of smart classrooms that take advantage of IoT (Timms, 2016). AI also has the abilities to learn the aspects and types of interactions as well as pedagogically relate them to relevant contexts, to help teachers more clearly, understand students' ways of thinking and to be able to easily direct learning, and to share all the data it collects with relevant stakeholders (i.e., students, teachers, administrators) so that metacognitive approaches and possible areas that need to be improved can be deliberated. On the other hand, blockchain technology is one of the prominent structures with current educational uses. Blockchain technology is associated with many stakeholders in the field of education such as students, teachers, employers, and administrators. Tapscott and Tapscott (2017) stated that educational institutions can benefit from blockchain technology in the following areas: (1) *ID and student records* through secure management of all data belonging to a student enrolled in a training program; (2) *new pedagogy* by managing enrollments and saving data on courses chosen by students and their learning interactions in order to identify learning patterns, improve teaching, and reveal new learning models; (3) *fees and rewards* for planning financial strategies and rewarding students for their achievements; and (4) *upper education institution model* to restructure the educational institution by bringing together the expectations of students and employers on a common ground. As seen in the relevant examples, the concept of IoT is used in various ways in educational institutions at different levels. Integrating technology into education leads to paradigm shifts in learning and education management. Those changes can be stated to be effective at improving the education and training process.

Conclusion This chapter which examines current educational management and cultural trends addresses the competencies of twenty-first-century educational leaders, the role educational leaders have in cultural orientations, the differences between traditional management understanding and current management paradigms, the use of technology and leaders' managerial processes in educational administration, and IoT usage that directly and indirectly affect the cultural structure all in the context of Education 4.0. The focal points of the modern management paradigm are improving academic performance, adopting a networked management approach, and designing and adopting innovations and sustainability. The belief in the traditional management paradigm, which is based on school productivity and the stable and static use of resources, has been replaced by microscale development, and school leaders' emphasis on individual development and local needs in this context. Considering that schools are complex social structures, school administrators with traditional roles can be stated to have difficulty adapting to global conditions. In this context, initiating change and reducing resistance to change are within the scope of the roles and responsibilities of school leaders. The formation of a school culture that can adapt to new inputs and the development of this cultural structure are also the responsibilities expected from school leaders. Education 4.0 can also be said to strengthen the specified innovations and make management processes more efficient.

One of the innovations Education 4.0 brings is to adapt IoT to the educational context. IoT technology can provide instant and multidimensional information flow to students, teachers, parents, and administrators. While targets are achieved more quickly and effectively in this context, the use of resources in a school can also be ensured to be kept to a minimum. IoT usage and communications between stakeholders can also be said to be more transparent and quicker. Effectively managing communication processes through the use of IoT, which has become one of the tools of change, will also contribute to sustainable change.

IoT seems important in adapting developing technology to education. IoT's contributions to the management processes and academic success should not be ignored. IoT is emphasized to contribute to the decrease in the hierarchical structure in the education system, to increase financial efficiency, and to increase students' acquisitions. IoT, which provides educational leaders with new roles and responsibilities, can also be said will speed up information processing and communication processes. This situation gives new perspectives to leaders and stakeholders and clearly contributes to the production of values and the development of culture. Suggestions for schools to be able to support new managerial and cultural trends and adapt more easily to those trends are stated as follows:

identity-in-interaction in relation to digital technology. *British Educational Research Journal, 46*(1), 44–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3565

Taylor, F. W. (1919). *Scientific management*. Routledge.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

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## New School Designs and Sustainable Development

## *Beatriz Amann*

The United Nations has made societies' commitment to the sustainable development of our planet its main objective, marking 2030 with a total of 17 Goals for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015). However, the concept of sustainable development was already defined and valued more than 30 years ago.

In the first place, the initial proposal from the *Teoría del Desarrollo a Escala Humana* (Max Neef, 2006; Max Neef et al., 1986) affirmed a person's fundamental needs to be invariable and finite at all times and places. This theory lists four ontological needs (i.e., living, being, having, and doing) and nine more axiological needs (protection, affection, understanding, participation, leisure, creation, identity, freedom, and subsistence) as the potential needs for improving humans' living conditions. What varies over time and in different cultural, political, and economic systems is how these are satisfied: the means of satisfaction. Thus, social and economic evolution is proposed based on people's needs.

B. Amann (B)

© The Author(s) 2022

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Istituto Europeo Di Design IED Madrid Spain, Madrid, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Y. Alpaydın and C. Demirli (eds.), *Educational Theory in the 21st Century*, Maarif Global Education Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9640-4\_10

A year later under the auspices of the United Nations, the Brundtland Commission Report (1987) described the concept of sustainable development as that which meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the capacity of future generations to meet their own needs. Thus, this report added sustainable development to the concept of fundamental need, which described in four dimensions: society, culture, economy, and environment. As Morin (1980) stated, these systems are not independent of each other but rather have an eco-organization of synergies among them.

In this way, sustainability is a necessary characteristic of environmental, economic, and social balance in pursuit of globally improving the quality of life. In this sense, the concept of sustainability refers to environmental quality, social justice, and equitable economy (Aznar & Ulls, 2009). Sustainable development also refers to the processes for achieving this objective. In this way, sustainable development extends the values of human-scale development from present to future generations in such a way that it combines the needs of the human species with the needs for the conservation of biodiversity.

Currently, the possibility of achieving sustainable development is linked to the fourth industrial revolution, also known as the Green New Deal (Rifkin, 2019).

Education for Sustainable Development In 2002, the United Nations General Assembly promulgated Resolution No. 57/254 under the title "United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development," inspired by the Earth Charter (2002) among others. It presents the role of education as fundamental for achieving the values of sustainability in present and future societies. During the decade between 2005–2014, UNESCO aimed to implement the resolution to achieve its objectives: a globalized education for sustainable development (ESD).<sup>1</sup> This educational proposal seeks to train people in the principal cognitive, methodological, and attitudinal competencies for being able to internalize sustainability values and epistemological principles. In this way, the proposal attempts to incorporate the criteria of commitment and awareness into the school and university curricula with issues such as

<sup>1</sup> In 2012, UNESCO published an evaluation report on the ESD and its implementation.

climate change, biodiversity, or sustainable consumption (Aznar & Ulls, 2009). At the same time, ESD promotes participatory pedagogical models that encourage student motivation and the acquisition of critical thinking. These objectives were once again reinforced in the new roadmap drawn up by UNESCO in 2014 at the end of the decade under "UNESCO Education Strategy 2014–2021" to give continuity to the achievements and promote actions that reinforce creativity and responsible citizenship among students (UNESCO, 2014). In 2015, all United Nations Member States approved the 17 Goals for Sustainable Development as part of the 2030 Agenda (UN, 2015), which establishes a plan to achieve these Goals within 15 years. Goal 4 focuses on ensuring inclusive, equitable, and quality education and on promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all. Sub-Goal 4.7 mentions the need for ESD and Sub-Goal 4.a mentions the need to build and adapt educational facilities that take into account the needs of children and people with disabilities and gender differences and offer safe, non-violent, inclusive, and effective learning environments for all (UN, 2015).

Goal 4 is about improving the quality of teaching and respecting diversity,<sup>2</sup> through pedagogical and curricular innovation on one hand and through the renovation of educational systems that reinforce teachers in the use of interactive methodologies and capacity development on the other. Therefore, the need to promote pedagogies that respect individual capacities and potential is underlined by attending to people's different cognitive and emotional needs and abilities. It requires a mostly extended integral transformation of the current traditional education system<sup>3</sup> (Larrañaga, 2012). Revisions also involve adapting schools and their spatial quality (a question on which this chapter focuses) to allow the described practical innovation; to be respectful of diversity; and to facilitate new communication possibilities, learning, and sharing the knowledge that ICTs provide. All this comes to define the New School, and its relationship with sustainable development as is understood in this chapter.

<sup>2</sup> The new 2030 Agenda approved by the United Nations on September 25, 2015, renews these objectives to guarantee inclusive, equitable, and quality education (UN, 2015).

<sup>3</sup> Traditional education is defined as the teacher-centered delivery of instruction to classes of students who are the receivers of information (one-direction). It focuses academic learning in the subjects of math, language, science, and social areas. This research takes the concept of the traditional school as described in Table 1 of the article *Finding the Contemporary in the Traditional* (Ludwig & LeCompte, 2015).

The New School This chapter introduces and describes the main features of the New School and the modes of learning from the Education for Sustainable Development. This chapter does not question, analyze, or compare them. It creates a framework for subsequent research that will attempt to objectify the consideration of spatial design as a facilitator of dynamics. That is why building the didactic profile of the New School is necessary from its most representative characteristics.

The twenty-first century has revealed the need to train people for a different purpose. Traditional teaching educates students in technical knowledge. The transformation that our planet is undergoing (Rifkin, 2019) has the relevant consequence of educating students in other competencies called soft skills (Schulz, 2008). Soft skills prepare people for real transformation scenarios in which they will have to face new problems and needs, for which sustainable development is essential. New pedagogical dynamics as project-based learning accompanies this new focus (Dewey, 2000).

One precursor of this new focus is the NGO Design for Change, which develops a pedagogical framework that provides tools for facing challenges to change the world (Ashoka, n.d.). In addition, different pedagogical proposals at various latitudes (Brown, 2009; Gray, 2015; Hernando, n.d.; High Tech High, n.d.; Immordino-Yang, 2015; OWP/P Architects, VS Furtniture, Bruce Mau Design, 2010; Secretaría de Innovación y Calidad Educativa, 2017; The LEGO Foundation, 2017; Wilson et al., 2013) have developed the following characteristics that can be qualified as coincident to the learning modes that the New School proposes: learning through projects, student autonomy, learning through competences, diversity in dynamics and activities (group and individual), collaborative processes, promoting creativity, play and motivation as learning resources, and the need to activate all senses.

Space Considerations in Education Attending, again, to the human-scale development theory (Max Neef, 2006; Max Neef et al., 1986), the architecture participates as a satisfactory means of attaining certain fundamental individual needs. In this theory, dwellings satisfy the combined condition for protection and living; meeting spaces achieve part of the combined need of affection and being; public recreational spaces, environments, and landscapes achieve the leisure-living duo; and the areas of formative interaction such as schools, colleges, and universities fulfill the combined goal for understanding and being.

This statement requires considering architectural space in social processes as something fundamental. The sociology of space as developed in the urban sphere (Gehl, 2011; Leal, 1997; Sennett, 1996) establishes that any social restructuring entails a revision of spatial qualities.

The sociology of spatial attributes (Leal, 1997) assumes space to organize our perceptions of social phenomena and to have a structuring character. However, despite the different nuances that various authors have developed in this field (Castells, 1996, 2009; Giddens, 1991; Gottdiener, 1994; Harvey, 1989; Kern, 1983; Leal, 1997; Lefebvre, 1976; Sennett, 1996; Simmel, 1908), space from the perspective of sociology is not conceived as something physical. It is a relational conception of social interactions. In other words, space is not accepted as an absolute reality but rather in its relationship with the temporal dimension.

Perkins (1957) observed that the architect who plans a school center would not have to think about future users of the building. He would have to think about the work that the building should help undertake with the full development of each students' potential at the center. Designers may be able to contribute to achieving educators' objectives by creating an educational environment as a tool for the teacher and an expression of the school's educational approach. They may be able to develop a state of mind that helps the student in each learning task and may be able to make the school a place the student wants to enter, an exciting and inspiring setting.

Recent studies on neuroeducation (Mora, 2013) that assume a holistic approach on the psychology of space (Moles & Rohmer, 1998) have established a direct relationship between the spatial qualities (topological, functional, material, and morphological) and learning. The designed space can be considered as a physical reality able to facilitate ESD. From the point of view of spatial quality, this premise elevates the relationships among educational space, school space, and pedagogical action. Thus, the research tries to qualify the sociological approaches of spatial attributes and the psychology of space to detect the design criteria for school space that can accompany the development of ESD. In other words, the main objective of this chapter is to identify criteria for designing reactive spaces and to facilitate a pedagogical model that promotes ESD.<sup>4</sup>

Methodology The presented research uses an inductive methodology that works with a specific analysis tool: the Mirregan-Todorov Method for Architectural Criticism (Miranda, 1999). This work uses the fourth stage of this method, which has already been proven and recognized (Amann, 2015, 2016), to set the evaluation criteria of the sample. This phase is known as poetic criticism and carries with it the previous stages of description, analysis, and interpretation.

A complex of large systems makes up a designed spatial object. Five stand out among these that are necessary or sufficient: topology or geometry, program or function, material or construction, morphology or shape, and context or conditions. This study also includes the educational context subsystem. These systems are not autonomous but interactive. These synergies and frictions between systems are what determine the character of a designed spatial object (Amann, 2015), in this case a school.

Poetic criticism delves into these interactions by extrapolating binary comparisons between systems and then returns to the complex vision of the totality.

This methodology has already been applied to the same objective with representative results. The present research takes that as a basis (Amann, 2016) for enabling a comparison. This comparison qualifies the process of the spatial evolution of educational spaces that have been attempted in ESDs over the last decade.

#### *Selecting Interactions and Evaluation Criteria*

A complete poetic criticism would lead to 30 interactions resulting from the combination of the aforementioned spatial systems with one another. This study develops only the systems that respond to the research objectives; these are taken as evaluation criteria of the research sample.

<sup>4</sup> For these purposes, see Morawietz's (2014) review of ESD objectives as a pedagogical model.

### *Topology System*

This system studies the space dimensions (i.e., number of students, movement possibilities, flexibility of the space, isolation possibilities, and versatility to engage different environments), the arrangement of its elements (i.e., how many elements it has, how they are positioned, are the elements fixed/mobile, can they be transformed, are they manipulable, do they have axes [relationship between the position of the teacher and students, relationship of students' position to one another, position of the door related to the elements]), and their scale.

#### *Function System*

This system studies the uses of space (i.e., is it used for unidirectional, bidirectional, or multidirectional communication; is it participatory, collaborative, individual, or group oriented; does it promote autonomous learning; does it use ICT), the functional flows (i.e., are they dynamic or static, is the space versatile, do the circulations respond to routine schemes), the available furniture elements (i.e., tables, chairs, cabinets, recreational elements, corners, and sports elements), and how they work (i.e., are they static/fixed, dynamic/malleable; do they allow evolution; are they manipulable in terms of age, do they open, and are they adaptable).

#### *Material System*

This system studies lighting (i.e., is it natural/artificial, what is its intensity/color/arrangement), environmental health conditions (i.e., humidity/temperature conditions, natural/artificial ventilation), and the finishing materials (i.e., textures, warmth, substance, and recycled/recyclable).

#### *Morphology System*

This system studies the space's shape (i.e., does it have angles or curves, is it open/closed, regular/irregular), color (i.e., monochrome/polychrome, is the color white predominant, does it have a thematic range), and aesthetic quality.

### *Context System*

This system studies the educational model (i.e., educational context subsystems); its cultural, social, and economic conditions; and boundary conditions.

#### *Research Sample*

In order to identify the criteria for the spatial design of New School educational centers that promote ESD development, this research selects three international schools representing these education models (i.e., participatory and interactive pedagogies that promote individual motivation, autonomy, critical thinking, creativity, responsible citizenship, respect for diversity, emotional abilities, and cognitive potential; the inclusion of sustainability values; and the use of ICT) as the sample. These schools were built during the 2010–2020 decade, which is within the framework of the objectives of UNESCO and the UN on developing ESD (UN, 2002, 2015; UNESCO, 2014).

The case selection follows three criteria that favor the methodology: (a) schools at different educational levels; (b) schools at different latitudes and from different cultures; and (c) schools that attempt pedagogical models following the New School and the values of ESD.

Additionally, the study works on specific and updated sources (Casqueiro, 2014; Dillon et al., 2016; Dudek, 2007; Dwight et al., 2016; Nair, 2014; Nedved & Zámeˇcníková, 2014; Perkins & Kliment, 2001; School Buildings and Design Unit, 2003; Verstegen, 2008; Wright & Beard, 2006). The sample cases are as follows.<sup>5</sup>

## *Vittra School Brotorp*<sup>6</sup>

Location: Brotorp, Sweden. Founded: 2012. Educational stage: Elementary School and Middle School. Pedagogical model: Swedish Educational System. Designer: Rosan Bosch.

<sup>5</sup> The tables identify the following selected cases: Case A—Vittra School Brotorp; Case B—Ramat Chen Arts & Science Elementary School; Case C—West Academy of Beijing.

<sup>6</sup> Architectural space reference: Rosan Bosch Studio: http://www.rosanbosch.com/.

## *Ramat Chen Arts & Science Elementary School*<sup>7</sup>

Location: Ramat Gan, Israel. Founded: 2014. Educational stage: Elementary School. Pedagogical model: Ramat Gan Educational System. Designer: Sarit Shani Hay.

## *West Academy of Beijing (WAB)*<sup>8</sup>

Location: Beijing, China. Founded: 2019. Educational stage: Secondary and High School. Pedagogical model: FLoW21 (WAB, n.d.). Designer: Rosan Bosch.

Results The results from applying poetic criticism to the studied sample are presented in a total of six subsections taking into account the axes of interaction between the previously established systems. The interpretation of the results allows each case to advance the design criteria for a reactive space of the pedagogical model (EDS).

#### *Design Criteria for a Reactive Space in the Pedagogical Model (EDS)*

*Design Criteria from Studying the Interactions Between the Educational Context-Topology Systems (see Table 1)*

*All spaces are potential spaces for learning.* In this sense, spaces are also projected. Spatial structures are as flexible as possible because the entire space is considered space for pedagogy. Learning does not just happen in the classroom. This fact appears strongly in the circulation spaces that become an extension of the class, as referenced when talking about learning streets (Hertzberger, 2008).

*The scale of the elements is with respect to the scale of the student*. Changes are perceived in the design linked to the EDS pedagogical models. The interior design, very inclusive, suits the proportions of the space to the age of the users. It also adapts the scale and ergonomics of the furniture.

<sup>7</sup> Architectural space reference: Sarit Shani Hay Studio: http://shanihay.com/.

<sup>8</sup> Architectural space reference: Rosan Bosch Studio: http://www.rosanbosch.com/.

*Educational context-topology interaction*

Meanwhile, the dimensions and heights of the windows, doors, sinks, mirrors, shelves, and switches enhance students' initiative, participation, and autonomy.

*The need for a larger development surface that allows movement*. The promotion of learning through creative play, social interaction, and natural expression requires a large space that allows movement. It is about fostering a broader catalog of places and corners, some for collective activities and others in which concentration and individual learning are possible. Educational models consistent with ESD promote collaborative work in both large and small groups for cognitive development. Therefore, the need exists to design spaces that can accommodate activities such as dialogue and criticism, negotiation, approachability, and problemsolving. In this way, designers increase the dimension of the classroom and the fluidity of the communal spaces. The traditional one-chair-andtable-for-each model is replaced by the flexible learning environment that allows diversity, movement, and opportunities with the aim of developing twenty-first-century skills.

*Design Criteria from Studying the Interactions Between the Educational Context-Function Systems (see Table 2)*

*Adapting the spatial program to the educational model and specific contextual needs*. The internal usage structure is where the interaction between a specific pedagogical system and the spatial quality of the designed space is detected. In the case studies analyzed, spatial diversity refers to complex educational uses that work on different forms of learning. In this sense, the interaction between the educational context and function is essential. Designers develop spaces that enable a specific form of the learning experience. The traditional teaching model supports its passive way of learning using a space designed with a rigid and orderly structure, while the educational model of the New School relies on a flexible environment at the programmatic level for its development. This flexibility does not refer to an open-space plan but to a collective space where teachers and students choose where, when, and how they learn. A rigid space does not limit pedagogy anymore. The appearance of a series of *landscapes for learning* or new uses can be defined that respond to the educational needs of ESD:

**Table 2** Sample of the results from the interactions between the educational context-function systems

**Landscape for oratory**. The spatial design allows a student or teacher to address a group and share their ideas.

**Landscape for introspection**. The spatial design allows individual concentration and reflection.

**Landscape for the collaborative process**. The spatial design allows work in small groups to develop a collaborative exploration.

**Landscape for the unexpected**. The spatial design allows the succession of unexpected and variable activities that inspire and motivate the learning moment.

**Landscape for movement**. The spatial design integrates movement as a principal factor in the learning activity.

*Design Criteria from Studying the Interactions Between the Educational Context-Material Systems (see Table 3)*

*The physical characteristics of the materials as an element of stimulation*. Space design can combine light, color, textures, sound, smell, and temperature to achieve a microclimate conducive to learning, one that is stimulating, surprising, comfortable, and familiar. The environment that arises from a school's central-space design can be added as a pedagogical tool, adapting both to the pedagogical model and to each teaching figure. The New School seeks to stimulate the five senses (The LEGO Foundation, 2017). Traditional learning uses only the senses of sight and hearing. However, putting the rest of the senses at the service of education gets the whole brain working. The better a student can synchronize their senses on a moment of attention, the better they learn. In this way, students move through space using all their senses, because a changing environment invites them at the level of stimuli to move differently and activates the senses. Thus, using natural light whenever possible is mandatory. Additionally, changes in lighting can indicate spaces that have different activities. Meanwhile, designers use sound-absorbing materials to minimize or help adapt to the impact of noise. According to the psychology of color and sensory activation, the use of chromatics is fundamental. Lastly, the tactility of the materials invites the student to interact in a variety of ways (some textures are suitable for rest and reflection while others activate movement).

*Using the physical characteristics of materials as an element of action*. Educational models that represent ESD values and criteria operate with multiple forms of exploration and representation. These pedagogies integrate visual arts as an instrument for cognitive, linguistic, and social development. To enable this active form of learning, space (i.e., its furniture and equipment) must be capable of hosting activities such **Table 3** Sample of results from the interaction between the educational context-material systems

*Educational context-material interactions*

*Educational context-material interactions*

as theater, music, painting, construction, and sports. This conditioning factor also directly affects the need to design environments with versatile and specialized surfaces.

*Linking design strategies to technological development and sustainability*. Learning incorporates ICT naturally. The design of the space integrates technology usage as a context and learning resource from a humanistic perspective. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, this condition acquires increasing importance due to education incorporating the mixed face-to-face, virtual online formats at high speed.

*Linking design strategies to environmental sustainability*. The research was unable to prove this condition, instead of adding it as an inherent duty to ESD. Design strategies of the New School must promote the use of materials with a sustainable path, both in the manufacturing and assembly process as well as in their useful life and versatility. The sustainable development of the planet will thus be integrated not only in students' education but also in the space developed for it.

*Design Criteria from Studying the Interactions Between the Educational Context-Morphology Systems (see Table 4)*

*The morphology of the interior design of the school becomes a landscape for learning*. As already mentioned, pedagogies following the New

**Table 4** Sample of the results from the interactions between the educational context-morphology systems

**Table 5** Sample of results from the interactions between the topology-function systems

School and the EDS model require new learning spaces that the traditional educational model does not contemplate. The new, more advanced models seek to create a total-learning space. In order to achieve this, both the layout and content of the school space become protagonists of this change. School architecture can be a learning landscape. In this space, each element formalizes a pedagogical stimulus, and the interior and exterior of the classrooms create strong connections. Sometimes even the limits between the class and the circulation area disappear or become transitional spaces that host other activities (See the series of **Landscape** sub-headings and the *Design Criteria from Studying the Interactions Between the Educational Context-Function Systems* section previously in this chapter).

*Design Criteria from Studying the Interactions Between the Topology-Function Systems (see Table 5)*

*New ways of learning lead to modified usage of certain spaces and elements*. The circulation space or corridor becomes a space for relationships (i.e., a learning street; Hertzberger, 2008) and a space for both collective and individual work. In this way, learning continues outside the classroom. To enable this action, the design of the communal circulation space has great importance in design projects for school spaces that develop a pedagogical model following the values and criteria of the New School and ESD. However, these spaces acquire more dimension. Meanwhile, designers plan topology in detail; they no longer have to design a linear structure but can develop more stimulating, more organic geometries. In addition, the projects include both materials and furniture that promote the activities proposed in each case. However, learning streets are not the only spatial structure that modifies its use. Sometimes precisely interrupting the continuity of the relationship space, steps are secondly found to be a transition space, as opposed to stairs that join separate floors of the building. This topological element is not new, but its function is. Recent school architectures use these slopes as a meeting place for equals to encourage children to understand this space as an element of rest and not just as a circulation structure. The design uses generous dimensions, diverse geometries, and warm materials such as wood or textiles that help create an environment of comfort. Designers propose these spaces for activities such as public speaking, the development of free work, or social exchange.

## *Design Criteria from Studying the Interactions Between the Context-Function Systems*

*Understanding schools as a sociocultural facility*. This criterion is closely related to the sociocultural and economic contexts, which is essential to include in this list due to its correspondence with the development of ESD values and criteria. This criterion proposes the school center as a facility that provides service not only to the students but also to the community. Incorporating cultural facilities for the neighborhood can stimulate the integration, inclusion, and respect for diversity that ESD promulgates in addition to the capacities and values of its specific use. In this sense, this design criterion is presented as a desirable condition.

### *General Design Criteria from a Complex View*

In the previous points, the research listed possible criteria for designing reactive school spaces in educational models related to the values of the New School and ESD. These criteria are inferred from the study of synergies between pairs of systems that make up a school architecture. Next, the research will return to the complex vision of the totality to highlight two essential criteria.

*Multifunctional spaces structure the school center*. The space for the New School and EDS is versatile in its dimensions and proportions; in other words, they are suitable for adaptation. To achieve this, the plan is designed flexibly and openly, and designers use multipurpose material for its construction, cladding, and surfaces, as well as furniture elements. Thus, the spaces are organized with light structures that allow mobility and transformation in different situations and ways of learning. In addition to this ephemeral condition of the spatial organization, the design adds adaptive lighting and acoustic conditions linked to the criteria of sustainability and energy saving.

*Designing spatial conditions of the school to attract attention and be an active element of the learning process*. As Hertzberger (2008) stated, space design can set spatial units of appropriate dimensions to accommodate proper types of relationships among users. In this sense, how space is articulated is a decisive design factor. For example, this condition determines whether the created space will be suitable for the activity of a single large group or if it will be suitable for use by several different and smaller groups, or even individually. The more articulated the space, the smaller the spatial unit. And the more focal points there are, the more activities can be exercised simultaneously by different groups of users. Several elements allow the construction of an articulated and balanced space: the ramps and steps, the focal points, doubled heights, and crossed views, the control of light and acoustics, or the arrangement of materials. These all influence the use of space.

Applying poetic criticism to the design of school centers has led to the following general conclusions. A correlation exists between the educational model and the school space that hosts it, and the interaction between the educational context and spatial design occurs bidirectionally. Thus, the development of a specific educational model requires an accordant school space, and its construction results in promoting diverse stimuli for learning. This implies that establishing reactive design criteria of the corresponding pedagogical model for a designed space appears possible. When applied to the case of the New School, a series of qualities can be indicated for the reality of the school space that, by themselves, will positively accompany the development of pedagogies following the values and criteria of the New School and ESD.

Discussion The results provided by this research establish that a careful interaction between education and the design of spaces leads to the development of school centers that strengthen the pedagogical proposals of contemporary, innovative, and advanced educational models that reflect the title of the New School. Space designs follow an ESD in which the main conditions stimulate students' creativity, critical thinking, autonomy, and cognitive and emotional capacities, as well as participatory and collective actions in balance with the moments of individual reflection and education in sustainable developmental values.

A correlation can be established in the relationship between the pedagogical model and the spatial quality of the educational space. In this sense, the research achieves the objective of identifying design criteria for a designed space that activates pedagogical models related to ESD.

Learning spaces/landscapes can be indicated as being able to activate the occurrence of learning. The design of these spaces is principal in each student's learning experience. That is also why these spatial landscapes must be dynamic and flexible with respect to the diverse and specific needs of each student and learning stage.

This research confirms that learning spaces can become active promoters of the educational journey as part of the ecosystem of the educational model, leaving behind the traditional structures of one-way pedagogy. Physical spaces can be designed and adapted to support a contemporary pedagogy, focusing above all on the development of skills.

Limitations of the Study The strength of these conclusions in turn becomes the limitations of the work. Thus, the point of the discussion appears. The values and criteria of ESD speak of sustainability, creativity, diversity, interactivity, and participation. These are values that, according to the results obtained in this work, are directly translated into flexible, versatile, and multifunctional design spaces. Nonetheless, normative conditions can be specified for New School designs. The design criteria are necessarily open and flexible precisely because the educational model with which it seeks correspondence is also open and flexible. The design criteria do not condition the space when they don't establish a space without preconditions in the sense of avoiding any structure that stiffens it. The possibility of establishing a series of design criteria for the construction of educational spaces seems to set a correlation between the physical reality of a place and its specific educational function. This work indicates that a spatial design is an element that activates a response in the user. Space requires the user to be activated and thus needs to be perceived. Therefore, its role is to be a reactive element that consciously influences users' perceptions.

# Conclusions

The obtained results show that, in the New School context, both students and teachers understand the space from new potentialities that look for innovative interactions. Learning does not occur linearly. Therefore, the educational place considers complexity and richness to support learning experience and understanding. School and its spatial design become a place for experimentation, perception, exploration, and non-hierarchical relationships. The spatial environment induces functions that facilitate movement and promote the efficient execution of tasks.

# References

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# Twenty-First-Century Teacher Competencies and Trends in Teacher Training

## *Arife Gümü¸s*

Many studies have expressed the central position teachers have in successful education. Teachers' personal and professional characteristics are critical for students' learning, harmonious communication skills, and adaptation to the requirements of the age in which one lives, starting with self-adaptation. With digitalization accelerating and technology having become an important part of daily life these days, significant and rapid changes are experienced on social and global scales. Efforts to improve education systems and transform them with radical reforms in order to healthily respond to technology-centered rapid changes constitute the agendas of many countries from different economic levels. The organization of teacher education is a central issue in efforts to improve and strengthen education systems. Considering the importance education has both in ensuring society's adaptation to the changing conditions and in countries' efforts to reach local strategic goals, many studies are found on teachers' responsibilities and the skills they should have in order to fulfill these responsibilities.

© The Author(s) 2022

Y. Alpaydın and C. Demirli (eds.), *Educational Theory in the 21st Century*, Maarif Global Education Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9640-4\_11

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A. Gümü¸s (B)

Ibn Khaldun University, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Expectations about teacher competencies have been important in every period of world history. The proficiency criteria created with different motivations have also been determinant regarding teachers' social status, responsibilities, and areas of authority. Societies' values, priorities, goals, and economic structure have been among the determining factors in perspectives on teachers and what is expected from education in every period of history. However, because digitalization these days has impacted these determinants, the issue of education in general and teachers in particular has to be addressed under new dimensions. Repositioning all individuals and institutions involved in the organization of education to take and reviewing educations' basic concepts and theories have become essential. As an important issue of the period when this study was written, the COVID-19 pandemic has been a period when all studies have analyzed digitalization in the field of education and the new functions education should have. Changes in many areas such as new forms of communication, the transformations in the classroom and the school, the diversity of educational resources, the flexibility of curricula, management styles, learner profiles, and parent profiles have led to discussions on how to develop and update teachers' skills. What makes a good teacher? What makes learning meaningful and relevant? Which learning methods and principles are critical for an employable generation to achieve the economic level wanted by society? What constitutes the main motivation for today's teacher competencies? What knowledge and skills teachers have and should have and in which educational atmosphere will they use their knowledge and skills are fundamental questions. Therefore, teachers can be said to be faced with an unusual proficiency scale, both for the healthy functioning of education and for the ability to manage the skills students are expected to have in the future.

While the new forms of relationships established in the twenty-first century have completely reconstructed education, teachers are also evaluated according to the competency standards formulated as twenty-firstcentury skills. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) views twenty-first-century skills as critical for keeping up with the new forms in the knowledge-based society and ensuring employability in the new economic order (OECD, 2009). Reform studies in education have become inevitable for responding to the new social and economic needs of society.

# Overcoming the Challenges of the Digital

Revolution in Education Systems The way the digital world presents information, particularly with the great impact artificial intelligence (AI) technologies have on all informational processes, has created a new learning environment. This learning environment, which points to a certain spatiality in the current education literature, has gained a new dimension in the digital world. This world represents unlimited, multilingual, multicultural truths defined with different motivations and has created new areas of discussion not only about the learning environment but also on critical issues such as the nature, sources, and truth of knowledge. While online learning processes have been vital for the continuation of education during the COVID-19 process and are an important practice for the future of learning environments, they are also a test process that has revealed new areas of discussion. By containing important clues about the physical conditions of tomorrow's school and classroom, this experience obviously will also be a pioneer in matters such as how to create and present education curricula.

The relationship information technologies establish with education is actually a reflection of the entire society on education. When dealing with education, today's learners prefer the new learning style known as digital learning. Therefore, knowledge management and the ability to problem-solve using computers have become mandatory for today's learners (OECD, 2016). New technologies have students residing in an area constructed with an unlimited variety of learning tools where they keep everything at their fingertips and are able to easily access different cultures, beliefs, and information. Students' ability to easily access unlimited information resources can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It has the potential to turn into an area where students can increase their desire to learn and facilitate their learning or, when not managed properly, can be an area that exposes them to harmful content and causes them to fail at managing their time. Contrary to expectations, Internet addiction, having become a significant issue for adults, may adversely affect the opportunities of digital learning because, while some studies show families expect the Internet to increase their children's academic success and future job opportunities (Ortiz et al., 2011), other findings show youths to use technology for entertainment rather than school responsibilities (Becker, 2000). Teenagers use the Internet for games, chatting, and social networks; a significant increase in technology use has occurred among young children as old as 8 (Schleicher, 2019). Among the subjects studied is the effect technology use has on students' imagination and learning skills. In particular, some studies have shown handwriting to be more effective in the development and productivity of the human brain than typing with a keyboard (Beringer, 2009; Bounds, 2010). As a result, the type of technology and its use can be said to determine its effects (Bavelier et al., 2010).

Social media accounts as the entertainment centers of technology are among the new learner profile's areas of difficulty. Spending more time on social media accounts can negatively affect students' social life, health, and academic success. Opposite these disadvantages are also found advantages such as encouraging independent learning, making learning fun, enabling students to plan their life by providing access to education without going to school, preparing students for the future, facilitating and encouraging learning together, and saving time accessing information (Aggarwal, 2000; Bhakta & Dutta, 2016). This process has turned into a challenge for students and made having teachers balance students use of technology inevitable as their primary goal.

The distance between theory and practice is seen to have narrowed in the learning process through new technologies. The theoretical structure of curricula will become open to practical areas by taking advantage of technology's opportunities. People and institutions will be able to transfer concepts and theories to the classroom with more accessible evidence beyond books and other written sources. Abstract topics that are difficult to grasp will become easier to understand and learning will become more enjoyable. Both national and international sharing will become possible. As new learning styles for students, these changes will also become sources of new teaching styles for teachers. These changes require teachers to be more prepared and more versatile than ever and will force them to plan their lessons on a national and international scale by collaborating more with students and colleagues in the learning-teaching process.

Social media is a powerful communication tool of the digital world and has significantly changes society in many ways. In particular, changes in language, culture, values, and lifestyle are areas of change that can be observed with the naked eye. Profiles with multiple followers, known as influencers in social media, can present themselves as role models offering identities, fashions, and lifestyles for young people and even adults (Alpaydın, 2018). For this reason, having representations of information, people, ideas, values, and facts on social media that the education system wants to place in the world of students for raising awareness has become inevitable (Alpaydın, 2018). Teachers will need support in order to attract the attention of their students who listen to fun, lively, and colorful speakers through social media channels and to produce materials in a style and content appropriate to the students' jargon (Fullan & Langworthy, 2014).

Saying the knowledge-intensive economy is the main motivation for the education system reforms of the twenty-first century would not be wrong because education is an important investment tool in human capital. When considering the great importance human capital has for a society, the process we are in is one in which we have to meticulously analyze the type of educational understanding in which the future workforce should be trained. The educational policies designed today are critically important for sustainable and strong economic growth. In this respect, the general perspective in Turkey focuses on providing in-demand vocational skills and quality to this vocational training to prepare people for the labor market. Turkey's educational policies are seen to be shaped according to this perspective, and the demands from families develop in this direction (Ta¸sdemir et al., 2019). The workforce of the future being an important determinant in education planning is inevitable. However, robots with artificial intelligence will obviously have a greater place in production in a knowledge-intensive economy. The process we are going through requires preparing for future professions that do not exist yet and also reveals that some existing professions will become useless over time. Ta¸sdemir et al. (2019) stated that people will have difficulty working in the same sector or doing the same job for a long time in a period where creatively destructive processes and sectoral shifts will be experienced much more frequently. Therefore, raising a society with the skills and equipment is essential for ensuring its adaptation to these structural changes. Here, the main responsibility is generally given to education systems, particularly to teachers. Bozgeyikli (2019) stated that teachers should aim to provide their students with the ability to learn any skill quickly and effectively rather than specific professional knowledge.

Based on the studies conducted after individually discussing the basic motivations of twenty-first-century skills (Applied Education Systems [AES], 2019; Partnership for twenty-first-Century Learning [P21], 2015; Trilling & Fadel, 2009; Wagner, 2008), learners' twenty-first-century skills can be listed as follows (Fig. 1).

**Fig. 1** Twenty-first-century learner skills

As an opportunity of new technology, easy access to information can cause an information overload for learners who access too much information at once. The need obviously exists for new skills in accessing, evaluating, and organizing information in the digital environment. In order for learners to survive information overload, they must develop the capacity to make correct inferences, strong analyses, and accurate evaluations. Critical thinking skills are essential for this, allowing one to be able to evaluate issues from different perspectives and gain interdisciplinary learning ability (P21, 2015). While creativity expresses thinking outside the box and being open to innovations (Brookhart, 2010), collaboration means effectively working with others in harmony by creating a common goal and working harmoniously toward that goal (AES, 2019). Communication as a learning skill refers to speaking with others about ideas, solutions, questions, and problems clearly and understandably. Both OECD' 2030 Learning Compass and the Council of Europe's Recommendation CM/REC (2018) highlight learning and higher level thinking, socio-emotional skills, and creativeness. The OECD 2030 Learning Compass identifies these competencies as key to meeting the hardships of a unsteady, uncertain, and complicated world that uses digital mediums and artificial intelligence (Council of Europe, 2013; OECD, 2018).

Information, media, and technological literacy are critical for students' to be able to distinguish reality from fiction, access correct information, and reach necessary and useful information.

Life skills are important for students' academic development, social life, and personality development and include flexibility in adapting to changing conditions; not making change an obstacle; setting goals, establishing a team in line with these goals, and collaborating with the team; being entrepreneurial in making projects, strategies, and plans on one's own; being efficient in completing work on time; meeting with others around common goals or benefits; and forming networks (AES, 2019).

Schools are central in learners acquiring twenty-first-century skills. Both families and students need school support regarding adapting to change, efficiently and effectively using technology, and preparing for the future because families' technological literacy and ability to receive and organize information may be insufficient. However, the fact that access to technology still requires a certain level of welfare is another limitation. When schools cannot provide sufficient support in this sense, the inequality gap in the society may widen. In general, school and teacher performance will be effective in reducing inequalities and highlighting the advantages of technology use (Gottschalk, 2019).

# Twenty-First-Century Teacher Qualifications

Concepts such as information processing, reasoning, questioning, critical thinking, and problem solving in relation to twenty-first-century skills include some familiar skills that have been at the center of school learning for many years while the basic framework of teacher competencies is determined by the characteristics of qualified teachers and what competencies they need (European Commission, 2013). Changes in social life, economy, and educational environments are compelling motivations for what qualifications teachers should have.

Many studies are found to specifically have tried limiting the competencies twenty-first-century teachers should have (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Landmann, 2013). Importantly, many of these studies have confirmed the point of convergence between teacher education and the needs of schools to often lay in teachers' competences (Day, 2002; Landmann, 2013). The global reality fraught with social and technological changes forces one to rethink schools' role in the future and which skills twenty-first-century teachers should possess.

The impact of information and communication technologies is remarkable in terms of twenty-first-century skills. When teachers have better problem-solving skills in environments with good technological opportunities, students also have better problem-solving skills and performance in math (OECD, 2019a). The focus has always been on the powerful effects teachers' competencies have on student achievement. The effects from teachers explain 75% of the effect school has on student achievement (Rivkin et al., 2005). Therefore, teachers' effective use of new technology in the classroom will also effect both students' skill development and turn disadvantage into advantage by producing alternatives for students with longer more challenging learning processes.

Being a good learner is among the most basic needs a teacher should have. This is the prerequisite for students' learning, creativeness, and openness to development and change. Having teachers strengthen their teaching practices, monitor innovations in their field, and share these effectively with their students is critical in terms of having students adapt to areas of change such as the above-mentioned changing social life, new student profile, changing educational environment, and new economic order.

Various studies have been carried out globally by institutions and countries' ministries of education on twenty-first-century teacher skills. The European Commission (2005) stated within the framework of European Qualifications in its report "Common European Principles for Teacher Competences and Qualifications" that education and training contribute to the economic and cultural aspects of the information society and therefore should be seen within their social contexts. According to the report, teachers should be able to (Table 1).

The European Commission draws attention to the fact that pre-service training will not be sufficient for teachers to gain the qualifications stated here and that teachers must acquire a professional lifelong learning habit aimed at professional development. In this direction, the European Commission shared the following recommendations with policy makers and practitioners:

**Table 1** "Common European Principles for Teacher Competences and Qualifications" that education and training contribute to the economic and cultural aspects of the information society

*Source* European Commission (2005)

	- It is important that teachers have graduated from a higher education institution or equivalent. It is critical that those who become teachers in the field of basic vocational education are qualified and have the necessary teaching skills.
	- To secure their place in the European higher education arena and to increase opportunities for career advancement and mobility within the profession, teacher education programs should be offered in all three cycles of higher education.
	- Practices based on evidence and research should be encouraged for the development of new knowledge about education and training.
	- Aiming to ensure the continuous development of teachers, subject-based and pedagogical education-oriented activities for lifelong learning should be planned. The content of initial and continuing professional development programs should reflect the importance of interdisciplinary and collaborative approaches to learning.
	- Mobility projects for teachers are an integral part of initial and continuing professional development programs. Mobility should be facilitated and encouraged for all teachers.
	- It is important that initial and continuing professional development programs are supported by European cooperation knowledge and experience so that teachers can respect and value cultural diversity and train their students to be EU citizens and responsible for all humanity.
	- Opportunities to study European languages, including the use of specialist vocabulary, should be available and encouraged during initial teacher education and in continuing professional development programs.
	- Cooperation between institutions where teachers will be employed and higher education institutions that train teachers should be increased. In order for the education process to be carried out effectively and efficiently, the development of innovation networks on a global and local scale should be encouraged.

Teacher competencies indicated in research on measuring and teaching twenty-first-century skills that twenty-first-century teachers should have are shared in four groups:

	- Creativity and innovation
	- Critical thinking, problem solving, decision making
	- Learning to learn
	- Information literacy
	- Information and communication technologies literacy
	- Contact
	- Collaboration/teamwork
	- Local and global citizenship
	- Life and career
	- Personal and social responsibilities

Teachers' thinking skills, relationship with knowledge, problem-solving skills, and innovative attitude are seen as necessary competencies for teachers to be able to develop strategies in accordance with students' situations and learning environment and for meaningful learning to take place. Since teaching is characterized by ambiguity, teachers need adaptable mastery, such as the capability to adapt their plans and practices to fulfill students' learning requirements (Hatano & Oura, 2003; Vogt & Rogalla, 2009). Using information literacy and information communication technologies correctly within the scope of working tools is important for accessing and organizing information as well as distinguishing the right information and being a producer of information in the unlimited world that information communication technologies provide in accessing information.

Communication skills form an important part of teachers' skill sets, and their being inclined toward cooperation/teamwork is critical for them to be able to perform the requirements of the profession. Strong awareness of the impact the stakeholders in the learning field have on meaningful learning emphasizes the importance of gaining the habit of working collaboratively in proportion to a teacher's communication skills. The ability of the learning atmosphere to offer safe, flexible, innovative, and rich content is closely related to how good a team leader a teacher is. Therefore, having teachers cover all roles by fully understanding and distributing the potential of the whole team starting with themself is important (Caena, 2017).

Having teachers maintain their professional development is very important both for increasing educational performance and effectiveness as well as for increasing teachers' commitment, identity, and job satisfaction. Teachers also need to be able to keep up with scientific, pedagogical, and technological developments in their world; to closely follow the needs of a society in constant change; to seek the best for their world; and to view serving society as a responsibility.

Studies on twenty-first-century teacher competencies (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Feiman-Nemser, 2001, 2008; Geijsel et al., 2009; González & Wagenaar, 2005; Hagger & McIntyre, 2006; Hatano & Oura, 2003; Kelly & Grenfell, 2004; Krauss et al., 2008; Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Williamson McDiarmid & Clevenger-Bright, 2008) have shown the main motivation of competencies to be increasing people's employability in the twenty-first-century economic structure. These studies show promoting technology-supported learning in a knowledge-intensive economic structure to be a priority for teachers.

International measurement tools (e.g., Programme for International Student Assessment [PISA], Teaching and Learning International Survey [TALIS]) and studies such as the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area, as well as societies being more demanding about education, encourage policy makers and practitioners all over the world to improve the quality of education. In particular, the establishment of international competence frameworks by institutions such as the European Commission and OECD, and the emphasis on the critical role teachers have in educational success have brought teacher education reforms to the agenda.

# The Effects of Twenty-First-Century Teacher

Competencies on Teacher Education Increasing employability in competitive economic structures that can adapt to the changing world, equipping countries' workforces with global competitiveness, and the foreseen requirements of future professions have forced countries to reform teacher education. The literature on various models of teacher education in different parts of the world provides content on the reforms and policies being pursued in the field of teacher education. Examples of policies are found in the literature such as teacher recruitment, recruitment procedures, and school-university cooperation (Akiba, 2013; Bruno-Jofré & Johnston, 2014; Darling-Hammond & Lieberman, 2012; Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015; Livingston & Flores, 2017; O'Donoghue & Whitehead, 2008).

Current debates on education have brought significant changes to the nature of the teaching profession. Technological pedagogical knowledge has also been added to discussions on content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge (Baumert et al., 2010; Shulman, 1987). The framework of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) argues effective technology integration for teaching specific content or topics to require understanding and negotiating the relationships among technology, pedagogy, and content (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 2010).

The influence of international organizations and publications has been significant in the discussions on updating teacher training. Organizations draw attention to the problems experienced in world education systems through annual reports and also publish policy reports on how to deal with these problems. As one of these institutions, OECD (2019a) proposed an education model in a report on teacher education. The document shared information on the steps and content suggestions for pre-service and in-service teacher trainings and presented suggestions on the structure and functioning of the institutions. OECD proposed organizing teacher training on two main axes (i.e., pre-service and in-service training processes). The steps of pre-service education consist of initially selecting teacher education, development through initial teacher education, and introduction to teaching. OECD recommended making the profession attractive to candidates when they initially select teaching as an education and choosing the most suitable candidates among those selecting the profession. After the pre-service teacher is included in the process, preparatory programs must be presented in a high-quality manner so as to equip them with the things they need to know and do during the initial teacher education. The third step of the pre-service training is the certification and recruitment of new teachers during the introduction to teaching. OECD emphasized the need for higher education reform to support new teachers in the first years of their profession as one of the two important steps of in-service training. The second important step is professional development.

Today, OECD's teacher education model shares common features with the models drawn up by many countries for teacher education strategy documents and has been adapted to the teacher education systems of Australia, Japan, Netherlands, Korea, Norway, and United States (OECD, 2019b).

Another study (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2021) showed the current situation of teachers in Europe handled within the framework of twenty-first-century skills. The report focused on teacher preparation, continuing professional development, and analyzing the current situation in Europe.

Requirements such as teachers' content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, communication skills, information organization, and leadership in line with twenty-first-century teacher skills classifications mean teachers must have a high level of education. In the 2008 Report on Teacher Education in Europe, the European Trade Union Committee for Education (ETUCE) believed today's teachers should receive a master's degree in order to fulfill what is expected of them. After the 1970s in Finland, teachers' having a master's degree was adopted among teacher requirements except for preschool due to the understanding of teachers focusing on research, critical thinking, and scientific skills in teacher employment as a requirement for university-based education; preschool and kindergarten teachers are required to have a bachelor's degree (Shalberg, 2010). Finnish teacher education is in line with the European Higher Education Area (2009) framework, which has been built under the continuous Bologna Process. Currently, Finnish universities offer a two-cycle degree program. The three-year compulsory undergraduate program is followed by the two-year graduate program. These two degrees are presented in multidisciplinary programs comprising of studies in at least two subjects. Studies are counted by credit units within the framework of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS), which is used in 46 European countries. ECTS is built on the assumption that 60 credits measure the amount of work of a full-time student during an academic year, and each ECTS credit corresponds to approximately 25–30 study hours. Teacher training standards are 180 ECTS credits for a bachelor's degree, followed by 120 ECTS credits for a master's degree. Successful completion of a master's degree in teaching (including a bachelor's degree) usually follows five to seven-and-a-half years. Finnish teachers with master's degrees are entitled to engage in postgraduate studies to support their professional development. Many teachers make use of the occasion to pursue doctoral studies in education, often while at the same time teaching at school (European Commission, 2013).

A qualified teacher education requires theoretical and practical vocational education in addition to academic subjects. According to TALIS 2018 results, around 70% of all teachers in the EU reported having received training in all three basic elements (subject content, general and subject-related pedagogy, and classroom practice). Nevertheless, this rate was below 60% in Spain, France, and Italy. The new generation of teachers (under 35 years old) seem to benefit more from extensive teacher training in comparison with the general teacher population. In the EU, 75% of young teachers have completed formal education or training including all three basic elements (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2021). The teaching practice has been recognized as an integral part of the teacher education curriculum for preparing teachers based on the major reform initiatives to strengthen teacher education in China. The plan is to have pre-service teachers practice teaching for at least 18 weeks (equivalent to one semester) under the supervision of teachers selected for their strong understanding of duty and rich experience. Turkey has always given importance to practical experience in teacher education. In Turkey, teacher candidates can go to schools as interns, make observations, and teach under the supervision of an experienced teacher for the sake of school experience, usually from 2nd grade onward.

Pre-service teacher education has similar characteristics around the world. Pre-service teachers learn the relevant discipline and follow courses in educational sciences and vocational education (Robinson & Mogliacci, 2019). The impact twenty-first-century skills have on teacher education can be traced in general terms through a country's policies. In particular, information and communication technologies are central in almost all countries. Policy makers and teachers are aware that education systems cannot keep up with or cope with the changes brought about by the digital revolution.

Strengthening teachers' digital skills through in-service training is available in almost every country's education strategy documents. TALIS 2018 revealed 93% of secondary-school teachers in EU countries to have participated in at least one type of professional development activity in the 12 months preceding the survey. Before COVID-19, teachers often followed a course/seminar in person, read professional literature, or attended an educational conference (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2021). When examining the three proficiency areas of the general teaching profession prepared by Turkey's Ministry of National Education (MoNE), they can be said to be largely compatible with international standards. Although no direct expression of competence for digital skills is found, MoNE has conducted an interdisciplinary project for teachers of mathematics, science, physics, chemistry, biology, Turkish, social sciences, and geography courses in the 2023 Education Vision Document that was shared with the public in October 2018. This document stated that face-to-face workshop training will be given in areas such as 3D design and smart devices (MoNE, 2018a). Developing content for improving digital skills and providing teacher training to increase teachers' digital skills are among the 2023 Education Vision targets. MoNE aims to use digital materials as the main teaching material, to associate digital materials with printed materials, and to provide support materials to teachers regarding their effective use. According to the 2023 Education Vision Document, leading teachers to develop digital learning materials will be supported and encouraged (MoNE, 2018a). The development of teachers' language and technology skills are found among the common goals of the last five years in MoNE's (2018b) in-service training programs. China pursues policies that rotate teachers between urban and rural schools to overcome problems of quality disparities in teaching power. In order to ensure the quality of teaching, the practice of assigning assistant teacher educators at schools was designed (Li et al., 2019). China plans financial incentives to encourage the teaching profession, especially for rural people to be able to access quality education. In China, the state tries to correct the imbalance by taking measures to improve the quality of teachers in rural areas. The most striking of the large-scale in-service teacher training projects China has initiated is the National Education Project for Secondary and Primary School Teachers implemented in 2010 with significant funding from the central government. Two sub-projects were carried out within the scope of the project: one for training reform and innovation examples and the other for producing teachers equipped for rural schools. In total, 18 institutions and educational institutions have signed contracts to offer training courses ranging from 10 to 15 days for 27,000 school teachers in different status such as branch teachers and classroom supervisors. New Zealand organizes in-service programs focusing on core competencies in teacher education (European Commission, 2013).

Mobility is recognized as an important requirement in teacher training. According to a report from the European commission (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2021):

Within the scope of measures to increase teacher qualifications, the European Commission (2013) report mentions the filter system among the policies implemented by countries to increase teacher qualifications:

competencies of the teaching profession were updated in this context and consist of three interrelated and complementary competency areas: professional knowledge, professional skills, and attitudes and values. These three areas cover 11 competencies and 64 indicators related to these competencies. Turkey has attempted many different applications in teacher education and has started implementing the interview system in the recruitment processes alongside the national selection exam. In the process of starting the job, candidates perform teaching practices.

– Teacher competencies in China are determined by 61 indicators listed under three dimensions: teacher ethics, content knowledge, and professional competence (Lo et al., 2013, p. 246).

Finland has two stages in the process of choosing a primary school teacher. In the first place, a group of nominees is selected according to the results of the proficiency test, the high school diploma awarded by the school, and the record of their extracurricular achievements. Secondly:

## Results

This study deals with twenty-first-century teacher education and skills and has shown changes in contacting knowledge has changed teachers' positions and what is expected of them. The rapid access to unlimited information resources as an important benefit of digitalization and the changes in social life have impacted all societies. The people and institutions involved in organizing education have also been significantly affected by this change. Learning environments, schools, classrooms, student profiles, parent profiles, and school management have all been affected by this change. As such, education systems reforms have focused on adapting technical facilities to education. Important responsibilities have befallen schools, in particular teachers, for adapting learners' profiles to the changing world and their employability in new business structures. In countries like Turkey where families have low access to technology and are limited in its use, schools and teachers should obviously also take on the responsibility for combating this inequality.

Teachers are expected to set time aside both for their own learning as well as for their students' learning by encouraging the effective use of technology with the aim of improving students' individual learning speeds. Not perceiving the relationship between education and technology to be limited to information exchange and acting by paying attention to the importance of safe and beneficial technology uses are among the important responsibilities teachers have in character development.

Having teachers take new learning environments into account is imperative when they organize and prepare their lessons. The new learning environment expresses one that is diverse in many aspects (i.e., multinational, multicultural, multi-component, multifaceted, and nourished by different value judgments) and no longer considers anything with a single function to be remarkable. In such an environment, the teacher should be aware of sharing the role of teaching with the digital world.

Considering teacher education from a realistic perspective is important in order to be able to reach the desired goal regarding teachers' changing position and the skills they should have. When examining the relevant literature, twenty-first-century skills appear as a guide in teacher education in almost all countries. Although saying that clear syllabuses exist in practice is difficult, the strategy documents are seen to have been created with a strong perspective on twenty-first-century skills. Information and communication technologies in particular have been the focus of these studies. The common feature in teacher education reform studies is a focus on any of the processes involving pre-service teaching, starting a job position, or in-service teaching. However, the teacher training system includes all pre-service, recruitment, and in-service processes. Having policy makers and practitioners consider the issue from this perspective is important. Determining qualification standards without a strong implementation should be noted as being meaningless, and having institutions act collaboratively both in determining teachers' skills and in organizing teacher training should be considered essential.

When training a qualified teacher, having teacher educators obtain at least a master's degree or doctorate, have experience in the field, have national and international mobility opportunities, and have positive salaries and work conditions is important. Attention has been drawn to issues such as providing continuous professional development opportunities for teachers who have started their profession, improving work conditions, and ensuring social acceptance of the importance of their profession. However, supporting new teachers in matters such as lightening their curriculum, participating in guidance programs, facilitating their access to necessary support resources, providing the opportunity to systematically link theory and practice, and consulting with their colleagues while providing that their wages are preserved is important. In teacher trainings, having mentors who are qualified and experienced specialist teachers should be encouraged both in pre-service and in in-service training.

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