*2.3. In Vitro Pro-Inflammatory Effects of TsHpt I and -II on Mouse Macrophages*

After 24 h of incubation, TsHpt-I and -II exerted intermediate cytotoxicity on naïve murine peritoneal macrophages in vitro, as demonstrated by the statistically significant decrease in cell viability, to about 75% and 60%–70% at concentrations of 10 μg/mL and 50 μg/mL, respectively, when compared to 100% in the control group (medium), as determined by the MTT method (Figure 3). Cytotoxicity was not shown to be dosedependent (Figure 3).

Despite the moderate cytotoxic effect in the concentrations of 10 μg/mL and 50 μg/mL, TsHpt-I and -II were not able to decrease cellular viability in the higher concentration of 100 μg/mL. Interestingly, in this same concentration, both peptides were able to promote the release of significant levels of TNF, and TsHpt-II also induced the release of IL-6 (Figure 4). None of the peptides were able to induce the release of IL-10, IL-12p70, IFN-γ and MCP-1 (data not shown).

In order to confirm the pro-inflammatory effects of both peptides on the biological function of macrophages, the phagocytic activity of macrophages, cultured for 24 h in the presence of TsHpt-I and -II, were analyzed, and compared to the negative and positive controls. Both treatments with TsHpt-I and -II promoted a significant increase in the phagocytic index (Figure 5), demonstrating that the pro-inflammatory action of these peptides also affects the biological function of macrophages.

**Figure 3.** Cytotoxic effect of hypotensins I and II on murine peritoneal macrophages in vitro. Peritoneal exudate macrophages from naïve BALB/c mice were cultured for 24 h in the presence of TsHpt-I (**A**) and -II (**B**) at concentrations of 10 μg/mL, 50 μg/mL and 100 μg/mL. Cells cultured with medium alone or in the presence of 5 μg/mL LPS were used as the controls. Cell viability was determined by the MTT method. The results represent the mean ± SD of two independent experiments performed in triplicate. \* *p* < 0.05.

**Figure 4.** Cytokine production by murine peritoneal macrophages stimulated in vitro with TsHpt-I and -II. Peritoneal exudate macrophages from naïve BALB/c mice were cultured for 24 h in the presence of TsHpt-I (**A**,**C**) and -II (**B**,**D**), at concentrations of 10 μg/mL, 50 μg/mL and 100 μg/mL. Cells cultured with medium alone or in the presence of 5 μg/mL LPS were used as negative and positive controls, respectively. The concentrations of TNF (**A**,**B**) and IL-6 (**C**,**D**) were determined by the CBA method, according to the manufacturer's instructions. The results represent the mean ± SD of three independent experiments performed in triplicate. \* *p* < 0.05.

**Figure 5.** Phagocytic activity of the murine peritoneal macrophages stimulated in vitro with TsHpt-I and -II. Peritoneal exudate macrophages from naïve BALB/c mice were cultured on glass coverslips for 24 h in culture medium or in the presence of LPS (5 μg/mL) or TsHpt-I and -II (100 μg/mL). After this period, the cells were incubated for 1 h with a suspension of *Saccharomyces cerevisiae*. Coverslips were washed, fixed and stained by Giemsa. (**A**) Phagocytosis images in 400× magnification. (**B**) The phagocytic index was calculated based on the percentage of phagocytic cells and on the average number of yeasts per cell, by counting approximately 200 cells per coverslip in 1000× magnification. The results represent one of two reproducible experiments performed in duplicate (mean ± SD). \* *p* < 0.05.


**6. Conclusions**

In this study a novel methodological approach was proposed with a view to analyzing the relations between land-taking processes and landslide hazard in order to understand whether, and to what extent, land-take phenomena are associated with landslide hazard. The outcomes of this analysis were next used to define policy suggestions that, by preventing or minimizing land take, can help mitigating landslide hazard, therefore indirectly preventing the human and economic losses that might result from land mismanagement.

The methodological approach here proposed as a tool to support decision-making processes can be exported to other European contexts, since the CLC inventory is available for 39 European countries [36], among them the 27 EU Member States, provided that a detailed landslide hazard or landslide susceptibility spatial dataset is available, which is not the case for all of the EU Member States, as reported in a recent study by Mateos et al. [102].

Moreover, the methodological approach shows a certain degree of flexibility, allowing for the inclusion of further context-specific spatial or normative variables that might be appropriate or needed in other contexts. In our selected case study, the influence of two LEAC groups (open space with little or no vegetation; transitional woodland and shrub) on landslide hazard could not be assessed because they were not relevant in the study area, hence this might be a matter for future investigation in other contexts. In addition, the impact of specific land cover classes on landslide hazard was here not assessed due to the simplified classification of the LEAC taxonomy, where the 44 CORINE land covers are aggregated into eight groups. Future directions of the research might therefore include a more detailed analysis, where the LEAC groups are (completely or partly) replaced by the CLC classes, which might, however, result in a more complicated implementation of the model and interpretation of its results.

This study has analyzed the relations between land-taking processes and landslide hazards in a cross-section terms; therefore, dynamic issues, such as the evolution process of land covers or the development through time of different forms of urbanization are not within the scope of this work. However, these are relevant future directions related to the research work proposed in this article, which may entail the assessment of the dynamics of the relationship between landslide hazard and land-taking processes. This point is analyzed by Pisano et al. [30], who studied how land cover changes affect landslide hazard in relation to the years 1954, 1981, and 2007. The advantages in analyzing how land cover changes are correlated to landslide hazard are connected with the outstanding dynamicity that characterizes land cover change processes. Although different factors influence landslide hazard in the long run, such as geological and geomorphological phenomena, land covers are also characterized by short-term dynamics, which stresses the relevant added value which may be provided by a time-series-based contextualization of the cross-section assessment here implemented [104]. As regards the dynamic relationships between urbanization processes and landslide hazard, further important research directions are represented by the assessment of landslide phenomena in different cities and towns characterized by diversified urban morphologies, ranging from dense and compact urban fabrics to sparse and widespread urbanization, in order to define and implement planning policies and measures aimed at countering and mitigating landslide hazard.

**Author Contributions:** F.I., S.L, F.L. and C.Z. collaboratively designed this study. F.L. wrote Section 1. S.L. wrote Section 2.1, Section 2.3, Sections 2.3.1–2.3.3, Section 3.1, Section 3.2 and Appendix A. C.Z. wrote Sections 2.2, 3.3 and 4. F.I. and F.L. jointly wrote Sections 5 and 6. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This study was carried out in the framework of the research project "Implementation and revision of the regional strategy for climate change adaptation (SRACC)—Macro-Action 2, Mainstreaming of the SRACC spatial framework: governance and environmental assessment" (2021–2023), funded by the Autonomous Region of Sardinia.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Ethical review and approval were not applicable, since this study does not involve humans or animals.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** Data available upon request.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**1. Introduction**

Biologically, and clinically, the concept of "self" is of crucial importance in protection against foreign biologicals (e.g., viruses and bacteria), abnormal autologous cells (e.g., cancers) and more recently developed "diseases" (i.e., the purposeful introduction of "nonself") such as enzyme-replacement therapy and transfusion

#### *Cells of the Immune System*

and transplantation medicine. The immune system is tasked with preserving "self" and rejecting "nonself" and has multiple components-any of which will be of variable importance depending on the context of the immunological assault. Immunological "self" of most tissues is imparted by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) which encodes a variety of proteins that provide a means for identifying, targeting, and eliminating foreign invaders and diseased cells while preserving normal "self" tissue. The MHC proteins themselves consist of three classes. MHC Class I molecules are expressed on virtually all nucleated cells while Class II molecules are expressed exclusively on antigen presenting cells (APC; e.g., monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cell, B lymphocytes, and endothelial cells) and activated T lymphocytes. MHC Class III genes encode components of the complement system. The human MHC is referred to as the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) complex while the murine equivalent is referred to as the Histocompatibility-2 (H2) complex. In the context of MHC-mediated immune recognition, the T lymphocyte (T cell) is of particular importance. T cells themselves consist of a diverse array of subsets that fall into two general categories: 1) Regulatory T cells (Treg) which modulate the strength of an immune response and maintain "self"; and effector T

#### **Figure 1.**

*Immune modulation via pharmacologic and immunocamouflage therapy. (A) Current pharmacologic therapy almost exclusively targets T cell activation and proliferation consequent to allorecognition. Response to nonself is in large part mediated by cell-cell interactions between antigen presenting cells (APC; e.g., dendritic cells) and naive T cells. This cell-cell interaction is characterized by essential adhesion, allorecognition and co-stimulation events. Consequent to allorecognition, a proliferation of proinflammatory T cells (e.g., cytotoxic T lymphocyte, CTL; Th17, IL-17+ ; Th1, IFN-γ + ; and IL-2+ populations) and decrease in regulatory T cells (Treg, Foxp3+ and CD25+ ) is observed. Current therapeutic agents are primarily cytotoxic agents preventing T cell activation (e.g., cyclosporine and rapamycin) or T cell proliferation (e.g., methotrexate, corticosteroids and azathioprine). Additionally, blocking antibodies have been investigated. Gray text indicates current techniques to prevent/ limit alloimmune responses. (B) In contrast, immunocamouflage of donor cells by methoxy(polyethylene) glycol (mPEG) results in the disruption of the essential cell-cell interactions decreasing T cell proliferation and altering differentiation patterns (decreased Th17 and increased Treg). In aggregate, the polymer induced changes induces a tolerogenic/anergic state both* in vitro *and* in vivo*. Size of T cell population denotes increase or decrease in number. Size of B cell indicates antibody response. Blue text represents the consequences of polymer-mediated immunocamouflage of the alloresponse. (C) As shown in photomicrographs, in a control mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR), significant and persistent interactions (black arrows) occur between allogeneic lymphocytes (LYM) and dendritic cells (APC). The lymphocyte adhesion and antigen presentation interactions typically occur at pseudopodal extensions from the APC (white arrows). PEGylation of either allogeneic PBMC population decreases the stability and duration of initial cell:cell interactions between lymphocytes due to the global charge and steric camouflage of membrane proteins. (D) Importantly, the secretomes derived from the MLR and mPEG-MLR exert potent effects on a secondary MLR encompassing fresh PBMC from the same or different donors. The key component of the secretome are soluble (free and exosome) miRNA. Data derived from Refs [32–43].*

**75**

*Modulating the T Lymphocyte Immune Response via Secretome Produced…*

cells (Teff) that mediate the inflammatory response and consists, in part, of Th1, Th17 and Th2 subsets. Hence, the functional ratio of Treg to Teff (Treg:Teff) cells is critical and an imbalance of this ratio from the norm can induce either an autoimmune (excess Teff or decreased Treg) state or impaired response to "nonself" (e.g., cancer) consequent to biologically ill-advised tolerance (too many Treg or weak Teff response). Indeed, the T cell response plays a (the) central role in autoimmune diseases, transplant rejection, graft versus host disease (GVHD), graft versus leukemia (GVL), cancer and, more recently, cancer therapy. Hence, consequent to the central role of T cells as a key cellular component in the development of autoimmune diseases, graft tolerance or rejection, and the anticancer response, the T cell response has been a major focus in the development of clinical therapies (**Figure 1A**) [1].

**2. Immunomodulation of the T cell response in autoimmunity and**

to adequately eliminate or inhibit reactive T cells [8].

Autoimmune diseases arise when the immune system recognizes the individual's own tissues or organs as "foreign" and targets them for destruction. Autoimmune diseases can affect virtually all tissues and organ systems and encompass such diverse diseases as Type 1 Diabetes (T1D; pancreas), Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (ITP; platelet destruction), Crohn's disease (CD; bowel), Multiple Sclerosis (MS; brain) and Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA; joints). Despite the diversity of tissues affected, extensive research has demonstrated that Treg are downregulated while Teff are upregulated (i.e., leading to a reduced Treg:Teff ratio) leading to a chronic proinflammatory state. Current therapeutic approaches to managing autoimmune diseases are typically focused on symptom relief and the use of immunosuppressive agents capable of inhibiting the proinflammatory response arising from "self-recognition." Most commonly, treatment for chronic autoimmune disease is via administration of systemic steroids (e.g., dexamethasone), cytotoxic anti-proliferative/activation agents (e.g., cyclosporine) that induce a general immunosuppression, and/or IVIG (pooled, polyvalent, IgG purified from the plasma of >1000 blood donors) [2–6]. Other experimental approaches to the treatment of autoimmune diseases include blocking monoclonal antibodies directed against the TCR, CD4, costimulatory ligands and receptors, adhesion molecules, and cytokine receptors [7–9]. A more recent approach has been to interrupt the cytokine signals necessary for the activation and proliferation of autoreactive T cells. The current gold standard for this approach is Enbrel® (etanercept), a solubilized TNF-α receptor fragment that intercepts and sequesters the TNF-α cytokine thereby inhibiting the proliferation of proinflammatory T cells [10–15]. However, Enbrel® has been given a USA FDA "Black Box" warning due to significantly increased risks of serious infections that may lead to hospitalization or death [16–22]. Common to all of these approaches is an attempt to increase the Treg:Teff ratio by either directly increasing Treg or selectively decreasing Teff populations. However, despite their importance in clinical medicine, many of these agents have been plagued by both significant toxicity/adverse events and an inability

In contrast to autoimmune diseases, an insufficient/inefficient immune response

may underlie the proliferation and dissemination of abnormal cells (i.e., cancer cells). While this may occur for a number of reasons, immunosuppression is a known risk factor. Indeed, acquired or inherited T cell defects as well as long-term therapy with immunosuppressive drugs are clearly associated with an increased risk of neoplasia. The impaired immune response to cancer cells can arise, at least in part, from an increase in the Treg:Teff ratio (too many Treg and/or insufficient Teff cell production). To address this imbalance in the Treg:Teff ratio, experimental

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86598*

**cancer**

*Modulating the T Lymphocyte Immune Response via Secretome Produced… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86598*

*Cells of the Immune System*

**74**

**Figure 1.**

*CD25+*

*CTL; Th17, IL-17+*

*; Th1, IFN-γ*

*exosome) miRNA. Data derived from Refs [32–43].*

*+ ; and IL-2+*

*Immune modulation via pharmacologic and immunocamouflage therapy. (A) Current pharmacologic therapy almost exclusively targets T cell activation and proliferation consequent to allorecognition. Response to nonself is in large part mediated by cell-cell interactions between antigen presenting cells (APC; e.g., dendritic cells) and naive T cells. This cell-cell interaction is characterized by essential adhesion, allorecognition and co-stimulation events. Consequent to allorecognition, a proliferation of proinflammatory T cells (e.g., cytotoxic T lymphocyte,*

and transplantation medicine. The immune system is tasked with preserving "self" and rejecting "nonself" and has multiple components-any of which will be of variable importance depending on the context of the immunological assault. Immunological "self" of most tissues is imparted by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) which encodes a variety of proteins that provide a means for identifying, targeting, and eliminating foreign invaders and diseased cells while preserving normal "self" tissue. The MHC proteins themselves consist of three classes. MHC Class I molecules are expressed on virtually all nucleated cells while Class II molecules are expressed exclusively on antigen presenting cells (APC; e.g., monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cell, B lymphocytes, and endothelial cells) and activated T lymphocytes. MHC Class III genes encode components of the complement system. The human MHC is referred to as the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) complex while the murine equivalent is referred to as the Histocompatibility-2 (H2) complex. In the context of MHC-mediated immune recognition, the T lymphocyte (T cell) is of particular importance. T cells themselves consist of a diverse array of subsets that fall into two general categories: 1) Regulatory T cells (Treg) which modulate the strength of an immune response and maintain "self"; and effector T

*) is observed. Current therapeutic agents are primarily cytotoxic agents preventing T cell activation (e.g., cyclosporine and rapamycin) or T cell proliferation (e.g., methotrexate, corticosteroids and azathioprine). Additionally, blocking antibodies have been investigated. Gray text indicates current techniques to prevent/ limit alloimmune responses. (B) In contrast, immunocamouflage of donor cells by methoxy(polyethylene) glycol (mPEG) results in the disruption of the essential cell-cell interactions decreasing T cell proliferation and altering differentiation patterns (decreased Th17 and increased Treg). In aggregate, the polymer induced changes induces a tolerogenic/anergic state both* in vitro *and* in vivo*. Size of T cell population denotes increase or decrease in number. Size of B cell indicates antibody response. Blue text represents the consequences of polymer-mediated immunocamouflage of the alloresponse. (C) As shown in photomicrographs, in a control mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR), significant and persistent interactions (black arrows) occur between allogeneic lymphocytes (LYM) and dendritic cells (APC). The lymphocyte adhesion and antigen presentation interactions typically occur at pseudopodal extensions from the APC (white arrows). PEGylation of either allogeneic PBMC population decreases the stability and duration of initial cell:cell interactions between lymphocytes due to the global charge and steric camouflage of membrane proteins. (D) Importantly, the secretomes derived from the MLR and mPEG-MLR exert potent effects on a secondary MLR encompassing fresh PBMC from the same or different donors. The key component of the secretome are soluble (free and*

 *populations) and decrease in regulatory T cells (Treg, Foxp3+*

 *and*

cells (Teff) that mediate the inflammatory response and consists, in part, of Th1, Th17 and Th2 subsets. Hence, the functional ratio of Treg to Teff (Treg:Teff) cells is critical and an imbalance of this ratio from the norm can induce either an autoimmune (excess Teff or decreased Treg) state or impaired response to "nonself" (e.g., cancer) consequent to biologically ill-advised tolerance (too many Treg or weak Teff response). Indeed, the T cell response plays a (the) central role in autoimmune diseases, transplant rejection, graft versus host disease (GVHD), graft versus leukemia (GVL), cancer and, more recently, cancer therapy. Hence, consequent to the central role of T cells as a key cellular component in the development of autoimmune diseases, graft tolerance or rejection, and the anticancer response, the T cell response has been a major focus in the development of clinical therapies (**Figure 1A**) [1].


*3.1. E*ff*ects of Aging on Cardiac Muscle Morphology*

LV cross-sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin to assess their morphology. Cardiac muscle remodeling was determined by measuring extramyocyte space, extent of apparent fibrosis, myocyte cross-sectional area (CSA), and the number of myocytes per 100,000 µm2 (Figure 1A). We found that the samples from the OG group showed more extensive cardiac muscle remodeling compared with those from the other groups. No difference in the percentage of extramyocyte space in the samples from the VYG and YG groups was observed, while the samples from the OG group showed significantly more extramyocyte space than those from the VYG, YG, and MG groups; furthermore, the samples from the MG group had more extramyocyte space than those from the VYG and YG groups (mean ± SEM; VYG: 4.48 ± 0.47%; YG: 7.13 ± 0.83%; MG: 13.51 ± 0.97%; OG: 20.85 ± 1.23%)) (*p* < 0.05 in all comparisons, Figure 1B). The number of myocytes per 100,000 µm2 in the LV tissues was significantly lower in case of the samples from the MG and OG groups compared with those from the VYG and YG groups (mean ± SEM; VYG: 113.70 ± 6.79; YG: 115.38 ± 5.10; MG: 72.17 ± 5.83; OG: 50.86 ± 3.83)) (*p* < 0.05 in all comparisons, Figure 1C). In contrast, the mean myocyte CSA in the combined myocardial and endocardial regions was significantly higher in the OG group than in the VYG, YG, and MG groups (mean ± SEM; 377.66 ± 28.38 µm2 vs. 120.94 ± 9.34, 134.04 ± 10.79, and 264.22 ± 18.90 µm2 , respectively) (*p* < 0.05 in all comparisons, Figure 1D), and higher in the

MG rats than in the VYG and YG animals (mean ± SEM; 264.22 ± 18.90 µm2 vs. 120.94 ± 9.34 and 134.04 ± 10.79 µm2 , respectively) (*p* < 0.05 in all comparisons, Figure 1D).

**Figure 1.** (**A**) Representative histological cross-sections of the left ventricle (LV) tissues of rats from the very young (VYG), young (YG), middle-aged (MG), and old (OG) groups stained with hematoxylin and eosin (amplification: 40×). Unstained areas indicate extramyocyte space. (**B**) Quantification of the percentage of extramyocyte space. (**C**) Number of myocytes per 100,000 µm2 in the LV tissues. (**D**) Myocyte cross-sectional area (CSA) of LV tissue histological sections, in square micrometers. The scale bar indicates 100 µm. Data presented as the means ± SEMs. \* *p* < 0.05 vs. VYG. † *p* < 0.05 vs. YG. # *p* < 0.05 vs. MG.


*4.5. Elicitation Test*

Roots of three-month-old date palm plants (greenhouse model) were soaked in fucoidan solutions (FSF and BBF) at a concentration of 0.5 g/L and pH 6.5 over 4 days. Fucoidans-treated roots were compared to distilled water-treated roots as a control treatment. After 12 h and then every 24 h, biochemical assays of phenylalanine ammonialyase (PAL) activity, phenolic compounds and lignin content in treated roots were performed. Data were reported as the means values of 3 replicates, each replicate containing 3 plants.


**4. Discussion**

#### *4.1. Band Analysis by CARS Algorithm*

The results of the CARS feature selection of the SD pre-processed spectra are shown in Figure 5a. A total of 38 bands were selected as key variables from 1050 wavelength points, mainly located near 430–500, 550–600, 700–860, 1050–1080, 1900–2000, and 2350–2400 nm. To verify whether the selected 38 bands could represent the variability between uncontaminated and contaminated surface water samples, the scores of the bands were plotted, as shown in Figure 5b. There was large variability in the scores of the 38 bands; this also proved the feasibility of these bands selected by CARS. The greatest variability in the scores was found near 498 nm; this may be caused by C-H bond vibrations of aromatic hydrocarbons in the vicinity [28,33]. *Water* **2022**, *14*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

ond derivative (SD) pre-processing, (**b**) score plot of the feature bands.

**Figure 5.** (**a**) Feature bands selected by competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) after sec-**Figure 5.** (**a**) Feature bands selected by competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) after second derivative (SD) pre-processing, (**b**) score plot of the feature bands.

The chemical bonds corresponding to the main bands of the Vis-NIR region screened by CARS and the possible corresponding contamination components are shown in Table 3. The band most screened by CARS was near 400–860 nm; this may arise from the vibra-The chemical bonds corresponding to the main bands of the Vis-NIR region screened by CARS and the possible corresponding contamination components are shown in Table 3. The band most screened by CARS was near 400–860 nm; this may arise from the vibration of C-H and N-H chemical bonds, such as those in aromatic hydrocarbons [28,34].

tion of C-H and N-H chemical bonds, such as those in aromatic hydrocarbons [28,34]. **Table 3.** Basic chemical bonds, absorption wavelengths, and possible associated water pollution **Table 3.** Basic chemical bonds, absorption wavelengths, and possible associated water pollution components of main spectral bands screened by competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) for visible near-infrared region.

#### 1800 C-H Organics *4.2. Implication of Proposed Strategy*

2100 N-H Organics (amine) 2400 C-O Organics (Carbohydrates) *4.2. Implication of Proposed Strategy*  The CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA modeling approach proposed in this paper not only improves the discrimination accuracy of the PLS–DA model but also simplifies the model input variables. When using Vis-NIR as the input for the PLS–DA model, most spectral variables may be redundant; on the other hand, fewer spectral input variables may result in the loss of COD-related information. A spectral selection algorithm can solve both problems, and the optimal number of input spectra for a balanced model can be found using spectral

The CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA modeling approach proposed in this paper not only improves the discrimination accuracy of the PLS–DA model but also simplifies the model

variables may be redundant; on the other hand, fewer spectral input variables may result in the loss of COD-related information. A spectral selection algorithm can solve both problems, and the optimal number of input spectra for a balanced model can be found using spectral variable selection. The modeling effect can reduce due to the large difference between the number of contaminated and uncontaminated surface water samples collected. To solve this problem, the feasibility of the SMOTE algorithm in solving the problem of uneven sample distribution was explored. The feasibility of PLS–DA and SMOTE–PLS– DA was experimentally verified before conducting CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA. The discrimination accuracy improved after SMOTE solved the problem of the uneven sample distribution. Finally, the Vis-NIR spectra of surface water were subjected to band selection after the pre-processing with four different methods. Combining the CARS selection algorithm

1500 C-O Organics (aromatics)

variable selection. The modeling effect can reduce due to the large difference between the number of contaminated and uncontaminated surface water samples collected. To solve this problem, the feasibility of the SMOTE algorithm in solving the problem of uneven sample distribution was explored. The feasibility of PLS–DA and SMOTE–PLS–DA was experimentally verified before conducting CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA. The discrimination accuracy improved after SMOTE solved the problem of the uneven sample distribution. Finally, the Vis-NIR spectra of surface water were subjected to band selection after the pre-processing with four different methods. Combining the CARS selection algorithm with the SMOTE algorithm not only improved the discrimination accuracy of the model but also reduced the input of the discrimination model.

In this study, the surface water samples were collected for a total of 4 months, covering both the rainy and non-rainy seasons in Guangzhou. Changes in the rainy season will lead to changes in COD because the runoff generated by the rainfall in the rainy season will cause pollutants from land sources to enter the water, resulting in an increase in COD. From the principle of COD chemical detection, these pollutants are all aerobic substances. The aerobic substances in the surface water during the rainy season and non-rainy season have a general law and there will be no major changes in components due to the rainy season. We carried out Vis-NIR detection on a large number of samples and used a surface water model to grasp the quantitative relationship between all aerobic substances and COD values as much as possible. We used the CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA model to realize the online monitoring of large COD values, which provides a new way of discriminating for the management of seriously polluted surface water.

#### **5. Conclusions**

This study employed a new approach with CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA and Vis-NIR to judge whether surface water can meet the COD standard (40 mg/L) for agricultural use and the general landscape. It demonstrated the feasibility and effectiveness of introducing the CARS band selection technique and the SMOTE algorithm into Vis-NIR analysis. The CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA modeling approach not only had a higher overall accuracy but also produced a more simplified model. The optimal pre-processing method for all three modeling methods was SD, with PLS–DA yielding an accuracy of 88% with the input of 1050 wavelength points. Compared to the PLS–DA model, the CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA model exhibited an 11% improvement in accuracy and a 96% reduction in wavelength input. The CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA model experienced a 5% improvement in accuracy and a 96% reduction in wavelength input compared to the SMOTE–PLS–DA model. Overall, the surface water COD discrimination method (CARS–SMOTE–PLS–DA model) proposed in this paper has the advantages of novelty, eco-friendliness, simplicity, and broad prospects. It is a novel method for real-time online surface water COD discrimination, which is conducive to the management and development of surface water resources.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, X.H., J.M. and W.J.; methodology, X.H., J.M., J.C. and Y.Y.; visualization, X.H., J.C., B.X. and W.Y.; sampling, X.C.; writing—original draft, X.H.; writing—review and editing, X.C., D.X. and F.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (61975069), the Guangzhou science and technology project<PHONE_NUMBER>95), the Key-Area Research and Development Program of Guangdong Province (2020B090922006), and the Free Exploration Project of Special Research Funds for the Central Public-Interest Scientific Institution (PM-zx703-202112-338).

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding authors. The data are not publicly available due to the continuation of a follow-up study by the authors.

**Acknowledgments:** The support provided by South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, State Environ-ment Protection Key Laboratory of Water Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Guangzhou 510655, China.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


**Author details**

Salih Kafkas Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agricuture, University of Çukurova, Adana, Turkey

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**105**

1952;**5**:187-228

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polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Economic Botany. 1998;**52**:78-87. DOI:

[11] Zohary D. The genus *Pistacia* L. In: Padulosi S, Caruso T, Barone E, editors. Taxonomy, Distribution, Conservation and Uses of *Pistacia* Genetic Resources. Report of a Workshop, 29-30 June 1995, Palermo, Italy. Rome, Italy: International Plant Genetic Resources

[12] Abdushukur AK, Chernova GM, Rakmonov AM, Nikolyi LV, Ablaeva E, Zaurov DE, et al. Genetic resources of *Pistacia vera* L. in Central Asia. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 2009;**56**(3):429-443. DOI: 10.1007/

[13] Parfitt DE, Kafkas S, Batlle I, Vargas FJ, Kallsen CE. Pistachio, Badenes ML, Byrne DH2012.

[14] Motalebipour E, Kafkas S, Khodaeiaminjan M, Coban N, Gozel H. Genome survey of pistachio (*Pistacia vera* L.) by next generation sequencing: Development of novel SSR markers and genetic diversity in *Pistacia* species. BMC Genomics.

[15] Kafkas S, Perl-Treves R. Morphological and molecular phylogeny of *Pistacia* species in Turkey. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 2001;**102**:908-915

BF02862231

10.1007/BF02861298

Institute; 1996. pp. 1-11

s10722-009-9419-1

pp. 803-826

2016;**17**:998


**4. Flavoring of foods**

Flavor is typically the result of the presence of volatile and nonvolatile components with a wide variety of physicochemical properties inside complicated matrices [6]. In reality, Flavors account for more than 25% of the global market for food additives, and the majority of Flavoring compounds are created through chemical synthesis or by extracting them from natural sources. The primary purpose of Flavors is to give food a certain taste or scent. The volatile chemicals affect both taste and scent, whereas the nonvolatile ones primarily affect taste [6, 7].


**3. Case studies: shoreline changes on the coasts of northern France**

The second part of the chapter presents examples of studies carried out on the northern coast of France in the surrounding of Dunkirk. Topographic surveys were carried out using differential GNNS, LiDAR, and airborne photogrammetry. These examples illustrate the benefits of changing from two- to three-dimensional analysis and improving spatial resolution.

#### **3.1 Toward a more accurate coastline detection**

The shoreline is the indicator most often used to define, map the position of the shore, and study its evolution [48]. There are several definitions of shoreline [8]. The definition may vary according to the coastal environments studied, for example, the boundary between water and sand in a microtidal environment, the base of the top of a cliff, the berm of a pebble barrier, the toe of coastal dunes, and the boundary between sand and beach top vegetation. Along the same coast, the position of these different shoreline indicators does not always coincide: for example, the limit between sand and vegetation may be located several meters away landward of the dune toe (**Figure 7**). The definition of the coastline is therefore an essential prerequisite in diachronic analyses of the shoreline.

Identifying the shoreline in two dimensions on aerial photographs is sometimes difficult. On aerial photographs, whether historical or recent, the coastline is not always clearly distinguishable. **Figure 7** shows two aerial photographs shot at two different dates (1957 and 2015), at the same scale. On the 1957 photo of poor quality, the break in slope is hardly detectable where the foredune slope is gentle. In GIS analyses, an error margin in detection must be taken into account (±*x* pixels,

**101**

**Figure 7.**

*Recent Advances in Coastal Survey Techniques: From GNSS to LiDAR and Digital…*

thus ±*y* m, depending on the spatial resolution of the digitized photos) [49]. Stereoscopic observation of paper photos helps to identify the shoreline position, but the transfer of these observations to a computer is not convenient. Computer and photogrammetric processing of the images improves analysis (see below). The shoreline can be measured in the field by GNSS. This requires a clear definition of what is considered as a shoreline and a good experience in field investigation. In the following examples along the coasts of northern France, the dune toe was selected. The shoreline is easily detected when the dune toe is marked by a sharp change in slope gradient (e.g., in Zuydcoote in **Figure 7**), but not when the slope between the upper beach and the dune is mild and regular (e.g., in Bray-Dunes). The measurement accuracy of GNSS is high, but in these cases, an error

*The complex detection of the shoreline on aerial photographs and in the field.*

margin has to be attributed to the operator's interpretation of the terrain.

The shoreline can be defined by an altitude level, for example, the one reached by a distinct tide level such as the mean high spring tide. This approach is used by the French National Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service (SHOM) to define the official coastline in France, called "Histolitt," which corresponds to the highest astronomical tide (HAT). Along the coastline east of Dunkirk, for example, the HAT corresponds to an altitude of 3.787 m (French elevation datum), which has been mapped on a recent DSM obtained from an aerial photogrammetric survey with a high spatial resolution (5 cm/pixel) carried out in September 2019. The "Histolitt" shoreline has also been superimposed on the 2019 DSM showing an offset of about 11 m between the two shorelines (**Figure 8**) even if the shoreline position was defined by the same altitudinal level (3.787 m) in both cases. This difference in position between the two shorelines can be explained by the fact that the "Histolitt" shoreline was determined from a DTM with a vertical accuracy of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91964*

*Recent Advances in Coastal Survey Techniques: From GNSS to LiDAR and Digital… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91964*

**Figure 7.** *The complex detection of the shoreline on aerial photographs and in the field.*

thus ±*y* m, depending on the spatial resolution of the digitized photos) [49]. Stereoscopic observation of paper photos helps to identify the shoreline position, but the transfer of these observations to a computer is not convenient. Computer and photogrammetric processing of the images improves analysis (see below).

The shoreline can be measured in the field by GNSS. This requires a clear definition of what is considered as a shoreline and a good experience in field investigation. In the following examples along the coasts of northern France, the dune toe was selected. The shoreline is easily detected when the dune toe is marked by a sharp change in slope gradient (e.g., in Zuydcoote in **Figure 7**), but not when the slope between the upper beach and the dune is mild and regular (e.g., in Bray-Dunes). The measurement accuracy of GNSS is high, but in these cases, an error margin has to be attributed to the operator's interpretation of the terrain.

The shoreline can be defined by an altitude level, for example, the one reached by a distinct tide level such as the mean high spring tide. This approach is used by the French National Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service (SHOM) to define the official coastline in France, called "Histolitt," which corresponds to the highest astronomical tide (HAT). Along the coastline east of Dunkirk, for example, the HAT corresponds to an altitude of 3.787 m (French elevation datum), which has been mapped on a recent DSM obtained from an aerial photogrammetric survey with a high spatial resolution (5 cm/pixel) carried out in September 2019. The "Histolitt" shoreline has also been superimposed on the 2019 DSM showing an offset of about 11 m between the two shorelines (**Figure 8**) even if the shoreline position was defined by the same altitudinal level (3.787 m) in both cases. This difference in position between the two shorelines can be explained by the fact that the "Histolitt" shoreline was determined from a DTM with a vertical accuracy of

*Spatial Variability in Environmental Science - Patterns, Processes, and Analyses*

possible to highlight otherwise undetectable detail changes at lower acquisition frequency and/or with coarser spatial resolution surveys (e.g., aeolian sand accu-

**3. Case studies: shoreline changes on the coasts of northern France**

The second part of the chapter presents examples of studies carried out on the northern coast of France in the surrounding of Dunkirk. Topographic surveys were carried out using differential GNNS, LiDAR, and airborne photogrammetry. These examples illustrate the benefits of changing from two- to three-dimensional

The shoreline is the indicator most often used to define, map the position of the shore, and study its evolution [48]. There are several definitions of shoreline [8]. The definition may vary according to the coastal environments studied, for example, the boundary between water and sand in a microtidal environment, the base of the top of a cliff, the berm of a pebble barrier, the toe of coastal dunes, and the boundary between sand and beach top vegetation. Along the same coast, the position of these different shoreline indicators does not always coincide: for example, the limit between sand and vegetation may be located several meters away landward of the dune toe (**Figure 7**). The definition of the coastline is therefore an essential

Identifying the shoreline in two dimensions on aerial photographs is sometimes difficult. On aerial photographs, whether historical or recent, the coastline is not always clearly distinguishable. **Figure 7** shows two aerial photographs shot at two different dates (1957 and 2015), at the same scale. On the 1957 photo of poor quality, the break in slope is hardly detectable where the foredune slope is gentle. In GIS analyses, an error margin in detection must be taken into account (±*x* pixels,

mulations, see Section 2 of this chapter).

*Spatial and temporal scales of application of the three techniques.*

**Figure 6.**

analysis and improving spatial resolution.

**3.1 Toward a more accurate coastline detection**

prerequisite in diachronic analyses of the shoreline.

**100**

**Figure 8.** *Example of shoreline detection on a DTM/DSM and comparison with the shoreline measured by GNSS in the field.*

50 cm calculated by photogrammetry with aerial photographs of 2004. The recent fine-scale mapping of the upper beach and coastal dunes shows that the "Histolitt" shoreline is now outdated since its position does not correspond to the present day morphology anymore. Nevertheless, even if the updated shoreline position using the location of the HAT level on the recent DSM is more consistent with the actual present day shoreline, its position still lays several meters seaward of the dune toe (**Figure 8**) that is the geomorphological expression of the upper limit of action of the highest water levels, including tides and meteorological surges related to wind and changes in atmospheric pressure [38].

The shoreline may also be mapped in a semi-automatic way by identifying in a DTM for a neat variation of the slope gradient at the dune toe [38] using the following approach:

$$\left\| \begin{vmatrix} \dot{\mathbf{g}} \\ \ddot{\mathbf{g}} \end{vmatrix} \right\| = \sqrt{\left(\frac{\partial \mathbf{z}}{\partial \mathbf{x}}\right)^2 + \left(\frac{\partial \mathbf{z}}{\partial \mathbf{y}}\right)^2} \tag{2}$$

**103**

**Figure 9.**

*(adapted from Ref. [38]).*

*Recent Advances in Coastal Survey Techniques: From GNSS to LiDAR and Digital…*

(e.g., paths). Zones with steeper slopes are not displayed on the map; therefore, the actual topography remains visible. The detection of this boundary is validated by comparison with the coastline surveyed in October 2019 with a GNNS: the differences range from 0 to 2.5 m landward, which are due to beach and dune toe erosion between September and October 2019, as a result of high water levels that had

**Figure 9** illustrates a diachronic study using shorelines extracted from DTMs at different dates (2008, 2011, 2012, and 2014) on an 8 km long stretch of coast between Dunkirk and the Belgian border. The analysis of the shoreline evolution from 2008 to 2014 indicates a clear contrast between the sectors west and east of Bray-Dunes. However, the meteorological and marine conditions (winds and water levels) were the same throughout the study area [50]. The first sector is characterized by a general but moderate progradation (a few meters) from 2008 to 2011 and 2012 and from 2012 to 2014 by a mean erosion of 6 m, up to 10 m in some sectors. The second sector east of Bray-Dunes underwent accretion over all the study period with a mean seaward migration of the shoreline of 10 m: it is especially noticeable from 2008 to 2011 and 2012 and is more moderate for the last period from 2012 to

Switching from 2D to 3D analysis enables to detect the shoreline position more accurately. 3D analysis using DTMs or DSMs also allows volume calculation and mapping of topographic changes. On sandy coasts, this approach can be used for calculating sediment volume changes and sediment budgets and for mapping accretionary and eroding sectors that are potentially at risk [51]. Below are two examples

*Evolution of the shoreline in Dunkirk and the Belgian border from 2008 to 2014 with transect location map*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91964*

eroded the beach and the foot of the dune.

2014 where some sectors even experienced mild erosion.

**3.2 Calculation of altimetric and volumetric changes**

at two different scales on the coast east of Dunkirk.

where *g* is the slope gradient, *z* is the altitude, and *x* and *y* are the planar coordinates of each pixel in the DTM. **Figure 8** shows a slope gradient map calculated from a DSM computed by photogrammetry in September 2019 in Zuydcoote. The figure also exhibits two cross-sectional profiles: one is a topographic profile, and the other is a slope gradient profile in degrees. In this example, a slope gradient of 22° corresponding to the dune toe has been selected. On the map, areas with slopes between 0 and 22° range from light to dark grey. They are mainly located on the beach; there are, however, some areas with low gradients in the coastal dunes

*Recent Advances in Coastal Survey Techniques: From GNSS to LiDAR and Digital… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91964*

(e.g., paths). Zones with steeper slopes are not displayed on the map; therefore, the actual topography remains visible. The detection of this boundary is validated by comparison with the coastline surveyed in October 2019 with a GNNS: the differences range from 0 to 2.5 m landward, which are due to beach and dune toe erosion between September and October 2019, as a result of high water levels that had eroded the beach and the foot of the dune.

**Figure 9** illustrates a diachronic study using shorelines extracted from DTMs at different dates (2008, 2011, 2012, and 2014) on an 8 km long stretch of coast between Dunkirk and the Belgian border. The analysis of the shoreline evolution from 2008 to 2014 indicates a clear contrast between the sectors west and east of Bray-Dunes. However, the meteorological and marine conditions (winds and water levels) were the same throughout the study area [50]. The first sector is characterized by a general but moderate progradation (a few meters) from 2008 to 2011 and 2012 and from 2012 to 2014 by a mean erosion of 6 m, up to 10 m in some sectors. The second sector east of Bray-Dunes underwent accretion over all the study period with a mean seaward migration of the shoreline of 10 m: it is especially noticeable from 2008 to 2011 and 2012 and is more moderate for the last period from 2012 to 2014 where some sectors even experienced mild erosion.

## **3.2 Calculation of altimetric and volumetric changes**

Switching from 2D to 3D analysis enables to detect the shoreline position more accurately. 3D analysis using DTMs or DSMs also allows volume calculation and mapping of topographic changes. On sandy coasts, this approach can be used for calculating sediment volume changes and sediment budgets and for mapping accretionary and eroding sectors that are potentially at risk [51]. Below are two examples at two different scales on the coast east of Dunkirk.

#### **Figure 9.** *Evolution of the shoreline in Dunkirk and the Belgian border from 2008 to 2014 with transect location map (adapted from Ref. [38]).*

*Spatial Variability in Environmental Science - Patterns, Processes, and Analyses*

50 cm calculated by photogrammetry with aerial photographs of 2004. The recent fine-scale mapping of the upper beach and coastal dunes shows that the "Histolitt" shoreline is now outdated since its position does not correspond to the present day morphology anymore. Nevertheless, even if the updated shoreline position using the location of the HAT level on the recent DSM is more consistent with the actual present day shoreline, its position still lays several meters seaward of the dune toe (**Figure 8**) that is the geomorphological expression of the upper limit of action of the highest water levels, including tides and meteorological surges related to wind

*Example of shoreline detection on a DTM/DSM and comparison with the shoreline measured by GNSS in the*

The shoreline may also be mapped in a semi-automatic way by identifying in a DTM for a neat variation of the slope gradient at the dune toe [38] using the follow-

> \_∂*z* <sup>∂</sup>*x*) 2 + ( \_∂*z* ∂*y*) 2

where *g* is the slope gradient, *z* is the altitude, and *x* and *y* are the planar coordinates of each pixel in the DTM. **Figure 8** shows a slope gradient map calculated from a DSM computed by photogrammetry in September 2019 in Zuydcoote. The figure also exhibits two cross-sectional profiles: one is a topographic profile, and the other is a slope gradient profile in degrees. In this example, a slope gradient of 22° corresponding to the dune toe has been selected. On the map, areas with slopes between 0 and 22° range from light to dark grey. They are mainly located on the beach; there are, however, some areas with low gradients in the coastal dunes

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (

(2)

and changes in atmospheric pressure [38].

**102**

ing approach:

**Figure 8.**

*field.*


**11. References**

<sup>\*</sup> Corresponding Author

[24] Ahn SS, Rutherford RB, Johnston KW. Reporting standards for infrarenal endovascular abdominal aortic aneurysm repair. J Vasc Surg. 1997;25:405-410.

132 Aneurysm

245.

[8] Dobrin PB. (1989) Pathophysiology and pathogenesis of aortic aneurysms: current

[9] James F. Blanchard (1999) Epidemiology of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms, Epidemiologic Reviews by The Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public

[10] Stephen W.K. Cheng, Albert C.W. Ting and Simon H.Y. Tsang (2003) Epidemiology and Outcome of Aortic Aneurysms in Hong Kong, World Journal of Surgery. 2, 241-

[11] Yii MK. (2003) Epidemiology of abdominal aortic aneurysm in an Asian population.

[12] Spark JI, Baker JL, Vowden P, Wilkinson D. Source (2001) Epidemiology of abdominal

[13] Vowden P, Wilkinson D. (2001) Epidemiology of abdominal aortic aneurysms in the

[14] Wei WI, Siu KF, Wong J. (1985) Abdominal aortic aneurysm in Chinese patients. Br J

[15] Oxlund H, Rasmussen LM, Andreassen TT. (1989) Increased aortic stiffness in patients

[16] Forouhi NG, Merrick D, Goyder E, Ferguson BA, Abbas J,Lachowycz K. (2006) Diabetes prevalence in England, 2001 estimates from an epidemiological model. Diabet Med.

[17] Wild S, Roglic G, Green A, Sicree R, King H. (2004)Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care. 27(5):1047-53. [18] Ubink-Veltmaat LJ, Bilo HJ, Groenier KH, Houweling ST, Rischen RO, Meyboom-de Jong B. (2003) Prevalence, incidence and mortality of type 2 diabetes mellitus revisited: a prospective population-based study in The Netherlands (ZODIAC-1). Eur J

[19] Kang SS, Littooy FN, Gupta SR. (1999) Higher prevalence of abdominal aortic aneurysms in patients with carotid stenosis but without diabetes. Surg. 126:687–692. [20] Popov Petar, Ružićić Dušan, Babić Srđan, Tanasković Slobodan, Gajin Predrag. Lozuk Branko, Radak Đorđe. (2011) Učestalost pojave aneurizme abdominalne aorte u

[21] Ana S. Mladenovic, Zeljko Markovic, Hideki H Hyodoh, and Tatjana Stosic-Opincal. (2012) Correlation of CT Aortography Measurements of Infrarenal Aortic Aneurysms and Body Mass Index in Preprocedural Evaluation for Endovascular Repair, Clinical

[22] Stephen WK, Cheng, Albert CW, Ting, Pei Ho, Jensen T. P. (2004) Poon Aortic Aneurysm Morphology in Asians: Features Affecting Stent-Graft Application and

[23] Cambria Richard P., LaMuraglie Glenn M., Gertler Jonathan P., Abbott William M., Waltman Arthur C. (2000) Endovascular Repair of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm:

bolesnika sa diabetes mellitusom, Medicinska istraživanja. 45:23-34.

Design. Journal of Endovascular Therapy. 6: 605-612.

Current Status and Future Directions, AJR: 175:332-343

with type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 32:748-52.

aortic aneurysms in the Asian community. Br J Surg. 88(3):382-4.

concepts. Surg Clin North Am 69: 687-703.

Source, ANZ J Surgery 73(6):393-5.

Asian community. Br J Surg. 88(3):382-4.

Health. Vol. 21, No. 2

Surg. 72(11):900-2.

23(2):189-97.

Epidemiol. 18(8):793-800

Anatomy. DOI 10.1002/ca.22027

**Chapter 7**


**2. Experimental techniques**

#### **2.1. Fabrication of multi-branched nanostructures**

**Figure 3a**–**c** shows the fabrication protocol of typical six-branched nanostructures with 2D and 3D layout (without and with perforated metal (PM) topologies). A combination of electron beam lithography (EBL, Raith 150-Two), and reactive ion etching (RIE, SENTECH) has been successfully employed for the uniform production of 3D and 3D PM nano-architectures. As highlighted in **Figure 3a** planar and 3D nanostructures share a common EBL step. A 250 nm polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA, 950 kDa) layer was spin coated at 3000 rpm for 60 s onto a p-type c-Si (100) wafer. The substrate has been heated at 180 °C for 9 min to get a homogenous PMMA film. After e-beam exposure (electron energy 30 keV and beam current 130 pA), the substrate has been developed in a 3:1 mixture of isopropanol and methyl isobutyl ketone at 4 °C for 3 min. For 2D structures, 3 nm Ti and 18 nm Au were deposited, and the unexposed PMMA removed by ultrasonically assisted lift-off in acetone. In the case of 3D multi-branched nanostar (MBNS) structures (**Figure 3b**), a 20 nm chromium layer was deposited on top of 3 nm Ti and 18 nm Au to act as an etch mask. The excess metal was removed using an ultrasonically assisted lift-off process. Thereafter, substrates were reactiveion etched (with an etch rate of ≈100 nm min−1) in an atmosphere of SF6 (30 Standard Cubic Centimeters per Minute—SCCM) and C4 F8 (32 SCCM) at 1 mTorr, where temperature, power and etching time were held at 4°C, 18 W and 25 s, respectively. After the RIE procedure, the chromium layer was removed by wet-etching in a ceric ammonium nitrate-based mixture (Sigma-Aldrich). 3D PM structures (**Figure 3c**) were obtained by depositing 20 nm of chromium after developing the PMMA. Excess chromium has been removed in acetone liftoff, leaving behind multi-branched shape chromium patterns on silicon, serving as etching masks. RIE was employed to produce the underlying pedestals. Subsequently, the chromium mask was removed leaving behind silicon stars on silicon posts. 3 nm Ti and 18 nm Au were evaporated at a deposition rate of 0.3 Å/s in order to form the Au MBNS as well as the perforated film on the underlying substrate.

#### **2.2. Numerical calculations**

Finite integration technique FIT (computer simulation technology-microwave, CST-MW) was used to calculate the near-field properties of the MBNS structures while rigorous coupled wave analysis (Synopsys' Optical Solutions, RSoft) was employed to calculate the far-field

**Figure 3.** (a–c) Schematic illustration of the protocol, for the fabrication procedure of six-branched nanostructure with different topologies. The corresponding SEM images for six-branched nanostructures are shown below. Reprinted with

Engineering 3D Multi-Branched Nanostructures for Ultra-Sensing Applications

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74066

17

The spectral response of the MB nanostructures under normal incidence irradiation was measured using an Olympus IX-73 research microscope. A 100 W halogen lamp (Olympus)

response of the nanostructures.

permission from reference [6]. Copyright 2017 John Wiley and Sons.

**2.3. Optical characterization**

Engineering 3D Multi-Branched Nanostructures for Ultra-Sensing Applications http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74066 17

**Figure 3.** (a–c) Schematic illustration of the protocol, for the fabrication procedure of six-branched nanostructure with different topologies. The corresponding SEM images for six-branched nanostructures are shown below. Reprinted with permission from reference [6]. Copyright 2017 John Wiley and Sons.

wave analysis (Synopsys' Optical Solutions, RSoft) was employed to calculate the far-field response of the nanostructures.

#### **2.3. Optical characterization**

SERS signals and homogeneity of the structures, alternative fabrication methods are needed. In this context, lithographic techniques can overcome these limitations, thus providing a feasible strategy towards the realization of uniformly patterned nanostructures over large areas. In the present chapter, fabrication and characterization of three-dimensional (3D) multibranched plasmonic architectures realized by means of electron-beam lithography (EBL) and reactive ion etching (RIE) techniques will be investigated. Numerical calculations, Raman and optical characterization will be used for demonstrating outstanding performances in analyte

**Figure 3a**–**c** shows the fabrication protocol of typical six-branched nanostructures with 2D and 3D layout (without and with perforated metal (PM) topologies). A combination of electron beam lithography (EBL, Raith 150-Two), and reactive ion etching (RIE, SENTECH) has been successfully employed for the uniform production of 3D and 3D PM nano-architectures. As highlighted in **Figure 3a** planar and 3D nanostructures share a common EBL step. A 250 nm polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA, 950 kDa) layer was spin coated at 3000 rpm for 60 s onto a p-type c-Si (100) wafer. The substrate has been heated at 180 °C for 9 min to get a homogenous PMMA film. After e-beam exposure (electron energy 30 keV and beam current 130 pA), the substrate has been developed in a 3:1 mixture of isopropanol and methyl isobutyl ketone at 4 °C for 3 min. For 2D structures, 3 nm Ti and 18 nm Au were deposited, and the unexposed PMMA removed by ultrasonically assisted lift-off in acetone. In the case of 3D multi-branched nanostar (MBNS) structures (**Figure 3b**), a 20 nm chromium layer was deposited on top of 3 nm Ti and 18 nm Au to act as an etch mask. The excess metal was removed using an ultrasonically assisted lift-off process. Thereafter, substrates were reactive-

(30 Standard Cubic

(32 SCCM) at 1 mTorr, where temperature, power

ion etched (with an etch rate of ≈100 nm min−1) in an atmosphere of SF6

F8

and etching time were held at 4°C, 18 W and 25 s, respectively. After the RIE procedure, the chromium layer was removed by wet-etching in a ceric ammonium nitrate-based mixture (Sigma-Aldrich). 3D PM structures (**Figure 3c**) were obtained by depositing 20 nm of chromium after developing the PMMA. Excess chromium has been removed in acetone liftoff, leaving behind multi-branched shape chromium patterns on silicon, serving as etching masks. RIE was employed to produce the underlying pedestals. Subsequently, the chromium mask was removed leaving behind silicon stars on silicon posts. 3 nm Ti and 18 nm Au were evaporated at a deposition rate of 0.3 Å/s in order to form the Au MBNS as well as the perfo-

Finite integration technique FIT (computer simulation technology-microwave, CST-MW) was used to calculate the near-field properties of the MBNS structures while rigorous coupled

detection at ultra-low concentrations.

16 Raman Spectroscopy

**2. Experimental techniques**

Centimeters per Minute—SCCM) and C4

rated film on the underlying substrate.

**2.2. Numerical calculations**

**2.1. Fabrication of multi-branched nanostructures**

The spectral response of the MB nanostructures under normal incidence irradiation was measured using an Olympus IX-73 research microscope. A 100 W halogen lamp (Olympus) with a broadband illumination source in the visible and near-infrared spectral range has been used. The linearly polarized light was obtained by a Glan-Taylor polarizer. Reflection spectra were measured with a 50× objective of numerical aperture 0.5. The collected light has been acquired through a spectrometer with a Peltier-cooled charge-coupled-device from Ocean Optics (QE65000 and NIRquest512 for visible and near-infrared measurements, respectively).

#### **2.4. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy**

SERS spectra were recorded with a Renishaw inVia micro-Raman spectrometer equipped with laser excitations at 830, 785, 633 and 532 nm, and a thermo-electrically cooled chargecoupled device (CCD) as detector. A 150× LEICA HCX PL APO objective (numerical aperture 0.95) was used. The diameter of the laser spot was around 680 nm, 800 nm, 1 μm and 1.07 μm for excitation wavelengths at 532, 633, 785 and 830 nm, respectively. The first order silicon peak at 520 cm−1 was used to calibrate the instrument; all the spectra were recorded at room temperature in the backscattering geometry. Wire 3.0 software was used to correct the baseline with a third-order polynomial fit. The probe molecules, p-aminothiophenol (p-MA) used in this study, were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.


Contents

## **Preface XI**

Chapter 8 **Municipal Solid Waste Management and Energy Recovery 127** José Carlos Escobar Palacio, José Joaquim Conceição Soares Santos, Maria Luiza Grillo Renó, Juarez Corrêa Furtado Júnior, Monica Carvalho, Arnaldo Martín Martínez Reyes and Dimas José Rúa Orozco

Preface

value.

gy, particularly from the applied perspective.

Industrialization has caused a hunger in mankind and the effects have had no equal in past history. The generation and the consumption of energy has become the basis of our global markets and has led to the formation of the largest, most powerful corporations on the planet. Energy storage and power generation are some of the largest influences that have driven both the industrial and agricultural sectors in the developed world to what they are today. In addition, a large majority of the world is powered by finite, unsustainable resources such as fossil fuels. With growing economies and growing populations, renewable energy gener‐ ation, such as solar, wind, and hydro generation is quickly growing as a means of producing electricity. These sources have great significance for consumers as they are environmentally

Renewable energy systems are increasing in popularity nowadays in power generation sys‐ tems because of the advances in the technology and the continuous increase in fuel prices. Due to the high cost of implementing individual renewable energy solutions and their low efficiency, a combination of several systems was introduced, forming a hybrid energy genera‐ tion solution. The system would typically combine two or more natural energy resources to produce a steady energy flow with improved efficiencies. To ensure high quality power sup‐ ply for loads, the grid is monitored constantly in real time. This includes sensing outage, overvoltage and under-voltage. Measurements are taken every cycle and compared to a threshold

Overall, the structure of the electrical power generation system is in the process of changing. For incremental growth, it is moving away from fossil fuel-based operations to renewable energy resources that are more environmentally friendly and sustainable. At the same time, it has to grow to meet the ever-increasing need for more energy. These changes bring very unique opportunities and obstacles at the same time. Over the past few decades, many new and innovative ideas have been explored in the broad area of energy conversion. This book encompasses a collection of selected research works in the areas of electric energy genera‐ tion, renewable energy sources, hybrid system, electromechanical energy conversion, elec‐ tric machines, power electronic converters and inverters, energy storage, and the smart grid. The book intends to provide academic and industry professionals working in the field of energy conversion and related applications with a n update on energy conversion technolo‐

The editor was privileged by the invitation of INTECH to act as editor of this book "Energy Conversion: Current Technologies and Future Trends", which contains high quality re‐

friendly. Also, they can replace the use of oil and coal in providing energy.


**1. Introduction**

Plants play important role in the cycle of nature. This is because life on earth basically depends on them. Plants provide man with all his needs as regards food, shelter, clothing, flavours and fragrance as well as medicine. They are naturally occurring substances that produce almost all the foods that animals as well as humans eat. They have unique potential to make their own food through photosynthesis. All foods that people eat naturally come directly or indirectly from plants. Food is fundamental to human survival. It is basic for averting hunger, satisfying one's palate and maintaining health of every human being. It is used as a status symbol, making people happy, emotionally and socially content, and constitutes a form of cultural expression. It is also used in the performance of various rituals and rites as well as for therapeutic purposes. Culture has a lot of influence on the kind of foods people eat and how they eat them. Traditional foods, was adopted to describe all foods from a particular culture, available from local sources and culturally acceptable as appropriate and desirable foods [1]. The direct and indirect food sources as regards nutrition are simply described as and categorized into two major sources plant and animal foods, respectively.

Despite the unique role of plant foods as irreplaceable food sources for humans, not all plant foods are available or edible worldwide. Traditional plant foods are those plants grown for food in varying proportions within the farming system operating in any particular locality; or gathered in wild or semi-wild conditions; and are accepted by the community, through custom, habit and tradition as appropriate and desirable foods [1, 2]. They are categorized as those that are consumed as traditional dietary staples and those consumed as components of accompa‐ nying relishes and sauces. These traditional foods are often used in sciences as basis for ensuring and optimizing utilization of indigenous foods and their health benefits by individ‐

© 2014 Udenta et al.; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

uals, households and communities. The use of plant foods for therapeutic purposes represents one of the biggest human uses of the natural flora of the world [3]. This is because of their health-enhancing bioactive constituents [4]. In the last four decades, there has been consider‐ able interest in resurrecting health-promoting potentials of indigenous plant foods in devel‐ oping countries and integrating their use into modern medical system. The reasons for this interest are varied and include, i) the negative impact of nutrition transition that increase epidemic of diet-related non-communicable chronic diseases (NCDs) in such regions; ii) high cost of medicare, which put modern health care out of reach of the poor; iii) low adherence to drug prescriptions; and iv) side effects of medicinal plant and herbal medicine extracts and/or preparations, because out of ignorance the consumers consume them as food supple‐ ments that are safe at any dose. This is not true for any of the high biologically active medicinal plants. Most of them cannot be consumed habitually as local foods without adverse effects. There was need to challenge reduced interest in and demand for drugs amidst poor health management in these poor regions. Pharmaceutical preparations from medicinal plants created a new expanding market as herbal components of health foods and preventive medicine under "nutraceuticals" or "nutriceuticals". Culhane [5] defined them as products produced from food and sold in pills, powders and other medicinal forms not generally associated with food and are shown to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic diseases. Chronic diseases are largely preventable diseases. Diet-related NCDs are diseases of long duration and generally slow in progression [6]. They are relatively difficult to manage. The high cost and side effects of these supplements still limit their use and have made this approach an unsustainable alternative strategy for chronic disease management and prevention.

management. There are mounting scientific evidence to date on their various health-promoting

Anti-Diabetic Effects of Nigerian Indigenous Plant Foods/Diets

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57240

61

The global concern for the diversification of the uses of plant foods to improve normal and therapeutic nutrition for diabetes control has shifted scientists' interest to enhancing the potential sources of beneficial constituents in plant foods. Plant foods have generated increas‐ ing research interest because of their anti-diabetic potentials. There is need to integrate traditional plant foods within local research and innovative systems, in accordance with local needs, food habits and priorities. Currently, documentations on Nigerian indigenous plant foods with anti-diabetic properties are either scattered or lacking. Most reviews on antidiabetic potentials of plants both locally [19, 20, 21] and internationally [22, 23, 24] were done on medicinal plants. Evidently, not all medicinal plants and herbs used locally are edible. Similarly, not all identified food crops have anti-diabetic potentials. Most of the plants assayed pharmacologically present some difficulties in their dietetic application in humans. They create a gap in optimizing their health-promoting potentials. This paper focuses on some Nigerian indigenous plant foods with anti-diabetic potentials, parts used, their individual effects as reported *in vitro/in vivo* and the extent to which the elucidated parts of the plants were incorporated into the traditional diets for good glycaemic control. The scientific evidence for health benefits of the identified plant foods are summarized in tabular format, and the strength of the evidence is discussed in general terms. Optimization of the utilization of some commonly consumed indigenous anti-diabetic plant foods and their diversification would enhance good diabetes management, improve health of people with diabetes in Nigeria and offer more

Plant foods have remained the ultimate source of nutrients for larger population of the world. They are simply described as irreplaceable food resources for humans, which exclude animal sources. Besides, they are available, affordable and acceptable. They are used for socio-cultural, diabolic, nutritional and therapeutic purposes. These foods contain many chemical com‐ pounds needed for metabolic functions in varying proportions. Some of these chemical compounds are non-nutrients that are beneficial to man and others provoke some adverse reactions depending on the levels of intake, interrelationships of nutrients and food habits. Plant foods are classified as cereals, roots and tubers, legumes (pulses, oil seeds and nuts), vegetables and fruits [25]. In order to accommodate these various constituents in foods provided by plants foods, three main categories were established according to the major nutrients they provide. They include the macronutrients (carbohydrate, protein, fat and water), micronutrients (minerals and vitamins) and non-nutrient components (dietary fibre, phyto‐ chemicals, anti-nutrients, food toxicants and additives). Metabolic functions of these nutrients and non-nutrients were reviewed by several authors. Bennett [16] observed that plant foods provide the bulk of daily calories for humans [85%) and about 65% of the protein, an assortment of minerals and vitamins, unsaturated fats and phytochemicals in a characteristic manner that reflects current dietary recommendations aimed at promoting health and reducing diet-related

sustainable health benefits for the indigenous inhabitants.

**2. Plant foods in human nutrition and health**

properties.

Carbohydrate food sources form the greatest percentage [50-60%) of the daily diet for different segments of the population [7]. In Nigeria, starchy staples (cereals, roots/tubers) and legumes constitute the major part of the traditional diets, up to 70% and 25%, respectively [8, 9, 10]. Physiologically, chronic restriction of carbohydrate–rich sources, mainly supplied by plant foods, may pose a serious threat to Nigeria's survival. Diabetics are particularly adversely affected due to misinformation and inability to seek dietetic intervention. Such dietary misinformation has led to starvation and the development of psychosocial problems in diabetics. This is because they feel denied and full of anxiety in anticipation of lifestyle changes [11].

Type 2 diabetes is more common in Nigeria. There was increase in the average prevalence rate from 2.7% [12] to 3.9% [13] and annual increase of 0.3%. Over the years, diet was implicated both as one of the aetiological factors to the development of diabetes [14] as well as a key component in diabetes management [7, 15]. Plant foods are the most important dietary sources to meet the nutritional needs of majority of the population in sub-Saharan Africa and Asian subcontinent [16]. Dietary fibre is a component of carbohydrate in plant foods shown to modulate post-prandial blood glucose after discovery of the "dietary fibre hypothesis" by Cleave [17] and Burkitt et al. [18]. Roles of phytochemicals and antioxidant constituents of plant foods were reported [4]. On this basis, plant foods hold good promise for diabetes management. There are mounting scientific evidence to date on their various health-promoting properties.

The global concern for the diversification of the uses of plant foods to improve normal and therapeutic nutrition for diabetes control has shifted scientists' interest to enhancing the potential sources of beneficial constituents in plant foods. Plant foods have generated increas‐ ing research interest because of their anti-diabetic potentials. There is need to integrate traditional plant foods within local research and innovative systems, in accordance with local needs, food habits and priorities. Currently, documentations on Nigerian indigenous plant foods with anti-diabetic properties are either scattered or lacking. Most reviews on antidiabetic potentials of plants both locally [19, 20, 21] and internationally [22, 23, 24] were done on medicinal plants. Evidently, not all medicinal plants and herbs used locally are edible. Similarly, not all identified food crops have anti-diabetic potentials. Most of the plants assayed pharmacologically present some difficulties in their dietetic application in humans. They create a gap in optimizing their health-promoting potentials. This paper focuses on some Nigerian indigenous plant foods with anti-diabetic potentials, parts used, their individual effects as reported *in vitro/in vivo* and the extent to which the elucidated parts of the plants were incorporated into the traditional diets for good glycaemic control. The scientific evidence for health benefits of the identified plant foods are summarized in tabular format, and the strength of the evidence is discussed in general terms. Optimization of the utilization of some commonly consumed indigenous anti-diabetic plant foods and their diversification would enhance good diabetes management, improve health of people with diabetes in Nigeria and offer more sustainable health benefits for the indigenous inhabitants.


**1. Introduction**

132 Applications of Digital Signal Processing

Ya Liu, Xiao-Hui Li, Yu-Lan Wang, *Multi-Channel Beat-Frequency Digital Measurement System*

684

*for Frequency Standard*, 2009 IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium, 679-

Developing computationally efficient processing techniques for massive volumes of hyperspectral data is critical for space-based Earth science and planetary exploration (see for example, (Plaza & Chang, 2008), (Henderson & Lewis, 1998) and the references therein). With the availability of remotely sensed data from different sensors of various platforms with a wide range of spatiotemporal, radiometric and spectral resolutions has made remote sensing as, perhaps, the best source of data for large scale applications and study. Applications of Remote Sensing (RS) in hydrological modelling, watershed mapping, energy and water flux estimation, fractional vegetation cover, impervious surface area mapping, urban modelling and drought predictions based on soil water index derived from remotelysensed data have been reported (Melesse et al., 2007). Also, many RS imaging applications require a response in (near) real time in areas such as target detection for military and homeland defence/security purposes, and risk prevention and response. Hyperspectral imaging is a new technique in remote sensing that generates images with hundreds of spectral bands, at different wavelength channels, for the same area on the surface of the Earth. Although in recent years several efforts have been directed toward the incorporation of parallel and distributed computing in hyperspectral image analysis, there are no standardized architectures or Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuits for this purpose in remote sensing applications.

Additionally, although the existing theory offers a manifold of statistical and descriptive regularization techniques for image enhancement/reconstruction, in many RS application areas there also remain some unsolved crucial theoretical and processing problems related to the computational cost due to the recently developed complex techniques (Melesse et al., 2007), (Shkvarko, 2010), (Yang et al., 2001). These descriptive-regularization techniques are associated with the unknown statistics of random perturbations of the signals in turbulent medium, imperfect array calibration, finite dimensionality of measurements, multiplicative signal-dependent speckle noise, uncontrolled antenna vibrations and random carrier trajectory deviations in the case of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems (Henderson & Lewis, 1998), (Barrett & Myers, 2004). Furthermore, these techniques are not suitable for

High-Speed VLSI Architecture Based on Massively Parallel

optimization-based regularization.

of an operator form (Shkvarko, 2008):

products, [*u*1, *u*2]U = 1 2 () ()

*Y*

*X*

(Shkvarko, 2008) may be rewritten as

 *u*(**y**) = ( *Se*( ) **x** )(**y**) = ( , )

*uud*

**2.1 Problem statement**

Processor Arrays for Real-Time Remote Sensing Applications 135

The problem of enhanced remote sensing (RS) imaging is stated and treated as an illposed nonlinear inverse problem with model uncertainties. The challenge is to perform high-resolution reconstruction of the power spatial spectrum pattern (SSP) of the wavefield scattered from the extended remotely sensed scene via space-time processing of finite recordings of the RS data distorted in a stochastic uncertain measurement channel. The SSP is defined as a spatial distribution of the power (i.e. the second-order statistics) of the random wavefield backscattered from the remotely sensed scene observed through the integral transform operator (Henderson & Lewis, 1998), (Shkvarko, 2008). Such an operator is explicitly specified by the employed radar signal modulation and is traditionally referred to as the signal formation operator (SFO) (Shkvarko, 2006). The classical imaging with an array radar or SAR implies application of the method called "matched spatial filtering" to process the recorded data signals (Franceschetti et al., 2006), (Shkvarko, 2008), (Greco & Gini, 2007). A number of approaches had been proposed to design the constrained regularization techniques for improving the resolution in the SSP obtained by ways different from the matched spatial filtering, e.g., (Franceschetti et al., 2006), (Shkvarko, 2006, 2008), (Greco & Gini, 2007), (Plaza, A. & Chang, 2008), (Castillo Atoche et al., 2010a, 2010b) but without aggregating the minimum risk descriptive estimation strategies and specialized hardware architectures via FPGA structures and VLSI components as accelerators units. In this study, we address a extended descriptive experiment design regularization (DEDR) approach to treat such uncertain SSP reconstruction problems that unifies the paradigms of minimum risk nonparametric spectral estimation, descriptive experiment design and worst-case statistical performance

Consider a coherent RS experiment in a random medium and the narrowband assumption (Henderson & Lewis, 1998), (Shkvarko, 2006) that enables us to model the extended object backscattered field by imposing its time invariant complex scattering (backscattering)

wavefield *u*(**y**) = *s*(**y**) + *n*(**y**)consists of the echo signals *s* and additive noise *n* and is available for observations and recordings within the prescribed time-space observation domain *Y* = *T*u*P*, where **y** = (*t*, **p**)T defines the time-space points in *Y*. The model of the observation wavefield *u* is defined by specifying the stochastic equation of observation (EO)

in the Hilbert signal spaces E and U with the metric structures induced by the inner

model of the stochastic EO in the conventional integral form (Henderson & Lewis, 1998),

*X*

*X*

*eed*

*S*³ **y x** *e*(**x**)*d***x** + (,)

*X* G

*u* = *Se + n*; *e* E; *u, n* U; *S*

³ **y yy** , and [*e*1, *e*2]E = 1 2 () ()

*S*³ **y x** *e*(**x**)*d***x** +4 *n*(**y**) = ( , )

**x**. The measurement data

: E o U , (1)

*S* ³ **y x** *e*(**x**)*d***x** + *n*(**y**) . (2)

³ **x xx** , respectively. The operator

function *e*(**x**) in the scene domain (scattering surface) *X*

(near) real time implementation with existing Digital Signal Processors (DSP) or Personal Computers (PC).

To treat such class of real time implementation, the use of specialized arrays of processors in VLSI architectures as coprocessors or stand alone chips in aggregation with Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) devices via the hardware/software (HW/SW) co-design, will become a real possibility for high-speed Signal Processing (SP) in order to achieve the expected data processing performance (Plaza, A. & Chang, 2008), (Castillo Atoche et al., 2010a, 2010b). Also, it is important to mention that cluster-based computing is the most widely used platform on ground stations, however several factors, like space, cost and power make them impractical for on-board processing. FPGA-based reconfigurable systems in aggregation with custom VLSI architectures are emerging as newer solutions which offer enormous computation potential in both cluster-based systems and embedded systems area. In this work, we address two particular contributions related to the substantial reduction of the computational load of the Descriptive-Regularized RS image reconstruction technique based on its implementation with massively processor arrays via the aggregation of highspeed low-power VLSI architectures with a FPGA platform.

First, at the algorithmic-level, we address the design of a family of Descriptive-Regularization techniques over the range and azimuth coordinates in the uncertain RS environment, and provide the relevant computational recipes for their application to imaging array radars and fractional imaging SAR operating in different uncertain scenarios. Such descriptive-regularized family algorithms are computationally adapted for their HWlevel implementation in an efficient mode using parallel computing techniques in order to achieve the maximum possible parallelism.

Second, at the systematic-level, the family of Descriptive-Regularization techniques based on reconstructive digital SP operations are conceptualized and employed with massively parallel processor arrays (MPPAs) in context of the real time SP requirements. Next, the array of processors of the selected reconstructive SP operations are efficiently optimized in fixed-point bit-level architectures for their implementation in a high-speed low-power VLSI architecture using 0.5um CMOS technology with low power standard cells libraries. The achieved VLSI accelerator is aggregated with a FPGA platform via HW/SW co-design paradigm.

Alternatives propositions related to parallel computing, systolic arrays and HW/SW codesign techniques in order to achieve the near real time implementation of the regularizedbased procedures for the reconstruction of RS applications have been previously developed in (Plaza, A. & Chang, 2008), (Castillo Atoche et al., 2010a, 2010b). However, it should be noted that the design in hardware (HW) of a family of reconstructive signal processing operations have never been implemented in a high-speed low-power VLSI architecture based on massively parallel processor arrays in the past.

Finally, it is reported and discussed the implementation and performance issues related to real time enhancement of large-scale real-world RS imagery indicative of the significantly increased processing efficiency gained with the proposed implementation of high-speed low-power VLSI architectures of the descriptive-regularized algorithms.


**1. Introduction**

Obesity is one of the modern world challenges, which has become epidemic and has negatively affected population health. Obesity and overweight, which in most cases accompany metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes, are among the independent risk factors for overall mortality, including death from cardiovascular disease

and cancer [1]. In recent years, special attention has been given to the sedentary lifestyle of people of almost all ages, as it is proven that lack of physical activity is an independent significant factor in deteriorating health. A meta-analysis of studies examining the relationship between physical activity and overall mortality showed that a higher level of total physical activity of any intensity and less time spent in sedentary behaviors are associated with a significant reduction in the risk of overall mortality [2].

In addition to physical inactivity, eating disorders, and intestinal microbiota status, the causes of obesity include genetic factors, such as gene polymorphisms and epigenetic modifications. Weight loss training programs are the major means of obesity prevention, cardiovascular fitness improvement, and body mass reduction. However, the effectiveness of these programs ranges from 79–83%. The outcomes of exercise training aimed at weight loss in overweight and obese adults depend on individual characteristics of the body, such as morphological and metabolic features, developed under the influence of hereditary and environmental factors throughout life. A number of informative biochemical, genetic, epigenetic, and microbiotic markers can be used to determine the most effective mode of exercise training according to individual metabolic characteristics.

The current situation in the world only exacerbates it drawing attention to the increased risk of COVID-19-related death in overweight and obese people. The problem of being overweight in light of the current epidemic situation is further exacerbated as the quarantine restrictions, which are periodically imposed by state and municipal authorities, contribute to the spread of hypodynamia among the population. The stress provoked by the epidemic situation triggers destructive eating behaviors with excessive calorie density. Hypodynamia and excessive calorie density make them gain weight even more and lead to greater health risks. The urgency of this problem stipulates the need to develop a personalized approach to designing physical exercise programs for obese people and assess the impact of individual markers of obesity on the effectiveness of such programs.


**Author details**

**Figure 13.** MRI Showing Anterior labral tear.

**Figure 11.** 3D CT Scan showing Bony Bankart lesion.

10 Advances in Shoulder Surgery

**Figure 12.** USG Shoulder showing spinoglenoid cyst.

Satish B. Sonar\* and Omkar P. Kulkarni \*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Dr. PDM Medical College, Amravati, India