without being bothered.' [Types of tools in the home]

A construction for constituent negation consists of the substitutive as a proclitic to the general negator *mma*, followed by the infinitive carrying the augment.1

(7) kʊkʊtɪ every ii-sikʊ 5-day i-kʊ-kʊ-tʊk-a, 1-prs-2sg-insult-fv kangɪ again i-kʊ-tɪ 1-prs-say "ʊ-ne aug-1sg **ne**=**mma** 1sg=no **ʊ**-**kw**-**eg**-**igw**-**a** aug-15-marry-pass-fv na com Juma, J. n-ga-n̩-gan-a" 1sg-neg-1-love-fv 'Every day she speaks badly about you and she says "Me, I'm not getting married to Juma, I don't love him."' [Juma, Asia and Sambuka]

This construction, with the class 15 substitutive *ko*, thus *komma*, also serves to form negative commands (8). A free variant *somma* is also found (9, 10).2 These prohibitives can be adressed to a single person (8, 9) as well as to the second person plural (10).

(8) **komma** proh **ʊ**-**kʊ**-**nyonyw**-**a** aug-15(inf)-desire-fv ɪ-fi aug-prox.8 a-p-eeliigwe 1-give-pass.pfv ʊ-n-nino aug-1-your\_companion

'Do not desire what your neighbour has been given.' [Chief Kapyungu]

(9) **somma** proh **ʊ**-**kʊ**-**paasy**-**a**! aug-15-worry-fv lee now/but po then keet-a, watch-fv ʊ-ka-a-job-aga 2sg-neg-pst-speak-ipfv bo as ʊ-kaalɪ 2sg-pers ʊ-kʊʊ-ny-eeg-a? aug-15-1sg-take-fv?

'Don't worry! Now look, why didn't you speak before picking me up?' [Crocodile and Monkey]

1Cf. also Schumann (1899: 69) and Endemann (1914: 84f).

2The source of the initial fricative is unclear.

### 11 Verbal nouns (infinitives)

(10) lɪnga if/when m-b-iigal-iile 1sg-2pl-close-appl.pfv **somma** proh **ʊ**-**kʊ**-**sook**-**a** aug-15-leave-fv pa-nja 16-outside 'When I've locked you (pl.) in, don't go outside.' [Python and woman]

### **11.4 Functions of verbal nouns**

### **11.4.1 Arguments of auxiliaries, modal and motion verbs**

Verbal nouns serve as complements of phasal verbs, also called *aspectualizers*, such as *anda* 'begin, start', *mala* 'finish, stop', *leka* 'seize' or *endelela* 'continue'. These take either the infinitive with the augment or the infinitive marked for locative class 16 as their complement. The latter is illustrated in (11). For numerous examples of the first see Chapter 5. It is unclear how far the two differ in meaning and use. Speaker preferences seem to play a role: the younger language assistants used the class 16 form more frequently than the older assistants.

(11) i-kʊ-kwel-a 1-prs-climb-fv kangɪ again mu-m-piki 18-3-tree n=ʊ-kw-**endelel**-a com=aug-15-continue-fv **pa**-**kw**-**ap**-**a** 16-15-pick-fv a-ma-peasi aug-6-pear(<SWA) 'He climbs up the tree again and continues to pick pears.' [Elisha pear story]

Infinitives, either with the augment or marked for locative class 16, also figure as arguments of modality and manipulation verbs, where they alternate with the subjunctive (§<IP_ADDRESS>). The alternation between infinitives and the subjunctive mood is also found following predicative expressions of (dis-)approval or preference, including the invariants *kyajɪpo* '(it is) better' and *paakipo* '(it is) preferable'.

(12) n̩-dʊ-baatɪko 18-11-procedure lw-a 11-assoc twe 1pl ba-Nyakyusa 2-Ny. ʊ-n-nyambala aug-1-man **ʊ**-**kʊ**-**pɪɪj**-**a**, aug-15-cook-fv pamo or **ʊ**-**kʊ**-**suk**-**a** aug-15-wash-fv ɪ-my-enda, aug-4-clothe pamo or **ʊ**-**kʊ**-**neg**-**a** aug-15-draw\_liquid-fv a-m-ɪɪsi aug-6-water bo as ba-li=po 2-cop=16 a-ba-kiikʊlʊ aug-2-woman **mw**-**iko** 3-taboo 'In the custom of us, the Nyakyusa people, it is taboo for men to cook or wash clothes or draw water when women are around.' [Division of labour]

11.4 Functions of verbal nouns

Infinitives further function as oblique arguments of modal readings of verbs such as *tola* 'defeat' and its passive *toligwa* 'fail', *kɪnda* 'surpass' or *taamigwa* 'be troubled' (13). See also (5) on p. 324 above and (90b, 90c) on p. 175.

(13) tʊ-tol-iigwe 1pl-defeat-pass.pfv ʊ-kʊ-lɪ-kol-a aug-15-5-grasp/hold-fv ii-bole 5-leopard 'We've failed to catch the leopard.' [Chief Kapyungu]

Infinitives additionally marked for locative classes 16 or 18 also constitute the lexical verb of periphrastic TMA constructions, namely the periphrastic progressive (§6.6.1), the prospective/inceptive (§8.7) and the narrative tense (§7.3). An infinitive with the augment or marked for one of the three locative classes 16–18 may further serve as the complement of the persistive aspect auxiliary (§6.6.2) and augmentless infinitives may serve as the semantic main verb of the movement grams (§10.4).

Lastly, verbs of motion and related verbs such as *ɪma* 'stand, stop' or *tʊma* 'send' often take an infinitive complement additionally marked for one of the three locative classes. Class 16 here indicates that the motion is in relation to a specific place where the eventuality of the verbal noun takes place (14). With class 17, this typically denotes motion with a purpose (15). In a related fashion, a class 17 infinitive can specifically serve as a purpose clause in this context (16). However, a pure motion reading 'to / from' the eventuality is also possible (17). Infinitives marked for class 18 also predominantly give a purposive reading (18), although a locational one is also attested (19).

'One time, four thieves went to steal cows at night.' [Wage of the thieves]

(16) Kalʊlʊ Hare a-lɪnkʊ-bʊʊk-a 1-narr-go-fv kʊ-lʊ-bʊbi 17-11-spider **kʊ**-**kʊ**-**laalʊʊsy**-**a** 17-15-ask-fv lɪnga if/when lʊ-mmw-ag-ile 11-1-find-pfv ʊ-n-kiikʊlʊ aug-1-woman

'Hare went to Spider to ask if it had found a woman.' [Hare and Spider]

### 11 Verbal nouns (infinitives)

### **11.4.2 Uses as converbs and related functions**

Infinitives can be used in a fashion similar to converbs of simultaneity. The term converb is here understood in Haspelmath's (1995: 3) definition as "a non-finite verb form whose main function is to mark adverbial subordination. Another way of putting it is that converbs are verbal adverbs". Examples (20–22) illustrate this. The use of infinitives in a converb-like manner is especially common with verbs of motion, where each verb provides different components of a single motion event (22).

(20) ba-lɪnkʊ-fimbɪlɪsy-a 2-narr-persuade-fv fiijo intens **ʊ**-**kʊ**-**n̩**-**daalʊʊsy**-**a** aug-15-1-ask-fv mpaka until a-a-job-ile 1-pst-speak-pfv a-a-t-ile 1-pst-say-pfv

'They interrogated her much until she spoke.' [Killer woman]

from] the bedroom and caught that woman.' [Killer woman]

### 11.4 Functions of verbal nouns

An infinitive together with a proclitic form of the comitative *na* can be used following another verb to create a tight link between the states-of-affairs of the two, which often occur in sequence. Most commonly the first verb is fully inflected. The relationship between these verbs can be one of cause and consequence (23), preparation and culmination (24), or eventualities based on each other in a more general sense (25). It is also attested with verbs expressing similar or conceptually related meanings (26) and with the last verb in iconic repetitions (27). (28) illustrates coordination with a preceding infinitive complement.

'He loads a whole basket onto the front of his bicycle and rides away.' [Elisha Pear Story]

### 11 Verbal nouns (infinitives)

**n**=**ʊ**-**kʊ**-**bʊʊk**-**a** com=aug-15-go-fv na=jo com=ref.9 pa-lʊ-sʊngo 16-11-island pa-kw-angal-a 16-15-be\_well-fv 'Crocodile used to come to pick up monkey and go with him to an island to spend time together.' [Crocodile and Monkey]

This structure is conventionalized with the verb *enda* 'walk/travel' as the first verb and serves as a marker of sequential events:

(29) ʊ-n-hɪɪj-i aug-1-thief ʊ-jʊ aug-prox.1 a-a-longwile 1-pst-lead.pfv n-ky-eni 18-7-forehead a-lɪnkw-**end**-a 1-narr-walk/travel-fv **n**=**ʊ**-**kʊ**-**kol**-**a** com=aug-15-grasp/hold-fv ʊ-lw-igi aug-11-door 'The thief who was going ahead then grabbed the door.' [Wage of the thieves]

Most commonly, only one verb in a sequence is expressed by the comitative infinitive. In a few cases, however, up to three verbs (30) marked in this manner can be found.

'That young woman returned and arrived at home and told and showed her husband these things.' [Man and his in-law]

Other infinitives serve a variety of functions which likely go back to their converb-like use. The infinitive of *tɪ* 'say' amongst other things serves as a complementizer; see §10.3. The reciprocal/associative of *konga* 'follow' is used as an infinitive in a preposition-like manner, together with a comitative phrase expressing reason (31). Similarly the infinitive of *fika* 'arrive', *fuma* 'come from', and *anda* 'start', as well as its applicative *andɪla*, are used in a preposition-like manner. Note that in the case of the first two, the original spatial meaning has been extended to a temporal one. (32, 33) illustrate this use for *fuma* and *andɪla*.

(31) nalooli really **ʊ**-**kʊ**-**kong**-**an**-**a** aug-15-follow-recp-fv **n**=ʊ-lʊ-gano com=aug-11-love ʊ-lʊ aug-prox.11 a-a-lɪ 1-pst-cop

na=lo com=ref.11 n̩goosi N. a-lɪnkʊ-jong-a 1-narr-run\_away-fv n=ʊ-n-nyambala com=aug-1-man jʊ-mo 1-one 'Because of the love that Ngoosi had, she eloped with a man.' [Man and his in-law]

Lastly, the infinitive of *anda* 'begin, start' is further used as the dependent noun in the associative construction as the ordinal number 'first':

(34) a-lɪnkw-is-a 1-narr-come-fv ʊ-mu-ndʊ aug-1-person ʊ-gw-a aug-1-assoc kw-and-a 15-begin-fv 'The first person came.' [Chief Kapyungu]

## **Appendix A: Overview of core TMA constructions**

This appendix gives an overview over the core tense, aspect and modality constructions, together with a short summary of their respective functions. Table A.1 lists the present (non-past) and past tense constructions (Chapter 6), Table A.2 summarizes the commonalities and differences of the two narrative markers (Chapter 7), Table A.3 lists the futurate constructions (Chapter 8), and Table A.4 lists mood and modal constructions (Chapter 9).

### Table A.1: Major present (non-past) and past tense constructions

### A Overview of core TMA constructions

Commonalities:

past time reference (§7.3.2, 7.4.3)

> •

	- •narrative discourse is structured around the notion of thematic continuity (§<IP_ADDRESS>.6)

### A Overview of core TMA constructions

Table A.3:

Futurate

constructions

Table A.4: Major mood and modality constructions

## **Appendix B: Texts**

This appendix presents a sample of three texts, all performed orally: two folk narratives and one expository text. For each text, the gender and approximate age of the interlocutor as well as the place and date of recording are provided.

### **B.1 Narrative: Crocodile and Monkey**

This narrative text was told by a male speaker in his 50s in the city of Mbeya in September 2015.

"jʊʊba my\_mother(1) gw-angʊ 1-poss.1sg m̩-bine. 1-ill tʊ-bʊʊk-e 1pl-go-subj ʊ-ka-n-keet-e" 2sg-itv-1-watch-subj 'So Crocodile went to Monkey to tell him "My mother is sick. Let's go, you should see her."'

'When monkey had mounted Crocodile, going to see Crocodile's mother, when they were travelling in the middle of the water, Crocodile started to cry.'

(9) po then ɪ-n-gambɪlɪ aug-9-monkey jɪ-lɪnkʊ-tɪ 9-narr-say "fi-ki 8-what m-manyaani 1-friend gw-angʊ 1-poss.1sg kʊ-lɪl-a?" 2sg.prs-cry-fv

'Monkey said "Why, my friend, are you crying?"'

'Crocodile said "I was worrying that you would refuse."'

(15) po then ɪ-n-gambɪlɪ aug-9-monkey jɪ-lɪnkʊ-tɪ 9-narr-say "lɪno now/today po then ʊ-bomb-ile 2sg-do-pfv kabiibi badly paapo because ɪ-n-gambɪlɪ aug-10-monkey si-kʊ-j-a 10-neg-prs-be(come)-fv n=ɪ-n-dumbula com=aug-10-heart m-mu-nda. 18-3?-inside\_of\_body ɪ-n-gambɪlɪ aug-10-monkey tʊ-kʊ-si-lek-a 1pl-prs-10-let-fv m-mi-piki. 18-4-tree. pa-la 16-dist gʊʊ-ny-aag-ile 2sg-1sg-find-pfv mu-m-piki 18-3-tree ʊ-ka-fi-bon-a 2sg-neg-8-see-fv ɪ-fi aug-prox.8 fy-a-syut-aga 8-pst-dangle-ipfv fiijo intens mu-la?" 18-dist

'Monkey said "Now you did badly because monkeys don't have their hearts inside the body. Us monkeys we leave them in the trees. There where you met me, in the tree, didn't you see the things that were dangling in there?"'

'He called crocodile so that it would be close below.'

'They started throwing mangoes at Crocodile.'

(24) fyobeene therefore ɪ-n-gwina aug-9-crocodile ʊ-m̩-bɪlɪ aug-3-body gw-ake 3-poss.sg gʊ-ka-j-a 3-neg-be(come)-fv

n-nunu, 3-good paapo because ba-a-jɪ-tuuny-ile 2-pst-9-throw-pfv fiijo intens 'That is why, as for Crocodile, its body is not beautiful, because they threw at it hard.'

### **B.2 Narrative: Hare and Skunk**

This narrative was told by a male speaker in his 60s in the village of Lwangwa in December 2014.

'So one day Hare and Skunk went to hunt.'

(4) po then bo as bi-kʊ-fwɪm-a 2-prs-hunt-fv ba-a-kol-ile 2-pst-grasp/hold-pfv ii-kanga 5-guineafowl 'When they were hunting they caught a guinea fowl.'

'When Skunk woke up, he found that Hare had eaten all of the meat.'

(25) po then a-lɪnkʊ-mmw-ani-a 1-narr-1-ask-fv kalʊlʊ hare(1) a-lɪnkʊ-tɪ 1-narr-say "ɪɪ-nyama aug-meat(9) jɪ-bʊʊk-ile 9-go-pfv kʊʊgʊ?" where

'So he asked Hare "The meat, where has it gone?"'

'He came with those leaves, while Hare was asleep.'

'Then one day they went together to dance to the Ngoma drums.'

'He began to beat it "I ate all the meat on the fire. I said it had burnt. I said it had burnt."'

'He started to beat the drum saying "I beat him, I beat him. I beat him on the back."'

### B Texts

'[Hare:] "I'm saying "It was you who beat me?" I'm asking you."'

1This use of *kolaana* is the only attested use of a bare verb stem that does not serve as an imperative.

'Also Skunk grasped Hare's ears.'

### **B.3 Expository: The custom of dancing**

This expository text was told by a male speaker in his 40s at Manow mission in October 2015.

'So this is the custom of us, the Nyakyusa people.'

(eds.), *Languages across boundaries: Studies in memory of Anna Siewierska*, 192– 226. Berlin: de Gryuter.

Kittilä, Seppo. 2009. Causative morphemes as non-valency increasing devices. *Folia Linguistica* 43(1). 67–94.

Klein, Wolfang. 1994. *Time in language*. London: Routledge.

Lewis, M. Paul (ed.). 2009. *Ethnologue: Languages of the world*. Dallas: SIL.

Verkuyl, Henk J. 1972. *On the compositional nature of aspect*. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.

Watters, David E. 2002. *A grammar of Kham*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ziervogel, Dirk, Jacobus Abraham Louw & Petrus C. Taltjaardt. 1981. *A handbook of the Zulu language*. 3rd edn. Pretoria: van Schaik.

Aristotle, 19 Austin, John L., 295 Bain, James Alexander, 3, 4 Bar-el, Leora, 20 Bastin, Yvonne, 13, 145, 222 Bearth, Thomas, 47, 48, 60 Bennet, William G, 84 Berger, Paul, 3–5, 12, 54, 55, 94, 110, 145–147, 149–151, 214, 233, 255, 256, 264, 275, 281, 289 Bernander, Rasmus, 4, 5, 54 Bickel, Balthasar, 18, 21, 22 Bickmore, Lee, 38 Binnick, Robert I., 19, 20, 22, 121, 153, 249 Bohnemeyer, Jürgen, 293 Bostoen, Koen, 5, 17, 35, 85 Botne, Robert, 1, 6, 13, 15–18, 20–22, 30, 38, 66, 75, 87, 91, 108, 110, 114, 115, 117, 122, 126, 136, 142, 156, 159, 163, 164, 167, 234, 250, 275, 279, 282, 303, 314 Bresnan, Joan, 95 Breu, Walter, 21 Brinton, Laurel J., 293 Budd, Peter, 68 Buffin, Jules Marc, 194 Busse, Joseph, 3–5, 12, 191, 214, 233, 264, 275, 281, 288

263, 288 Carlson, Gregory N., 224 Carlson, Robert, 179, 214, 229, 275 Chafe, Wallace, 12 Christensen, Lisa, 265 Clemens, Laura, 38 Cleve, 2, 5 Cole, Desmond T., 19 Comrie, Bernard, 14, 17, 23, 72, 159, 180, 258 Contini Morava, Ellen, 142, 213, 219, 229 Cook, John, 229 Cover, Rebecca Tamar, 11, 192, 229 Crane, Thera Maria, 1, 17, 20, 158– 160, 240 Croft, William, 21 Crowley, Terry, 11 Dahl, Östen, 1, 11, 14, 161, 162, 164, 180, 209, 250, 251, 261 Devos, Maud, 63, 68, 72, 268, 271 Diercks, Michael, 66 Dimmendaal, Gerrit J., 151 Doke, Clemens, 270 Dom, Sebastian, 17 Dooley, Robert A., 178, 179, 236 Downing, Laura J., 77 Dowty, David R., 116, 120–122, 162, 166

Bybee, Joan L., 14, 160–162, 164, 249,

Duranti, Alessandro, 4 Eaton, Helen, 5, 8 7 , 12, 596 , 60, 223, 234, 292, 293 Ebneter, Theodor, 265 Ehret, Christopher, 6, 8 Endemann, Karl, 3, 4, 40, 55, 60, 70, 87, 88, 95, 109, 161, 191, 221, 223, 233, 251, 255, 264, 265, 270, 285, 321, 325 Essen, Otto von, 3, 4, 32, 38 Evans, Vyvyan, 15 Fauconnier, Gilles, 24 Felberg, Knut, 5, 11, 40, 88, 145, 149, 150, 313 Fenning, Charles D., 2 Filip, Hana, 20 Fintel, Kai von, 288 Fleisch, Axel, 1, 79, 115 Fleischman, Suzanne, 24, 25, 169, 193, 194, 203, 205, 207, 214, 228, 238, 258 Fourshey, Catherine Cymone, 8 Freed, Alice, 21, 121 Fülleborn, Friedrich, 6 Givón, Talmy, 178, 199, 293 Good, Jeffrey Craig, 97 Gray, Hazel, 60, 66, 108, 293 Green, Melanie, 15 Greenway, P.J., 5 Güldemann, Tom, 23, 48, 52, 53, 250, 279, 311 Guthrie, Malcolm, 3, 38 Haspelmath, Martin, 54, 204, 222, 328 Hawkinson, A.K., 4 Heine, Bernd, 6, 14

Hodson, T.C., 3, 5 Hopper, Paul J., 23, 169 Hyman, Larry M., 5, 29, 32, 43, 79, 80, 107, 110, 148 Jakobson, Roman, 213 Jaxontov, Sergej Je., 164 Johanson, Lars, 21, 160 Johnston, Henry Hamilton, 3, 4, 6, 8 Jones, Larry B., 175 Jones, Linda K., 175 Kähler-Meyer, Emmi, 3, 4, 32, 38 Kamp, Hans, 163 Karels, Jacob., 27 Katamba, Francis X., 39, 40, 43, 48 Kemmer, Suzanne, 90 Kenny, Anthony, 20 Kershner, Tiffany L., 1, 6, 13, 15–18, 20, 21, 114, 115, 136, 156, 159, 163, 164, 167, 185, 250 Kind, Jasper de, 222 King, Daniel, 5 Kishindo, Pascal J., 6, 30, 36, 38, 54, 142, 156, 167 Kisseberth, Charles, 38, 108 Kittilä, Seppo, 87 Klein, Wolfang, 16, 192 Kolbusa, Stefanie, 5 Konter-Katani, Maggy, 2, 4, 5 Krifka, Manfred, 224, 293 Kröger, Rüdiger, 3, 5 Kutsch Lojenga, Constance, 31, 288 Labov, William, 14, 24, 25, 229, 236 Labroussi, Catherine, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 30, 35, 36, 38, 54, 80, 87, 89, 142 Lee, Seunghun J., 84 Lehmann, Christian, 290, 293

Levinsohn, Stephen H., 27, 178, 179, 236 Levinson, Steven C., 23 Lewis, M. Paul, 2 Lindfors, Anna-Lena, 9 Lindsted, Jouko, 162 Longacre, Robert E., 14, 26, 175, 177, 178, 193, 211, 244 Lusekelo, Amani, 4, 39, 40, 60, 95, 107, 108, 110, 115, 222, 251, 265, 282, 299 Madan, Arthur Cornwallis, 316 Maganga, Clement, 110 Maho, Jouni Filip, 2, 6, 9, 39 Marlo, Michael R., 64 Mathangwane, Joyce T., 87 Maw, Joan, 316 McCawley, James D., 72 Meeussen, A. E., 3 Meinhof, Carl, 2, 4, 40, 88, 109 Merensky, Alexander, 3, 5 Method, Samuel, 4 Meyer, Theodor, 4, 111, 233 Michaelis, Laura A., 129 Miestamo, Matti, 142 Moens, Marc, 163 Möhlig, Wilhelm J. G., 6, 29 Morrison, Michelle Elizabeth, 229 Moshi, Lioba, 95 Mous, Maarten, 11 Mreta, Abel Yamwaka, 115 Mulinda, M.F., 4 Muzale, Henry R.T., 2 Mwakasaka, Christon S., 5 Mwalilino, Walusako A., 5 Mwangoka, Ngapona, 3–5, 54, 80, 88, 161, 221, 233, 287

Namyalo, Saudah, 43 Nedjalkov, Vladimir P., 164 Nicolle, Steve, 272, 291, 317 Nurse, Derek, 1, 4, 6–8, 14, 23, 29, 35, 38, 40, 142, 149, 161, 178, 186, 190, 192, 209, 210, 222, 229, 249, 250, 263, 265, 269, 282, 287 Nuyts, Jan, 288 Odden, David, 38 Ogden, Charley Kay, 26 Olmen, Daniël van, 268, 271 Palmer, Frank R., 267 Park, George, 7 Payne, Doris L., 169, 171 Persohn, Bastian, 4, 5, 20–22, 54, 63, 66, 68, 72, 126, 222, 228, 293 Philippson, Gerard, 6–8, 29 Portner, Paul, 163 Prein, Phillipp, 2 Prince, Ellen F., 27 Reichenbach, Hans, 15, 163 Reyle, Uwe, 163 Richards, Ivor Armstrong, 26 Ritz, Marie-Eve, 163 Robar, Elisabeth, 179, 228 Rose, Sandra R., 210, 270 Rugemalira, Josephat M., 2 Sambeek, Jan Cornelius van, 87 Sasse, Hans-Jürgen, 18, 19, 21 Schadeberg, Thilo C., 30, 77, 79, 89, 92, 97, 101–105, 110, 111 Schumann, K., 2, 3, 5, 40, 55, 60, 70, 87, 88, 95, 97, 108–110, 146, 150, 161, 191, 221, 233, 251,

255, 264, 265, 269, 285, 287, 321, 325 Seidel, Frank, 17, 22, 111, 115, 118, 136, 213, 229, 269–271 Shirtz, Shahir, 169 Simons, Gary F., 2 Smith, Carlota S., 18, 20, 203, 222 Stassen, Leon, 70, 305 Steedman, Mark, 163 Stolz, Adolf, 3, 5 Swilla, Imani N., 8, 9, 142, 293 Talmy, Leonard, 245 Tatevosov, Sergej, 20 Timberlake, Alan, 270 Toews, Carmela, 136 Tomlin, Russel S., 175 Tonhauser, Judith, 192 Traugott, Elizabeth Closs, 265 Vendler, Zeno, 19–22, 122, 140 Verkuyl, Henk J., 20, 122 Voorhoeve, Jan, 3–5, 54, 59, 80, 88, 161, 221, 233, 287 Wal, Jenneke van der, 43 Waletzky, Joshua, 14, 24, 25, 229, 236 Walsh, Martin T., 5, 8, 9, 55 Watters, David E., 179 Weber, Paul, 2, 3 Weinreich, Harald, 23 Welmers, William Everett, 159 Werner, Alice, 5 Wilkins, David P., 317 Wilson, Monica, 2, 5, 6, 8, 9 Wolff, R., 59, 60, 110 Ziegeler, Debra, 293 Ziervogel, Dirk, 270

## **Language index**

Avokaya, 178

Luchazi, 1151

Badiaranke, 229 Bemba, 87 Bena, 229 Biblical Hebrew, 179, 229 Central Sudanic languages, 6 Chasu, 1151 Chewa, 87 Digo, 272, 29113 English, 16, 19, 21, 114, 120, 121, 192 Fipa, 7, 8 Ganda, 43 German, 19224 Iwa, 7 Kalanga, 87 Kanyoka, 72 Kaonde, 72 Kham, 179 Kikongo, 17, 222 Kinga, 2, 35, 596 , 60, 110 Kisi, 2, 35, 60, 108, 293 Lamba, 23 Lambya, 7

115, 1151 , 126, 136, 137, 1422 , 147, 1476 , 156, 159, 234, 275, 293, 3144 Ngonde, 2, 6, 8, 9, 301 , 366 , 38, 543 , 1422 , 156, 16716 Nyamwezi, 110 Nyika, 7–9, 60, 28811 Old French, 238 Penja, 9 Pimbwe, 8 Proto-Bantu, 4, 13, 30, 55, 81, 834 , 97, 249, 3031 Rungu, 7 Rungwa, 7 Saamia, 1151 Safwa, 2, 7, 8, 596 , 60 Siamou, 136 South Cushitic languages, 6 Sukwa, 6 6 , 8, 15–17, 20, 21, 115, 1151 , 136, 137, 156, 159, 18520 Supyire, 229 Swahili, 2, 5, 213, 219, 229, 2766 , 3165

Makhuwa, 108

Mambwe, 7, 8

Malila, 7, 31, 60, 23410

Namwanga, 7, 8, 28811 Ndali, 2, 4, 6, 6

> 669 , 7513

6

, 28811

, 7, 8, 20, 301

, 87, 919

, 293

, 38,

, 108, 110,

Language index

Tooro, 388 Totela, 17, 1589 , 159, 16010 , 240 Tsonga, 845 Tumbuka, 72 Umbundu, 72 Wandia, 7, 8 Wanji, 2, 596 , 60 Yao, 151 Yeyi, 17, 111, 1151 , 118, 136, 229, 269, 270, 2713 Yucatec Maya, 293

Zulu, 114, 270

aktionsart, 22, 79 applicative, 521 , 79, 82, 88, 10716 , 92– 110, 330 aspect anterior, 72, 161–164, 234, 238, 246, 3144 Aristotelian, 19–141, 171, 224, 225 generic, 113, 118, 119, 122, 123, 126, 128, 132, 137, 138, 153, 156, 180, 184, 185, 188, 199, 201, 202, 20326 , 207, 224, 235, 259, 260, 275, 292, 293, 304, 320–322, 324 grammatical, 13, 1610 , 17–19, 21, 22, 24, 29, 59, 65, 141, 164, 165, 171, 183, 193, 221, 222, 224–229, 232, 236 habitual, 113, 118, 119, 122, 123, 126, 128, 132, 137, 138, 153, 156, 180, 184, 185, 188, 199, 201, 202, 20326 , 207, 224, 235, 259, 260, 264, 269, 275, 276, 287, 291–293, 320–322 imperfective, 532 , 61, 65, 66, 70, 74, 113, 115, 117–141, 144, 164, 166, 171, 173, 180–186, 188, 190, 194, 203, 211, 222, 224, 228, 238, 241–244, 259, 260, 264, 269, 270, 275, 276, 287, 291, 292, 311, 313, 317, 322,

### 324

perfective, 66, 72, 113–115, 117– 141, 144, 152, 157–180, 183, 188, 18823 , 189, 192–197, 199, 201, 203, 204, 20428 , 205, 207, 2101 , 214–219, 221, 234, 23410 , 236–238, 240, 246, 304, 311, 3144 , 324 persistive, 113–115, 117–140, 163, 16414 , 186–190, 196, 254, 327 progressive, 115, 117–140, 152, 156, 157, 184–186, 191, 199, 20326 , 207, 222, 2223 , 226, 229, 232, 254, 259, 265, 292, 322, 327 prospective, 191, 258–260, 264– 266, 320, 327 associative, *see* reciprocal auxiliary, 29, 115–141, 163, 186, 187, 190, 222, 233, 241, 249, 250, 254, 260, 261, 264, 303, 314, 320, 327 base, 51, 77–78, 97, 106–109, 111, 148 behavioural, 12 causative, 82, 85–89, 94, 106, 107, 10716 , 108–110, 148–151 clause types (Labov & Waletzky) co-ordinate clause, 24, 230–232, 236, 243–245 free clause, 24, 177, 182, 232

narrative clause, 24, 162, 229, 232, 236, 242, 243 restricted clause, 24, 177, 182, 229, 230, 232, 236 comparative, 70–72 completion, 1610 , 159–160, 164–167, 237, 240 component of meaning expressive, 26, 193, 202, 205, 20729 metalinguistic, 26, 233, 247 textual, 26, 171, 193, 202, 205, 20729 , 216, 233, 246 conditional, 183, 198, 250, 254, 267, 299–301 consonants, 35–38 copula, 66, 164, 165, 167, 171, 173, 185, 189–194, 196, 203, 207, 208, 221, 243, 244, 249, 2541 , 265, 280, 303–311 denominal verbs, 102, 110–111 derivation, 29, 51, 65, 79–112 dialects, 8–10, 53, 54, 888 , 1497 , 188, 194, 2267 , 251, 255–257, 261, 285 discourse participants, 46, 48, 55–58, 60–62, 189 enclitic, 51, 52, 521 , 56, 61, 66–77, 144, 192, 269, 308, 324 evidential, 234, 314 expository, 12, 194 extensive, 104–106, 10615 futurate, 29, 113, 118, 128, 132, 137, 138, 154, 156, 192, 222, 249– 250, 253, 257–260, 264–266, 275, 304, 317, 321, 322

future future (i)sa=, 255–257 future aa=, 250–255, 257, 261, 263, 265, 272, 299 future naa=, 257–258 future tense, *see* tense, future indefinite future, 59, 251, 254, 256, 260–265, 322 modal future, 4, 59, 250, 252, 256, 267, 292–299 generic, 142, 199, 208, 223, 224, 234, 253, 275 grammaticalization, 14, 54, 222, 249, 260, 264–265, 28811 , 303, 317, 322 ideophones, 30, 111, 151, 306, 312 imbrication, 34, 78, 89, 144–152 impositive, 102–106 inchoative verbs, 19–22, 103, 113– 115, 117, 125–136, 141, 157– 159, 162, 163, 165, 167, 168, 170, 173, 177, 180, 188, 18823 , 193, 195–197, 199, 203, 204, 20428 , 205, 217, 224 indefinite, 68, 72–74 infinitive, 73, 185, 187–189, 191, 221, 222, 233, 245, 258, 260, 265, 270, 271, 277, 278, 303, 311, 313, 314, 317, 320, 321, 323– 331 information status, 26–27, 202–203, 207 intensive, 100–101 itive, 59, 109, 267, 271, 282–284, 291 locative, 41, 44, 46, 54, 63, 66–68, 72, 7412 , 75, 76, 93, 9310 , 95, 185,

18621 , 187–191, 197, 221, 244, 265, 307–309, 320, 321, 323, 326, 327 modality, 59, 65, 141, 183, 250, 251, 254, 260–267, 270, 277, 280, 288, 291–293, 322, 326, 327 mood, 29, 59, 229, 267 desiderative, 59, 141, 250, 254, 267, 284, 287–292 imperative, 56, 61, 78, 7815 , 267– 271, 2713 subjunctive, 56, 57, 59, 61, 65, 141, 144, 222, 250, 254, 256, 257, 267, 2682 , 269–289, 291, 311, 313, 314, 321, 326 motion, 108, 109, 230, 238, 245, 246, 249, 254, 258–260, 265, 283, 303, 317–322, 324, 327 narrative, 12, 14, 24–27, 155, 165, 167– 179, 181, 182, 192–194, 207, 209–247, 257, 310, 312, 319 narrative markers, 23, 29, 141, 169, 170, 172, 175, 177–179, 209– 247 narrative present, 153, 155, 157, 159, 165, 172, 173, 192–195, 202, 216, 223, 228, 229, 232, 238 narrative tense, 59, 136, 169, 173, 175, 191, 209–238, 242, 246, 2755 , 327 narrative tense , 324 negation, *see* negative negative, 29, 59, 69, 73, 141–143, 156– 157, 165–166, 168, 171, 179– 180, 183–185, 188–190, 193, 196, 205, 222, 233, 261, 267, 270, 271, 284–288, 292, 303,

304, 309, 323–326 neuter, 82, 99–100, 104, 108 noun classes, 29, 39–47, 55, 58–59, 62–63, 167, 305–309, 320, 321, 323, 327 noun-to-verb derivation, *see* denominal verbs object marker, 29, 51, 54, 55, 57, 60– 65, 857 , 166, 179, 268, 316, 324 partitive, 68–70 passive fossilized, 89, 97–99, 106, 146 productive, 521 , 85, 86, 89, 94– 97, 99, 100, 106, 107 phasal verbs, 21, 22, 116–140, 18822 , 326 phase, 19, 21, 22, 115 Coda phase, 21, 115–140, 160, 16313 , 18621 Nucleus phase, 21, 115–141, 153, 16313 , 164–167, 18621 , 196 Onset phase, 21, 116–140, 153, 18621 plot, 177, 214, 219 pluractional, 88, 106, 108–109, 150 positional, 83, 102–104, 106 post-final clitic, *see* enclitic procedural, 12 proclitic, 53, 155, 249, 250, 252, 254, 256, 257, 263, 272, 299, 325, 329 reciprocal, 83, 86, 89–91, 106–108, 150, 330 reduplication, 4, 45, 66, 80, 105, 111– 112, 145, 148, 151

reflexive, 64–65, 78, 167, 179, 268 resultative, 164 root, 51, 52, 65, 77–78, 89, 94, 98, 148 section abstract, 25 coda, 25, 155, 165 complicating action, 25, 214, 219, 241 evaluation, 25, 214, 219 orientation, 25, 170, 175, 177, 178, 181, 202, 211, 215, 241 resolution, 25, 214, 219 semantic roles, 92, 95, 114, 118, 121, 122, 125, 126, 128, 130, 134, 269, 290 separative, 82, 101–104, 106, 10615 simple present, 54, 59, 113, 115, 117– 141, 152–156, 164, 165, 185, 186, 188, 190, 192–195, 197, 199, 207, 208, 222, 228, 229, 232, 249–256, 259– 261, 263–266, 280, 292, 317, 320–322 sociative, *see* reciprocal spirantization, 35, 85, 89, 10716 , 108– 110, 148, 151 stem, 51, 66, 77–78, 94, 267, 313, 324 storyline ranks, 177–178, 211, 219 stress, 38–39, 66, 145, 304 subject marker, 29, 51, 54–59, 61, 152, 156, 190, 201, 2267 , 260, 261, 271, 2713 , 284, 285, 292, 313 subordinate clauses, 165 complement clause, 199–202, 207, 277, 292 conditional protasis, 195–199, 299 purpose clause, 279, 292, 313

relative clause, 26, 48–208 result clause, 279, 313 temporal clause, 45, 159, 185, 195–199, 202, 207, 212, 223, 236 subsecutive, 59, 169, 176, 209–221, 223, 226, 233–247, 2755 syntax, 29, 47–49, 99, 115, 118, 200, 202, 210, 222, 303, 317, 323 templatic, 29, 145, 148 tense, 13–17, 24, 29, 59, 65, 141, 165, 183, 205, 221, 222, 229 future, 155, 183, 192, 223, 234, 249–255, 257, 261–265, 299, 304 past, 29, 59, 141, 152, 163, 164, 166–186, 188, 190, 195, 198, 202–208, 210, 2101 , 211–219, 223, 224, 228, 233, 2339 , 235, 241–244, 246, 266, 275, 303, 304 present, 141, 152–166, 183–185, 188, 190, 192–208, 221–223, 228, 234, 23410 , 238, 265, 303–306, 308 tentive, 79, 102–103, 10615 thematic continuity, 170, 175, 178, 179, 216, 219, 233, 247 tone, 29, 38 verbal extensions, *see* derivation verbal noun, *see* infinitive vowels hiatus solution, 32–34, 36, 57, 638 , 84, 167 high vowel raising, 82–85 inventory, 29–32

length, 30–32, 37, 38, 521 , 57, 60, 61, 85, 86, 89, 94, 108, 146, 1465 , 150, 1508 , 151, 155, 167, 260, 261, 268, 304, 311 vowel height harmony, 29, 80– 82

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language

## The verb in Nyakyusa: A focus on tense, aspect and modality

Nyakyusa is an underdescribed Bantu language spoken by around 800.000 speakers in the Mbeya Region of Tanzania. This book provides a detailled description of the verb in this language. The topics covered include the complex morphophonological and morphological processes as well as verb-to-verb derivation, copula verbs and grammaticalized verbs of motion. The main body of the book consists of a detailed description of tense, aspect and modality constructions, which includes not only an in-depth discussion of their sentence level semantics, but also of their patterns of employment in discourse.


**Author details**

Tanya V. Ivashina\* *Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia*

Vladimir N. Ksenzenko *Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia*


**4. Factors affecting pharmacokinetics of herbal formulations**

The Pharmacokinetics of herbal formulations is affected by chemical composition, the bioavailability of active compounds, formulation methods, and individual variability in metabolism, genetics, age, and health status. Drug interactions and co-administration with other substances also influence the pharmacokinetic profile, necessitating safe and effective clinical use consideration.