Agriculture (USDA-NIFA 2013), sustainable agriculture is an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having site specific application that over the long term will be able to (1) satisfy human food and fiber needs, (2) enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agriculture economy depends, (3) it should further make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls, (4) sustain the economic viability of farm

Aquaponics developed from hydroponics, or the culture of plants with little to no soil. In hydroponics, plants are raised in some sort of structure where the roots are submerged in either water or some type of media base where they are fed via a solution containing all the nutrients (fertilizer, trace minerals, etc.) that they need (McMurtry et al. 1990). Aquaponics, however are virtually the same as any other RAS, except that they use the metabolic byproducts of one crop (i.e., finfish) to produce a secondary crop (plants), thereby adding value by producing two crops instead of one (Rakocy 2012). In turn, the plants in an aquaponics system filter potentially lethal nutrients (nitrite, nitrate) from the water and return it back to the fish culture tank (Losordo et al. 2013; Rakocy et al. 1992). With the mention of sustainability, increasing pressure from environmental groups, governmental regulations and the fact that aquaculture continues to play an ever increasing role in supplying the worlds' food supply it is not surprising that interest in aquaponics has begun to take a foothold with regard to RAS, especially in urban

A typical aquaponics system is set up so that water flows from the fish culture tanks (Figure 12a) to a settling chamber, or clarifier where solids are removed from the waste stream, water then enters a biofilter where ammonia in the water from the fish and excess feed is converted to nitrite nitrogen and then nitrate nitrogen. Water then exits the biofilter and proceeds toward the plant component where there may or may not be several other components included (i.e., base addition, degasser). The plant component is either a raceway with floating rafts, or could be what is called an NFT (nutrient film technique). In general, this is where the plants feed off of the nitrate nitrogen before the water returns to the fish culture tank relatively free of nitrogen. In this system the plants receive trace minerals via the fish food; however, there is often the need to supplement with things like iron, calcium, and potassium. (For a complete

Aquaponics is beneficial for a number of other reasons including that the cycling of the fish water to the plant component in an aquaponics system reduces the amount of concentrated discharge coming from this system relative to other RAS. Also important is that while fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides may be utilized in or around greenhouses housing hydroponics, these are highly discouraged around aquaponics systems because of the deleterious effects they would have on the fish. Similarly, because an aquaponics system is a form of RAS, the use of antibiotics is discouraged within the system so as not to kill beneficial bacteria that are involved in the natural nitrification process. For these and other reasons, aquaponics systems are considered to be broaching the realm of organic. Organic farming is often considered to be environmentally friendly and sustainable. Unfortunately, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has yet to provide aquaculture with an organic

description of an aquaponics system, refer to Rakocy 2012).

operations, and (5) enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.

area of the US.

38 Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

While aquaponics systems are perhaps the most environmentally sustainable form of RAS to date, it does have drawbacks. Like any aquaculture venture, costs associated with initial investment, system components, their availability, construction and operation can have a significant impact on the economic sustainability of a system (Rackocy 2012). Hanna et al. (2010), for example have shown how different managers' management practices can affect the operation of identical RAS. It therefore becomes extremely important for aquaponics/RAS managers to follow Best management practices that will allow for a system to be profitable and sustainable. Best management practices for recirculating aquaculture and aquaponics systems have been described extensively in the literature (Chen et al. 2002; Summerfelt and Vinci 2008,). However, as we move toward trying to feed the world and keep RAS as envi‐ ronmentally friendly as possible, there are many important factors in operating a RAS. With regard to profitability and sustainability, perhaps offsetting initial investment, component and/or construction costs can be achieved by targeting highly sought after plant and fish species. Again, as fish meal free fish diets are developed for highly sought after marine species this reality becomes closer. One farmer at a recent national aquaponics conference suggested dealing directly with restaurants and "setting your price" rather than letting someone tell you how much something is worth (personal communication, National Aquaponics Conference, Tucson, AZ 2013). Similarly, it may also be advantageous for the owner/operator of a small scale RAS or aquaponics system to maximize profit and sustainability through raising high dollar plant and fish species as long as they have an established market (Frankic and Hershner 2003). With the recent surge in "farm to table" interest, it is very apparent that this concept can be profitable and environmentally friendly in the United States.

Ultimately, in trying to keep up with the worlds' population growth and food needs, RAS and aquaponics will continue to play a major role. Costa-Pierce (2002) and others suggest there has to be a behavioral shift in humans rather than technology in order for aquaculture to become truly sustainable. Many individuals only seem to see aquaculture in the sense that we need to produce as much fish as possible in as small an area as possible, however perhaps instead of trying to create RAS that are on the same level as a CAFO we instead look to systems that are sized according to the supporting the local community (Frankic and Hershner 2003). Again, one of the major advantages to a RAS is its' small footprint. By building a RAS with community size in mind it can be sized to feed the community on an ongoing basis. Having the RAS near or within a community would also reduce the carbon footprint by a reduction in fossil fuels needed for shipping etc. Figures 11 and 12 show a recirculating aquaculture system and an airlift aquaponics raft system in the Aquaculture Research and Demonstration Facility at Delaware State University, Dover, DE, USA.

Facility at Delaware State University, Dover, DE, USA.

friendly in the United States.

Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **30**

al. (2010), for example have shown how different managers' management practices can affect the operation of identical RAS. It therefore becomes extremely important for aquaponics/RAS managers to follow Best management practices that will allow for a system to be profitable and sustainable. Best management practices for recirculating aquaculture and aquaponics systems have been described extensively in the literature (Chen et al. 2002; Summerfelt and Vinci 2008,). However, as we move toward trying to feed the world and keep RAS as environmentally friendly as possible, there are many important factors in operating a RAS. With regard to profitability and sustainability, perhaps offsetting initial investment, component and/or construction costs can be achieved by targeting highly sought after plant and fish species. Again, as fish meal free fish diets are developed for highly sought after marine species this reality becomes closer. One farmer at a recent national aquaponics conference suggested dealing directly with restaurants and "setting your price" rather than letting someone tell you how much something is worth (personal communication, National Aquaponics Conference, Tucson, AZ 2013). Similarly, it may also be advantageous for the owner/operator of a small scale RAS or aquaponics system to maximize profit and sustainability through raising high dollar plant and fish species as long as they have an established market (Frankic and Hershner 2003). With the recent surge in "farm to table" interest, it is very apparent that this concept can be profitable and environmentally

 Ultimately, in trying to keep up with the worlds' population growth and food needs, RAS and aquaponics will continue to play a major role. Costa-Pierce (2002) and others suggest there has to be a behavioral shift in humans rather than technology in order for aquaculture to become truly sustainable. Many individuals only seem to see aquaculture in the sense that we need to produce as much fish as possible in as small an area as possible, however perhaps instead of trying to create RAS that are on the same level as a CAFO we instead look to systems that are sized according to the supporting the local community (Frankic and Hershner 2003). Again, one of the major advantages to a RAS is its' small footprint. By building a

show a recirculating aquaculture system and an airlift aquaponics raft system in the Aquaculture Research and Demonstration

nutrients in effluents to prevent polluting receiving waters. The best methods to prevent soil and water quality problems include selecting a site with appropriate soils and an adequate water supply, and maintaining moderate fish densities and feeding rates (Hargreaves et al. 2003). Secondary management techniques to prevent soil and water quality imbalances include liming, fertilization, and aeration (Boyd 1998). Agricultural irrigation, created wetlands, settling basins, and biological filters are also practical methods for reducing and improving

Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and Best Management Practices (BMPs)

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57471

41

the quality of effluent from ponds (Setty 2013; Tucker 2009; Ozbay and Jackson 2006).

meet water quality or resource management goals.

raceways, cages, effluents, safety, and others.

Countries with regulations on farm practices and effluent standards follow guidelines and permit processes. However, countries without aquaculture regulations can also apply BMPs to minimize off-site water pollution and related environmental impacts. The code of conduct and codes of practice become useful tools for the farmers to adopt and serve as the guiding tool. As described by Boyd (2003) the code of conduct is a system of rules on how aquaculture should be conducted. The guiding principles for responsible aquaculture by the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) serve as the code of conduct. In order to avoid social and environmental problems, codes of practice are used to solve the problems through manage‐ ment activities. Overall the goal of these codes is to minimize, or remove the negative impacts of an aquaculture operation (Boyd 2003). Boyd (2003) describes BMPs as management practices that are the most effective at reducing pollution levels and other environmental impacts which

Although not comprehensive, Boyd (2003) highlights some BMPs for pond aquaculture: a. use stocking and feeding rates that do not exceed the assimilative capacity of ponds; b. avoid overfeeding and apply a strict feeding plan; c. do not use fertilizers unless it is absolutely necessary to promote healthy phytoplankton growth; d. reduce water exchange; e. reuse water as much as possible; f. use a settling basin if available to treat pond effluents before final discharge. Application of these recommendations is based on farm operation and design, species cultured, and culture methods used (Boyd 2003). As Boyd states, selection of BMPs is case specific. One such example includes 10 codes of practice established for responsible shrimp farming by the GAA including mangroves, site evaluation, design and construction, feeds and feed use, shrimp health management, effluents, solids waste and few others. Although one BMP may be sufficient for one small farm, multiple BMPs may be necessary for others. ALEARN (www.alearn.info) listed over 20 best management practices for ponds,

Shrimp aquaculture is a rapidly expanding field and is being closely scrutinized by environ‐ mentalists and government agencies. Due to the need for saltwater, discharge from shrimp facilities often flows into fragile coastal ecosystems. Problems associated with discharge include eutrophication due to nitrogen loading and detritus, low dissolved oxygen levels, sedimentation, along with other problems (Villalon 1991). These problems however are not without solutions; treatment of effluent should be regarded as an opportunity rather than just an obligation. Our goal is to provide broader perspectives on how basic principles and natural solutions can make shrimp aquaculture longer lived and be more sustainable. We discuss some of the management strategies current shrimp aquaculture operations along with best man‐

agement practices for reducing potential impacts of shrimp aquaculture.

 **Figure 11. a.** An indoor multi-tank recirculating aquaculture system (RAS); **b.** A parabolic screen filter in a RAS (Photo courtesy of Blank). **Figure 11.** a. An indoor multi-tank recirculating aquaculture system (RAS); b. A parabolic screen filter in a RAS (Photo courtesy of Blank). Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **31**

 **Figure 12. a.** Construction of an airlift aquaponics system; **b.** Aquaponics raft raceway showing aeration for plant roots; **c.** Planting herbs in a floating Styrofoam sheet (Photos courtesy of Blank). **Figure 12.** a. Construction of an airlift aquaponics system; b. Aquaponics raft raceway showing aeration for plant roots; c. Planting herbs in a floating Styrofoam sheet (Photos courtesy of Blank).

Best Management Practices (BMPs) have been used as an important management tool for various aquaculture

#### **4. Best Management Practices (BMPs) and Sustainable Aquaculture 4. Best Management Practices (BMPs) and sustainable aquaculture**

practices and management may vary based on the species cultured, type of aquaculture practice, location, surrounding habitat, economy and policy conditions of the area. Although there are differences in the application and level of engagement with BMPs, there are common issues through which the application of BMPs can be applied to all. While there are many types of different aquaculture operations, because worldwide ponds are the most prevalent the recommendation and management practices in this chapter will focus on the pond management. BMPs reflect the most technically practical and economically feasible methods to reduce environmental impacts and limit costs at aquaculture facilities. One primary goal is to develop simple effluent treatment systems that reduce organic matter loads, suspended solids, and nutrients in effluents to prevent polluting receiving waters. The best methods to prevent soil and water quality problems include selecting a site with appropriate soils and an adequate water supply, and maintaining moderate fish densities and feeding rates (Hargreaves et al. 2003). Secondary management techniques to prevent soil and water quality imbalances include liming, fertilization, and aeration (Boyd 1998). Agricultural irrigation, created wetlands, Best Management Practices (BMPs) have been used as an important management tool for various aquaculture practices and management may vary based on the species cultured, type of aquaculture practice, location, surrounding habitat, economy and policy conditions of the area. Although there are differences in the application and level of engagement with BMPs, there are common issues through which the application of BMPs can be applied to all. While there are many types of different aquaculture operations, because worldwide ponds are the most prevalent the recommendation and management practices in this section will focus on the pond management.

settling basins, and biological filters are also practical methods for reducing and improving the quality of effluent from ponds (Setty 2013; Tucker 2009; Ozbay and Jackson 2006). Countries with regulations on farm practices and effluent standards follow guidelines and permit processes. However, countries without aquaculture regulations can also apply BMPs to minimize off-site water pollution and related BMPs reflect the most technically practical and economically feasible methods to reduce environmental impacts and limit costs at aquaculture facilities. One primary goal is to develop simple effluent treatment systems that reduce organic matter loads, suspended solids, and

levels and other environmental impacts which meet water quality or resource management goals.

environmental impacts. The code of conduct and codes of practice become useful tools for the farmers to adopt and serve as the guiding tool. As described by Boyd (2003) the code of conduct is a system of rules on how aquaculture should be conducted. The guiding principles for responsible aquaculture by the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) serve as the code of conduct. In order to avoid social and environmental problems, codes of practice are used to solve the problems through management activities. Overall the goal of these codes is to minimize, or remove the negative impacts of an aquaculture operation (Boyd 2003). Boyd (2003) describes BMPs as management practices that are the most effective at reducing pollution

Although not comprehensive, Boyd (2003) highlights some BMPs for pond aquaculture: a. use stocking and feeding rates that do not exceed the assimilative capacity of ponds; b. avoid overfeeding and apply a strict feeding plan; c. do not use fertilizers unless it is absolutely necessary to promote healthy phytoplankton growth; d. reduce water exchange; e. reuse water as much as possible; f. use a settling basin if available to treat pond effluents before final discharge. Application of these recommendations is based on farm operation and design, species cultured, and culture methods used (Boyd 2003). As Boyd states, selection of BMPs is case specific. One such example includes 10 codes of practice established for responsible shrimp farming by the GAA including mangroves, site evaluation, design and construction, feeds and feed use, shrimp health management, effluents, solids waste and few others. Although one BMP may be sufficient for one small farm, multiple BMPs may be necessary for others. ALEARN (www.alearn.info) listed over 20 best management practices for ponds, raceways, nutrients in effluents to prevent polluting receiving waters. The best methods to prevent soil and water quality problems include selecting a site with appropriate soils and an adequate water supply, and maintaining moderate fish densities and feeding rates (Hargreaves et al. 2003). Secondary management techniques to prevent soil and water quality imbalances include liming, fertilization, and aeration (Boyd 1998). Agricultural irrigation, created wetlands, settling basins, and biological filters are also practical methods for reducing and improving the quality of effluent from ponds (Setty 2013; Tucker 2009; Ozbay and Jackson 2006).

Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **30**

al. (2010), for example have shown how different managers' management practices can affect the operation of identical RAS. It therefore becomes extremely important for aquaponics/RAS managers to follow Best management practices that will allow for a system to be profitable and sustainable. Best management practices for recirculating aquaculture and aquaponics systems have been described extensively in the literature (Chen et al. 2002; Summerfelt and Vinci 2008,). However, as we move toward trying to feed the world and keep RAS as environmentally friendly as possible, there are many important factors in operating a RAS. With regard to profitability and sustainability, perhaps offsetting initial investment, component and/or construction costs can be achieved by targeting highly sought after plant and fish species. Again, as fish meal free fish diets are developed for highly sought after marine species this reality becomes closer. One farmer at a recent national aquaponics conference suggested dealing directly with restaurants and "setting your price" rather than letting someone tell you how much something is worth (personal communication, National Aquaponics Conference, Tucson, AZ 2013). Similarly, it may also be advantageous for the owner/operator of a small scale RAS or aquaponics system to maximize profit and sustainability through raising high dollar plant and fish species as long as they have an established market (Frankic and Hershner 2003). With the recent surge in "farm to table" interest, it is very apparent that this concept can be profitable and environmentally

 Ultimately, in trying to keep up with the worlds' population growth and food needs, RAS and aquaponics will continue to play a major role. Costa-Pierce (2002) and others suggest there has to be a behavioral shift in humans rather than technology in order for aquaculture to become truly sustainable. Many individuals only seem to see aquaculture in the sense that we need to produce as much fish as possible in as small an area as possible, however perhaps instead of trying to create RAS that are on the same level as a CAFO we instead look to systems that are sized according to the supporting the local community (Frankic and Hershner 2003). Again, one of the major advantages to a RAS is its' small footprint. By building a RAS with community size in mind it can be sized to feed the community on an ongoing basis. Having the RAS near or within a community would also reduce the carbon footprint by a reduction fossil fuels needed for shipping etc. Figures 11 and 12 show a recirculating aquaculture system and an airlift aquaponics raft system in the Aquaculture Research and Demonstration

**a b**

 **Figure 11. a.** An indoor multi-tank recirculating aquaculture system (RAS); **b.** A parabolic screen filter in a RAS (Photo

courtesy of Blank). Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **31**

 **Figure 12. a.** Construction of an airlift aquaponics system; **b.** Aquaponics raft raceway showing aeration for plant roots; **c.**

**Figure 12.** a. Construction of an airlift aquaponics system; b. Aquaponics raft raceway showing aeration for plant

Best Management Practices (BMPs) have been used as an important management tool for various aquaculture practices and management may vary based on the species cultured, type of aquaculture practice, location, surrounding habitat, economy and policy conditions of the area. Although there are differences in the application and level of engagement with BMPs, there are common issues through which the application of BMPs can be applied to all. While there are many types of different aquaculture operations, because worldwide ponds are the most prevalent the recommendation and management practices in this section will focus on

BMPs reflect the most technically practical and economically feasible methods to reduce environmental impacts and limit costs at aquaculture facilities. One primary goal is to develop simple effluent treatment systems that reduce organic matter loads, suspended solids, and

**4. Best Management Practices (BMPs) and sustainable aquaculture**

Best Management Practices (BMPs) have been used as an important management tool for various aquaculture practices and management may vary based on the species cultured, type of aquaculture practice, location, surrounding habitat, economy and policy conditions of the area. Although there are differences in the application and level of engagement with BMPs, there are common issues through which the application of BMPs can be applied to all. While there are many types of different aquaculture operations, because worldwide ponds are the most prevalent the recommendation and management

BMPs reflect the most technically practical and economically feasible methods to reduce environmental impacts and limit costs at aquaculture facilities. One primary goal is to develop simple effluent treatment systems that reduce organic matter loads, suspended solids, and nutrients in effluents to prevent polluting receiving waters. The best methods to prevent soil and water quality problems include selecting a site with appropriate soils and an adequate water supply, and maintaining moderate fish densities and feeding rates (Hargreaves et al. 2003). Secondary management techniques to prevent soil and water quality imbalances include liming, fertilization, and aeration (Boyd 1998). Agricultural irrigation, created wetlands, settling basins, and biological filters are also practical methods for reducing and improving the quality of effluent from ponds

Countries with regulations on farm practices and effluent standards follow guidelines and permit processes. However, countries without aquaculture regulations can also apply BMPs to minimize off-site water pollution and related environmental impacts. The code of conduct and codes of practice become useful tools for the farmers to adopt and serve as the guiding tool. As described by Boyd (2003) the code of conduct is a system of rules on how aquaculture should be conducted. The guiding principles for responsible aquaculture by the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) serve as the code of conduct. In order to avoid social and environmental problems, codes of practice are used to solve the problems through management activities. Overall the goal of these codes is to minimize, or remove the negative impacts of an aquaculture operation (Boyd 2003). Boyd (2003) describes BMPs as management practices that are the most effective at reducing pollution

Although not comprehensive, Boyd (2003) highlights some BMPs for pond aquaculture: a. use stocking and feeding rates that do not exceed the assimilative capacity of ponds; b. avoid overfeeding and apply a strict feeding plan; c. do not use fertilizers unless it is absolutely necessary to promote healthy phytoplankton growth; d. reduce water exchange; e. reuse water as much as possible; f. use a settling basin if available to treat pond effluents before final discharge. Application of these recommendations is based on farm operation and design, species cultured, and culture methods used (Boyd 2003). As Boyd states, selection of BMPs is case specific. One such example includes 10 codes of practice established for responsible shrimp farming by the GAA including mangroves, site evaluation, design and construction, feeds and feed use, shrimp health management, effluents, solids waste and few others. Although one BMP may be sufficient for one small farm, multiple BMPs may be necessary for others. ALEARN (www.alearn.info) listed over 20 best management practices for ponds, raceways,

levels and other environmental impacts which meet water quality or resource management goals.

Planting herbs in a floating Styrofoam sheet (Photos courtesy of Blank).

roots; c. Planting herbs in a floating Styrofoam sheet (Photos courtesy of Blank).

 **4. Best Management Practices (BMPs) and Sustainable Aquaculture**

practices in this chapter will focus on the pond management.

(Setty 2013; Tucker 2009; Ozbay and Jackson 2006).

the pond management.

**a b c**

**Figure 11.** a. An indoor multi-tank recirculating aquaculture system (RAS); b. A parabolic screen filter in a RAS (Photo

friendly in the United States.

40 Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

courtesy of Blank).

Facility at Delaware State University, Dover, DE, USA.

Countries with regulations on farm practices and effluent standards follow guidelines and permit processes. However, countries without aquaculture regulations can also apply BMPs to minimize off-site water pollution and related environmental impacts. The code of conduct and codes of practice become useful tools for the farmers to adopt and serve as the guiding tool. As described by Boyd (2003) the code of conduct is a system of rules on how aquaculture should be conducted. The guiding principles for responsible aquaculture by the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) serve as the code of conduct. In order to avoid social and environmental problems, codes of practice are used to solve the problems through manage‐ ment activities. Overall the goal of these codes is to minimize, or remove the negative impacts of an aquaculture operation (Boyd 2003). Boyd (2003) describes BMPs as management practices that are the most effective at reducing pollution levels and other environmental impacts which meet water quality or resource management goals.

Although not comprehensive, Boyd (2003) highlights some BMPs for pond aquaculture: a. use stocking and feeding rates that do not exceed the assimilative capacity of ponds; b. avoid overfeeding and apply a strict feeding plan; c. do not use fertilizers unless it is absolutely necessary to promote healthy phytoplankton growth; d. reduce water exchange; e. reuse water as much as possible; f. use a settling basin if available to treat pond effluents before final discharge. Application of these recommendations is based on farm operation and design, species cultured, and culture methods used (Boyd 2003). As Boyd states, selection of BMPs is case specific. One such example includes 10 codes of practice established for responsible shrimp farming by the GAA including mangroves, site evaluation, design and construction, feeds and feed use, shrimp health management, effluents, solids waste and few others. Although one BMP may be sufficient for one small farm, multiple BMPs may be necessary for others. ALEARN (www.alearn.info) listed over 20 best management practices for ponds, raceways, cages, effluents, safety, and others.

Shrimp aquaculture is a rapidly expanding field and is being closely scrutinized by environ‐ mentalists and government agencies. Due to the need for saltwater, discharge from shrimp facilities often flows into fragile coastal ecosystems. Problems associated with discharge include eutrophication due to nitrogen loading and detritus, low dissolved oxygen levels, sedimentation, along with other problems (Villalon 1991). These problems however are not without solutions; treatment of effluent should be regarded as an opportunity rather than just an obligation. Our goal is to provide broader perspectives on how basic principles and natural solutions can make shrimp aquaculture longer lived and be more sustainable. We discuss some of the management strategies current shrimp aquaculture operations along with best man‐ agement practices for reducing potential impacts of shrimp aquaculture.

Although this may not be the ultimate solution, one particular recommendation discussed in this section would be to improve shrimp management practices. The mariculture of shrimp may provide one of the best opportunities for polyculture and integrated systems. Shrimp require higher water quality standards than many other cultured species and, thus, would benefit from a more stable ecosystem. The ability of shrimp to utilize a broad spectrum of the food web would allow them to be cultured with a number of other species. Feed and fertili‐ zation management can be geared toward supporting the food web to produce food items which shrimp prefer, rather than relying on the direct consumption of pelleted feed. In addition, Hopkins et al. (1991) discussed how dissolved oxygen levels were higher in poly‐ culture ponds presumably due to a healthier phytoplankton community. Thus, polyculture may actually reduce aeration costs.

The Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) standards developed by the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA 2011) "address environmental and social responsibility, animal welfare, food safety and traceability in a certification program voluntary for aquaculture facilities." Certifi‐ cation for BAP ensures aquaculture operation is responsible and operates by the quantitative guidelines by which the farm operation is evaluated based on those practices. There are various standards developed in aquaculture sector including fish farm, hatchery, feed mill, and processing plant. The standard for the multi-species farming opens whole new area of attention with the new aquatic species used in integrated culture condition. Species BAP Standards used include channel catfish, shrimp, tilapia, and *Pangasius* initially and seabass, sea bream, cobia, seriola, trout, grouper, barramundi, perch, carp, flounder, turbot, striped bass, crabs, fresh‐ water prawns, mussels, crawfish recent. According to GAA (2011), the new multi-species farm standards apply to all types of culture systems for finfish and crustaceans but not including cage-raised salmonids since this operation requires separate BAP standards. Seven of the most recent BAP standards listed in the GAA website (http://www.gaalliance.org/bap/stand‐ ards.php) include Seafood processing/repacking plant, seafood processing plant, finfish and

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crustacean farm, salmon farm, mussel farm, shrimp hatchery, and feed mill.

concerned about keeping biodiversity in the streams, rivers and estuaries.

There are many definitions for sustainability and sustainability with regard to a catfish farm may not be sustainable for a shrimp farm. For aquaculture, sustainable aquaculture is an ultimate goal with the application of all the best aquaculture standards and management practices. Sustainability is described by the Northwest Earth Institute (2012) simply as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA 2004) initiated a new rule called the "effluent limitations guidelines (ELGs)' for concentrated aquatic animal production facilities including aquaculture facilities. This rule is applied to all commercial aquaculture facilities, with the below mentioned specifications, that discharge their wastewater from their farms directly into waters of the United States. According to the final rule, aquaculture facilities that "produce at least 45,360kg a year in flow-through and recirculating systems that discharge wastewater at least 30 days a year (used primarily to raise trout, salmon, hybrid striped bass and tilapia); at least 45,360 kg a year in net pens or submerged cage systems (used primarily to raise salmon)." The whole expectation with implementation of this rule is that the ELGs will help reduce discharges of conventional pollutants, primarily total suspended solids. As the solids are removed, it is expected that non-conventional pollutants such as nutrients will also be reduced. Other contaminants not discussed in this chapter include heavy metals, drug residues and other hormonal chemicals used in facilities to manage fish health and chemicals and better growth and this regulation is expected to be effective for reducing those contami‐ nants in discharges of the facilities. With the implementation of this rule through National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits the discharge of total suspended solids are expected to be reduced more than 226,796 kg per year, and the biochemical oxygen demand and nutrients in discharge is to be reduced by about 136,078 kg per year. With the application of this rule it is expected that water quality conditions will be improved and provide increased opportunity for other users, swimmers, fisherman and environmentalists

Hollingsworth et al. (2006) suggests growers may develop a farm-specific Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) manual and apply the code of conduct for significant farm practices in their SOP manuals. Although not required for all farms, the development of farm specific proce‐ dures will promote efficient management decisions including trouble shooting problems, training employees, planning future expansions or developing biosecurity and emergency procedure plans.

Many states in the United States have adopted BMPs over the years and some states and countries have implemented further policies and regulations based on scientific knowledge to sustain the environment and aquaculture industry. One specific example is that of Louisiana's aquaculture producers (Lutz et al. 2011). By implementation and application of best manage‐ ment practices, producers minimize potential pollutants (i.e., mainly excess nutrients) to the state's water resources and by doing so they reduce the cost that would be incurred to treat water quality problems, potential disease outbreaks and wild fish stock mortality related costs. Lutz et al. (2011) suggested that sediment runoff reduction should be one of the most important practices a pond aquaculture farmer must adopt to save money and reduce the environmental foot print of their operation. As an example, in Thailand shrimp aquaculture, scientists and policy-makers have developed new ways to improve the quality of the culture system, ecosystem, as well as the efficiency of regulations. It is critical that advances such as this and many other practices are discussed and maintained with integrity and strong regulations to improve the quality of our shared water resources for future generations. The key is to make aquaculture an asset to the environment while continuing to food production simultaneously.

Initial efforts and guidance on BMPs have been developed by Hargreaves et al. (2003). He has provided guide sheets on various topics and issues of concerns including reducing storm runoff into ponds, managing ponds to reduce effluent volume, erosion control on watersheds and embankments, pond management to minimize erosion, control of erosion by effluents, settling basins and wetlands, feed management, fertilization of catfish ponds, water quality protection to improve effluents, water quality enhancers, therapeutic agents, fish carcasses, general operations and worker safety, emergency response and management, and a few others added as the technology advanced in recirculating, bioflocs and aquaponics systems and other aquaculture operations.

The Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) standards developed by the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA 2011) "address environmental and social responsibility, animal welfare, food safety and traceability in a certification program voluntary for aquaculture facilities." Certifi‐ cation for BAP ensures aquaculture operation is responsible and operates by the quantitative guidelines by which the farm operation is evaluated based on those practices. There are various standards developed in aquaculture sector including fish farm, hatchery, feed mill, and processing plant. The standard for the multi-species farming opens whole new area of attention with the new aquatic species used in integrated culture condition. Species BAP Standards used include channel catfish, shrimp, tilapia, and *Pangasius* initially and seabass, sea bream, cobia, seriola, trout, grouper, barramundi, perch, carp, flounder, turbot, striped bass, crabs, fresh‐ water prawns, mussels, crawfish recent. According to GAA (2011), the new multi-species farm standards apply to all types of culture systems for finfish and crustaceans but not including cage-raised salmonids since this operation requires separate BAP standards. Seven of the most recent BAP standards listed in the GAA website (http://www.gaalliance.org/bap/stand‐ ards.php) include Seafood processing/repacking plant, seafood processing plant, finfish and crustacean farm, salmon farm, mussel farm, shrimp hatchery, and feed mill.

Although this may not be the ultimate solution, one particular recommendation discussed in this section would be to improve shrimp management practices. The mariculture of shrimp may provide one of the best opportunities for polyculture and integrated systems. Shrimp require higher water quality standards than many other cultured species and, thus, would benefit from a more stable ecosystem. The ability of shrimp to utilize a broad spectrum of the food web would allow them to be cultured with a number of other species. Feed and fertili‐ zation management can be geared toward supporting the food web to produce food items which shrimp prefer, rather than relying on the direct consumption of pelleted feed. In addition, Hopkins et al. (1991) discussed how dissolved oxygen levels were higher in poly‐ culture ponds presumably due to a healthier phytoplankton community. Thus, polyculture

Hollingsworth et al. (2006) suggests growers may develop a farm-specific Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) manual and apply the code of conduct for significant farm practices in their SOP manuals. Although not required for all farms, the development of farm specific proce‐ dures will promote efficient management decisions including trouble shooting problems, training employees, planning future expansions or developing biosecurity and emergency

Many states in the United States have adopted BMPs over the years and some states and countries have implemented further policies and regulations based on scientific knowledge to sustain the environment and aquaculture industry. One specific example is that of Louisiana's aquaculture producers (Lutz et al. 2011). By implementation and application of best manage‐ ment practices, producers minimize potential pollutants (i.e., mainly excess nutrients) to the state's water resources and by doing so they reduce the cost that would be incurred to treat water quality problems, potential disease outbreaks and wild fish stock mortality related costs. Lutz et al. (2011) suggested that sediment runoff reduction should be one of the most important practices a pond aquaculture farmer must adopt to save money and reduce the environmental foot print of their operation. As an example, in Thailand shrimp aquaculture, scientists and policy-makers have developed new ways to improve the quality of the culture system, ecosystem, as well as the efficiency of regulations. It is critical that advances such as this and many other practices are discussed and maintained with integrity and strong regulations to improve the quality of our shared water resources for future generations. The key is to make aquaculture an asset to the environment while continuing to food production simultaneously.

Initial efforts and guidance on BMPs have been developed by Hargreaves et al. (2003). He has provided guide sheets on various topics and issues of concerns including reducing storm runoff into ponds, managing ponds to reduce effluent volume, erosion control on watersheds and embankments, pond management to minimize erosion, control of erosion by effluents, settling basins and wetlands, feed management, fertilization of catfish ponds, water quality protection to improve effluents, water quality enhancers, therapeutic agents, fish carcasses, general operations and worker safety, emergency response and management, and a few others added as the technology advanced in recirculating, bioflocs and aquaponics systems and other

may actually reduce aeration costs.

42 Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

procedure plans.

aquaculture operations.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA 2004) initiated a new rule called the "effluent limitations guidelines (ELGs)' for concentrated aquatic animal production facilities including aquaculture facilities. This rule is applied to all commercial aquaculture facilities, with the below mentioned specifications, that discharge their wastewater from their farms directly into waters of the United States. According to the final rule, aquaculture facilities that "produce at least 45,360kg a year in flow-through and recirculating systems that discharge wastewater at least 30 days a year (used primarily to raise trout, salmon, hybrid striped bass and tilapia); at least 45,360 kg a year in net pens or submerged cage systems (used primarily to raise salmon)." The whole expectation with implementation of this rule is that the ELGs will help reduce discharges of conventional pollutants, primarily total suspended solids. As the solids are removed, it is expected that non-conventional pollutants such as nutrients will also be reduced. Other contaminants not discussed in this chapter include heavy metals, drug residues and other hormonal chemicals used in facilities to manage fish health and chemicals and better growth and this regulation is expected to be effective for reducing those contami‐ nants in discharges of the facilities. With the implementation of this rule through National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits the discharge of total suspended solids are expected to be reduced more than 226,796 kg per year, and the biochemical oxygen demand and nutrients in discharge is to be reduced by about 136,078 kg per year. With the application of this rule it is expected that water quality conditions will be improved and provide increased opportunity for other users, swimmers, fisherman and environmentalists concerned about keeping biodiversity in the streams, rivers and estuaries.

There are many definitions for sustainability and sustainability with regard to a catfish farm may not be sustainable for a shrimp farm. For aquaculture, sustainable aquaculture is an ultimate goal with the application of all the best aquaculture standards and management practices. Sustainability is described by the Northwest Earth Institute (2012) simply as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (taken from UN World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future). According to the Monterey Bay Aquarium (2013), environmental impact of fish farming varies depending on the species cultured, location of the farm, life stage of the organism, methods of culture and culture technique. Creating a sustainable farm should ensure species cultured will last long and habitat damage be minimal. The key factor with aquaculture sustainability is to operate with sound environmental management practices in place (FAO FOCUS 2013). There are tremendous efforts being made to use integrated aqua‐ culture-agriculture farming systems to sustain both aquaculture operations and maintain the healthy environmental conditions for aquatic life in rivers, streams and estuaries. Environ‐ mentally friendly methods are also beneficial to the species cultured and farm operation (FAO FOCUS 2013). Sustainable aquaculture should utilize the most readily available technology to produce high protein food diets while applying the same exact principle to reduce its envi‐ ronmental impact using similar technology. Sustainability is not a practice, it is a life style and condition we must grasp.

impacted the wild capture fisheries. Therefore, production from aquaculture has gradually begun to play a more important role in maintaining total fisheries production (Figure 13).

**Figure 13.** Thailand fisheries production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011).

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

**Year**

growth and market demands in the country (Figure 14) (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011).

**Figure 14.** Freshwater and coastal aquaculture production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

**Year**

 **Figure 15.** Brackish water aquaculture production by group from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

**Year**

shrimp culture is the most cultured species within brackish water aquaculture, globally.

**Figure 14.** Freshwater and coastal aquaculture production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

Fish culture

Shrimp culture

Shellfish culture

Aquaculture in Thailand evolved from traditional practice to modern science-based practices as aquaculture technology and innovations developed. Therefore, aquaculture in coastal areas, which contribute more national economics and provide more benefit to farmers, tended to increase and contribute more when compared to freshwater species, especially brackish water-cultured shrimp and prawn. However, aquaculture in freshwater areas has also increased due to population

Of the three main groups of brackish water aquaculture – fish, shrimp, and shellfish – shrimp culture has increased dramatically while fish culture has decreased and become steady from 2000 – 2010, while shellfish culture production dropped because of shellfish diseases and natural changes (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011) (Figure 15). However,

**Figure 13.** Thailand fisheries production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011). Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **35**

Total Capture Culture

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57471

45

Coastal culture

Freshwater culture

role in maintaining total fisheries production (Figure 13).

 - ,100.0 ,200.0 ,300.0 ,400.0 ,500.0 ,600.0 ,700.0 ,800.0 ,900.0 1,000.0

,100.0

,200.0

,300.0

**x1,000 Ton**

,400.0

,500.0

,600.0

,700.0

**x1,000 Ton**

**x1,000 Ton**

Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **34**

Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and Best Management Practices (BMPs)

rivers, swamps, and reservoirs. Thailand also has a 3,500 kilometer-long coast line including both the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, including more than 900 islands. However, drastic changes to these habitats and overfishing have negatively impacted the wild capture fisheries. Therefore, production from aquaculture has gradually begun to play a more important

Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter, the application of innovative technology in sustainable aquaculture such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) would be an effective tool for selecting sites for bivalve culture and farm management. Coupled with ecosystem models, this technology can assist in predicting the carrying capacity of estuaries (Newell et al. 2013). Similar to shellfish site selection and farm management, Clearwater Seafoods has utilized GIS to take an informed approach to harvesting which minimizes the impact of fishing activities and promotes sustainability both at sea and on land. By investing in GIS, this company saved and minimizes their impacts on ocean ecosystems and promotes a sustainable approach to fishing (ESRI News 2013).

#### **5. Case Study: Sustainable aquaculture culture in Thailand**

Fisheries have long been integral to the Thai way of life. Management of fisheries in Thailand began in 1901 with the establishment of the Thailand Department of Fisheries (DOF). In 1901, the ministry of interior issued 3 guidelines to manage fisheries resources: 1) produce fisheries production for population in country, 2) produce fisheries production for country income, and 3) taxation for capture fisheries. However, only taxation was implemented because there was no fisheries biologist at that moment. In 1923, Dr. Hugh M. Smith, MD., LL.D (Commissioner of Fisheries USA) was invited as an advisor in fisheries to His Siamese Majesty's Government. After finishing his survey research, he published a book called "A Review of the Aquatic Resources and Fisheries of Siam, with Plans and Recommendation for the Administration, Conservation and Development". In 1926, the Department of Fisheries was established and Dr. Smith was appointed to be head official. Under his guidance, management systems were implemented and continue to be conducted. Fisheries production in the beginning relied mainly on wild capture since Thailand has many natural freshwater resources scattered all over the country, such as rivers, swamps, and reservoirs. Thailand also has a 3,500 kilometerlong coast line including both the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, including more than 900 islands. However, drastic changes to these habitats and overfishing have negatively impacted the wild capture fisheries. Therefore, production from aquaculture has gradually begun to play a more important role in maintaining total fisheries production (Figure 13). rivers, swamps, and reservoirs. Thailand also has a 3,500 kilometer-long coast line including both the Gulf of Thailand and

role in maintaining total fisheries production (Figure 13).

Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **34**

Andaman Sea, including more than 900 islands. However, drastic changes to these habitats and overfishing have negatively impacted the wild capture fisheries. Therefore, production from aquaculture has gradually begun to play a more important

own needs" (taken from UN World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future). According to the Monterey Bay Aquarium (2013), environmental impact of fish farming varies depending on the species cultured, location of the farm, life stage of the organism, methods of culture and culture technique. Creating a sustainable farm should ensure species cultured will last long and habitat damage be minimal. The key factor with aquaculture sustainability is to operate with sound environmental management practices in place (FAO FOCUS 2013). There are tremendous efforts being made to use integrated aqua‐ culture-agriculture farming systems to sustain both aquaculture operations and maintain the healthy environmental conditions for aquatic life in rivers, streams and estuaries. Environ‐ mentally friendly methods are also beneficial to the species cultured and farm operation (FAO FOCUS 2013). Sustainable aquaculture should utilize the most readily available technology to produce high protein food diets while applying the same exact principle to reduce its envi‐ ronmental impact using similar technology. Sustainability is not a practice, it is a life style and

Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter, the application of innovative technology in sustainable aquaculture such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) would be an effective tool for selecting sites for bivalve culture and farm management. Coupled with ecosystem models, this technology can assist in predicting the carrying capacity of estuaries (Newell et al. 2013). Similar to shellfish site selection and farm management, Clearwater Seafoods has utilized GIS to take an informed approach to harvesting which minimizes the impact of fishing activities and promotes sustainability both at sea and on land. By investing in GIS, this company saved and minimizes their impacts on ocean ecosystems and promotes a sustainable

Fisheries have long been integral to the Thai way of life. Management of fisheries in Thailand began in 1901 with the establishment of the Thailand Department of Fisheries (DOF). In 1901, the ministry of interior issued 3 guidelines to manage fisheries resources: 1) produce fisheries production for population in country, 2) produce fisheries production for country income, and 3) taxation for capture fisheries. However, only taxation was implemented because there was no fisheries biologist at that moment. In 1923, Dr. Hugh M. Smith, MD., LL.D (Commissioner of Fisheries USA) was invited as an advisor in fisheries to His Siamese Majesty's Government. After finishing his survey research, he published a book called "A Review of the Aquatic Resources and Fisheries of Siam, with Plans and Recommendation for the Administration, Conservation and Development". In 1926, the Department of Fisheries was established and Dr. Smith was appointed to be head official. Under his guidance, management systems were implemented and continue to be conducted. Fisheries production in the beginning relied mainly on wild capture since Thailand has many natural freshwater resources scattered all over the country, such as rivers, swamps, and reservoirs. Thailand also has a 3,500 kilometerlong coast line including both the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, including more than 900 islands. However, drastic changes to these habitats and overfishing have negatively

**5. Case Study: Sustainable aquaculture culture in Thailand**

condition we must grasp.

44 Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

approach to fishing (ESRI News 2013).

Aquaculture in Thailand evolved from traditional practice to modern science-based practices as aquaculture **Figure 13.** Thailand fisheries production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011). Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **35**

**Figure 13.** Thailand fisheries production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011).

technology and innovations developed. Therefore, aquaculture in coastal areas, which contribute more national economics

**Figure 14.** Freshwater and coastal aquaculture production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

shrimp culture is the most cultured species within brackish water aquaculture, globally.

Fish culture

Shrimp culture

Shellfish culture

**Figure 14.** Freshwater and coastal aquaculture production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

 **Figure 15.** Brackish water aquaculture production by group from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

**Year**

,100.0

,200.0

,300.0

**x1,000 Ton**

,400.0

,500.0

,600.0

,700.0

Of the three main groups of brackish water aquaculture – fish, shrimp, and shellfish – shrimp culture has increased dramatically while fish culture has decreased and become steady from 2000 – 2010, while shellfish culture production dropped because of shellfish diseases and natural changes (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011) (Figure 15). However, ,500.0

 ,700.0 ,800.0 ,900.0 1,000.0

Aquaculture in Thailand evolved from traditional practice to modern science-based practices as aquaculture technology and innovations developed. Therefore, aquaculture in coastal areas, which contribute more national economics and provide more benefit to farmers, tended to increase and contribute more when compared to freshwater species, especially brackish watercultured shrimp and prawn. However, aquaculture in freshwater areas has also increased due to population growth and market demands in the country (Figure 14) (Thailand DOF Infor‐ mation System Center 2011). - ,100.0 ,200.0 ,300.0 ,400.0 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Coastal culture Freshwater culture

Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **35**

year 2010 (Center for Agricultural Information 2011), making Thailand one of the largest

Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and Best Management Practices (BMPs)

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57471

47

Cultured shrimp, in particular, has come under threat in key export markets due to adverse publicity concerning the environmental and social impact of some aquaculture activities (Kongkeo, 2001). Some of this publicity has served to highlight some of the negative environmental and social impacts that have occurred in the development of aquaculture. These include the destruction of wetlands and mangrove forests, water pollution, reduc‐ tion of biodiversity, waste of natural resources, and loss of access to fishing grounds by artisanal fisherman (Boyd and Tucker, 1998). Therefore, management inputs that remedy these problems that occur between culturing period and after harvesting such as chemi‐ cals used, water management, water discharge, etc. must be considered in order to

encourage sustainable growth and practices within the shrimp aquaculture sector.

ty, and mitigate social and environmental impact concerns.

Shrimp culture in Thailand is performed under intensive culture conditions which consumes heavy feed, water supply, and aeration; therefore, management must play a key role in helping to reduce problems and the impacts of effluent from culturing systems. Sustainable shrimp culture, economically speaking, is less about increasing production but more about the ability to maintain steady production, customer satisfaction and reliabili‐

Long before Good Aquaculture Practices (GAPs) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CoC) were integrated in Thailand, best management practices were implemented by the Department of Fisheries to increase farm productivity while minimizing the environmental impacts. The environmental issues caused by the effluent discharges of the shrimp culture facilities have been one major concern of the aquaculture operation. Some of these management practices facilitated by the Department of Fisheries at the National and local level have focused on increasing feed conversion ratios, better water exchange, aeration, and pond management, and, if availa‐ ble, applying integrated multi-trophic aquaculture technology to reduce nutrient loads from farm effluents and increase profits. Specifically, aquaponics using commercial crop systems become popular and practical to the farmers while the operation is sustained and be‐

The Thailand DOF integrated GAP and CoC in 1998 with support from the World Bank. Under GAP standard, the requirement are farm registration;, farm management; use of veterinary drugs chemical, hazardous substances, and probiotics used in aquaculture; farm sanitation; harvest and post-harvest prior to distribution; effluent and sediment manage‐ ment; energy source and fuel use; social and environmental responsibility; and record keeping. Code of Conduct for shrimp culture has two components: operational guide‐ lines for hatcheries and farms, and guidelines for harvesting and transport. These practi‐ ces - GAP and CoC - are standard for shrimp culture to ensure that shrimp culture has minimal to no chemical residues which protects consumers and applies environmental

shrimp exporters in the world.

come environmental friendly.

Of the three main groups of brackish water aquaculture – fish, shrimp, and shellfish – shrimp culture has increased dramatically while fish culture has decreased and become steady from 2000 – 2010, while shellfish culture production dropped because of shellfish diseases and natural changes (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011) (Figure 15). However, shrimp culture is the most cultured species within brackish water aquaculture, globally. **Figure 14.** Freshwater and coastal aquaculture production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011). Of the three main groups of brackish water aquaculture – fish, shrimp, and shellfish – shrimp culture has increased dramatically while fish culture has decreased and become steady from 2000 – 2010, while shellfish culture production dropped because of shellfish diseases and natural changes (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011) (Figure 15). However, **Year**

shrimp culture is the most cultured species within brackish water aquaculture, globally.

**Figure 15.** Brackish water aquaculture production by group from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

 **Figure 15.** Brackish water aquaculture production by group from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

Shrimp culture in Thailand started more than 50 years ago. Production has been greatly increased within the last three decades as intensive farming techniques were developed and applied. In the beginning of brackish water shrimp culture the major shrimp species used was tiger prawn (*Peneaeus monodon*), which was substituted by white shrimp (*Peneaeus vannamei*) by more than 95%, by the year 2000 (Bureau of Agricultural Economic Re‐ search, 2011). Thailand now exports shrimp products at about 500,000 tons annually in the year 2010 (Center for Agricultural Information 2011), making Thailand one of the largest shrimp exporters in the world.

Aquaculture in Thailand evolved from traditional practice to modern science-based practices as aquaculture technology and innovations developed. Therefore, aquaculture in coastal areas, which contribute more national economics and provide more benefit to farmers, tended to increase and contribute more when compared to freshwater species, especially brackish watercultured shrimp and prawn. However, aquaculture in freshwater areas has also increased due to population growth and market demands in the country (Figure 14) (Thailand DOF Infor‐

Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **35**

Coastal culture

Freshwater culture

Of the three main groups of brackish water aquaculture – fish, shrimp, and shellfish – shrimp culture has increased dramatically while fish culture has decreased and become steady from 2000 – 2010, while shellfish culture production dropped because of shellfish diseases and natural changes (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011) (Figure 15). However, shrimp culture is the most cultured species within brackish water aquaculture, globally.

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

**Year**

Of the three main groups of brackish water aquaculture – fish, shrimp, and shellfish – shrimp culture has increased dramatically while fish culture has decreased and become steady from 2000 – 2010, while shellfish culture production dropped because of shellfish diseases and natural changes (Thailand DOF Information System Center 2011) (Figure 15). However,

**Figure 14.** Freshwater and coastal aquaculture production from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

 **Figure 15.** Brackish water aquaculture production by group from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

Shrimp culture in Thailand started more than 50 years ago. Production has been greatly increased within the last three decades as intensive farming techniques were developed and applied. In the beginning of brackish water shrimp culture the major shrimp species used was tiger prawn (*Peneaeus monodon*), which was substituted by white shrimp (*Peneaeus vannamei*) by more than 95%, by the year 2000 (Bureau of Agricultural Economic Re‐ search, 2011). Thailand now exports shrimp products at about 500,000 tons annually in the

**Figure 15.** Brackish water aquaculture production by group from 2000-2010 (Thailand DOF 2011).

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

**Year**

shrimp culture is the most cultured species within brackish water aquaculture, globally.

Fish culture

Shrimp culture

Shellfish culture

mation System Center 2011).

 - ,100.0 ,200.0 ,300.0 ,400.0 ,500.0 ,600.0 ,700.0 ,800.0 ,900.0 1,000.0

46 Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

,100.0

,200.0

,300.0

**x1,000 Ton**

,400.0

,500.0

,600.0

,700.0

**x1,000 Ton**

Cultured shrimp, in particular, has come under threat in key export markets due to adverse publicity concerning the environmental and social impact of some aquaculture activities (Kongkeo, 2001). Some of this publicity has served to highlight some of the negative environmental and social impacts that have occurred in the development of aquaculture. These include the destruction of wetlands and mangrove forests, water pollution, reduc‐ tion of biodiversity, waste of natural resources, and loss of access to fishing grounds by artisanal fisherman (Boyd and Tucker, 1998). Therefore, management inputs that remedy these problems that occur between culturing period and after harvesting such as chemi‐ cals used, water management, water discharge, etc. must be considered in order to encourage sustainable growth and practices within the shrimp aquaculture sector.

Shrimp culture in Thailand is performed under intensive culture conditions which consumes heavy feed, water supply, and aeration; therefore, management must play a key role in helping to reduce problems and the impacts of effluent from culturing systems. Sustainable shrimp culture, economically speaking, is less about increasing production but more about the ability to maintain steady production, customer satisfaction and reliabili‐ ty, and mitigate social and environmental impact concerns.

Long before Good Aquaculture Practices (GAPs) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CoC) were integrated in Thailand, best management practices were implemented by the Department of Fisheries to increase farm productivity while minimizing the environmental impacts. The environmental issues caused by the effluent discharges of the shrimp culture facilities have been one major concern of the aquaculture operation. Some of these management practices facilitated by the Department of Fisheries at the National and local level have focused on increasing feed conversion ratios, better water exchange, aeration, and pond management, and, if availa‐ ble, applying integrated multi-trophic aquaculture technology to reduce nutrient loads from farm effluents and increase profits. Specifically, aquaponics using commercial crop systems become popular and practical to the farmers while the operation is sustained and be‐ come environmental friendly.

The Thailand DOF integrated GAP and CoC in 1998 with support from the World Bank. Under GAP standard, the requirement are farm registration;, farm management; use of veterinary drugs chemical, hazardous substances, and probiotics used in aquaculture; farm sanitation; harvest and post-harvest prior to distribution; effluent and sediment manage‐ ment; energy source and fuel use; social and environmental responsibility; and record keeping. Code of Conduct for shrimp culture has two components: operational guide‐ lines for hatcheries and farms, and guidelines for harvesting and transport. These practi‐ ces - GAP and CoC - are standard for shrimp culture to ensure that shrimp culture has minimal to no chemical residues which protects consumers and applies environmental friendly practices. Three year GAP or CoC certificates are issued by the Thailand DOF to shrimp farms after they meet qualifications and comply with annual surveillance.

Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **38**

**a b**

Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and Best Management Practices (BMPs)

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49

**c d**

 **Figure 16. a.** Clean and dried pond before start; **b.** Water quality monitoring; **c.** Water drained into treatment ponds; **d.** Aeration in culturing period using paddle wheel aerators; **e.** Shrimp health sampling with a cast net; **f.** Shrimp monitoring

**Figure 16.** a. Clean and dried pond before start; b. Water quality monitoring; c. Water drained into treatment ponds; d. Aeration in culturing period using paddle wheel aerators; e. Shrimp health sampling with a cast net; f. Shrimp moni‐

In recent years aquaculture has gone through the "blue revolution" in which there has been rapid growth worldwide in aquaculture production of both fresh and saltwater fish and shellfish species. In part this is due to the fact that the natural fisheries are close to their maximum sustainable yield. However, this rapid growth in aquaculture may also be attributed to the ever increasing world population and an increase in demand for high protein sources

*In recent years aquaculture has gone through the "blue revolution" in which there has been rapid growth worldwide in aquaculture production of both fresh and saltwater fish and shellfish species. In part this is due to the fact that the natural fisheries are close to their maximum sustainable yield. However, this rapid growth in aquaculture may also be attributed to the ever increasing world population and an increase in demand for high protein sources of seafood. In the past, aquaculture has been demonized for destruction of mangroves worldwide for shrimp production as well as causing potential eutrophication through unwelcomed discharges of nutrient rich*

**e g**

**f**

with a lift net; and **g.** Collected specimens are assessed for growth and survival rate.

toring with a lift net; and g. Collected specimens are assessed for growth and survival rate.

**6. Final Remarks**

**6. Final remarks**

*effluents.*

Shrimp culture systems in Thailand also have a traceability system from farm to product which initially started as a form of hatchery management. Some hatcheries complied with bio-secure systems to ensure that larvae produced are healthy and viable before selling to grow-out farmers. Hatcheries must provide Fry Movement Documents (FMD) to their customers to indicate the number of fry that a farmer purchases in addition to other hatchery information since this document is checked if any problems occur during growout. Shrimp farmers must also provide Movement Documents (MD) which indicate the weight of shrimp in the shipment in addition to other farm information to processing plants or their customers. A DOF officer checks MD, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), GMP, and product quality at the processing plant before issuing product health certificates.

Moreover, many policies and projects are established for sustainable aquaculture sup‐ port. The agencies involved at the national level include, the Department of Fisheries, Pollution Control Department and Department of Marine and Costal Resources, while there are Provincial government and Local Administrative Organization involve at local level. Water quality testing program pond and discharge water responsible by DOF and water quality in natural water responsible by Pollution Control Department, etc. Mangrove rehabitation projects are established by the national and local government sectors, private sector, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) to increase mangrove forest area along the costal zones. Thailand also supports Non Illegal Unreported Unregulated Fishing (Non-IUU) and issued several programs for fish resource conservation, which include combatting IUU fishing, prohibiting certain fishing gears within spawning season, and expanding fish conservation areas. Although wild fisheries are not a part of the discus‐ sion in this chapter, it does play a part serving as a source of fish meal industry which is used in aquaculture feed. Therefore, control of IUU and certain fishing gear, will support sustainable aquaculture.

In conclusion, fisheries production in Thailand has decreased while aquaculture production has increased and plays a vital role for providing a high protein food source for economic development in the future. Aquaculture in Thailand evolved from traditional practice to science-based due to a number of policies and regulations put in the place to sustain both the aquaculture industry and the environment. Shrimp aquaculture in Thailand is an excellent example of why sustainable aquaculture practices are necessary and how they have become implemented. With the establishment of GAP and CoC, Thailand has ensured that shrimp farming results in production of a high quality product, safe from chemical residues, that is environmental friendly. However, truly sustainable aquaculture will only be attainable when the balance between food security, economic benefit, social benefit, and a reduction of environmental impact is achieved. Figure 16 below shows the steps involved in best manage‐ ment practices in shrimp aquaculture farm.

Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and Best Management Practices (BMPs) http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57471 49

Aquaculture Impacts o n Habitat & BMPs Ozbay e t al. | **38**

 **Figure 16. a.** Clean and dried pond before start; **b.** Water quality monitoring; **c.** Water drained into treatment ponds; **d.** Aeration in culturing period using paddle wheel aerators; **e.** Shrimp health sampling with a cast net; **f.** Shrimp monitoring with a lift net; and **g.** Collected specimens are assessed for growth and survival rate. **Figure 16.** a. Clean and dried pond before start; b. Water quality monitoring; c. Water drained into treatment ponds; d. Aeration in culturing period using paddle wheel aerators; e. Shrimp health sampling with a cast net; f. Shrimp moni‐ toring with a lift net; and g. Collected specimens are assessed for growth and survival rate.

#### *In recent years aquaculture has gone through the "blue revolution" in which there has been rapid growth worldwide in aquaculture production of both fresh and saltwater fish and shellfish species. In part this is due to the fact that the natural fisheries are*  **6. Final remarks**

**6. Final Remarks**

friendly practices. Three year GAP or CoC certificates are issued by the Thailand DOF to

Shrimp culture systems in Thailand also have a traceability system from farm to product which initially started as a form of hatchery management. Some hatcheries complied with bio-secure systems to ensure that larvae produced are healthy and viable before selling to grow-out farmers. Hatcheries must provide Fry Movement Documents (FMD) to their customers to indicate the number of fry that a farmer purchases in addition to other hatchery information since this document is checked if any problems occur during growout. Shrimp farmers must also provide Movement Documents (MD) which indicate the weight of shrimp in the shipment in addition to other farm information to processing plants or their customers. A DOF officer checks MD, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), GMP, and product quality at the processing plant before issuing product health

Moreover, many policies and projects are established for sustainable aquaculture sup‐ port. The agencies involved at the national level include, the Department of Fisheries, Pollution Control Department and Department of Marine and Costal Resources, while there are Provincial government and Local Administrative Organization involve at local level. Water quality testing program pond and discharge water responsible by DOF and water quality in natural water responsible by Pollution Control Department, etc. Mangrove rehabitation projects are established by the national and local government sectors, private sector, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) to increase mangrove forest area along the costal zones. Thailand also supports Non Illegal Unreported Unregulated Fishing (Non-IUU) and issued several programs for fish resource conservation, which include combatting IUU fishing, prohibiting certain fishing gears within spawning season, and expanding fish conservation areas. Although wild fisheries are not a part of the discus‐ sion in this chapter, it does play a part serving as a source of fish meal industry which is used in aquaculture feed. Therefore, control of IUU and certain fishing gear, will support

In conclusion, fisheries production in Thailand has decreased while aquaculture production has increased and plays a vital role for providing a high protein food source for economic development in the future. Aquaculture in Thailand evolved from traditional practice to science-based due to a number of policies and regulations put in the place to sustain both the aquaculture industry and the environment. Shrimp aquaculture in Thailand is an excellent example of why sustainable aquaculture practices are necessary and how they have become implemented. With the establishment of GAP and CoC, Thailand has ensured that shrimp farming results in production of a high quality product, safe from chemical residues, that is environmental friendly. However, truly sustainable aquaculture will only be attainable when the balance between food security, economic benefit, social benefit, and a reduction of environmental impact is achieved. Figure 16 below shows the steps involved in best manage‐

shrimp farms after they meet qualifications and comply with annual surveillance.

certificates.

48 Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

sustainable aquaculture.

ment practices in shrimp aquaculture farm.

*population and an increase in demand for high protein sources of seafood. In the past, aquaculture has been demonized for destruction of mangroves worldwide for shrimp production as well as causing potential eutrophication through unwelcomed discharges of nutrient rich effluents.*  In recent years aquaculture has gone through the "blue revolution" in which there has been rapid growth worldwide in aquaculture production of both fresh and saltwater fish and shellfish species. In part this is due to the fact that the natural fisheries are close to their maximum sustainable yield. However, this rapid growth in aquaculture may also be attributed to the ever increasing world population and an increase in demand for high protein sources

*close to their maximum sustainable yield. However, this rapid growth in aquaculture may also be attributed to the ever increasing world*

of seafood. In the past, aquaculture has been demonized for destruction of mangroves worldwide for shrimp production as well as causing potential eutrophication through unwelcomed discharges of nutrient rich effluents.

of chemicals used, and as a result, regulations cannot truly be effective. Furthermore, it is difficult to make correlations of aquaculture effluents to environmental impacts without ac‐ curate records. The main goals of effluent management or, more often referred to as best management practices, are to minimize impacts to the environment while maintaining pro‐ ductivity. Fortunately, most of these strategies are as beneficial to the aquaculturists/ farm‐ ers as they are to the environment. Both production costs and effluent can be reduced by using stock-specific feeds applied in smaller quantities several times a day, good aeration, improved husbandry practices, and paying good attention not to exceed to the carrying ca‐ pacity of the system. By lowering concentrations of phytoplankton, savings on herbicides and aeration are inevitable. Limited water exchange, integrated aquaculture, and good mon‐

Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and Best Management Practices (BMPs)

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57471

51

The authors would like to thank Dr. Karuna Chintapenta, Brian Reckenbeil, Kris Roeske, and Cory Janiak for their editorial assistance and review of the chapter. The authors would also like to thank Dr. Claude Boyd for the resources and guidance he provided both authors for their research and professional development. Some of the projects discussed in this chapter were funded by SRAC, USDA-NIFA, USDA Evans-Allen, NSF-EPSCOR, AU, DSU, and

and Taworn Thunjai2

2 Department of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Ladyao, Jatujak, Bangkok, Thailand

1 Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Delaware State University, Dover, USA

[1] United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. UNFAO: 2009. How to Feed the World 2050. High-Level Expert Forum. Global agriculture towards 2050. http:// www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/Issues (accessed 10 September 2013).

[2] University of Maryland Medical Center. UMD: 2013. Omega-3 fatty acids. Overview. http://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/omega3-fatty-acids (accessed 3

itoring are further best management practices measures.

**Acknowledgements**

Government of Thailand.

, Grant Blank1

**Author details**

Gulnihal Ozbay1

**References**

October 2013).

With increased environmental awareness and the general populations increased concern over its food sourcing, aquaculture has stepped up to the proverbial plate to try and fulfill the worlds seafood demands through increased production while trying to maintain more environmen‐ tally friendly practices of culturing fish through many technological advancements. Unfortu‐ nately, aquaculture has not yet truly reached its sustainability goal. However, in addition to much technological advancement, aquaculture has begun to incorporate best management practices to create a more environmentally friendly way of producing fish. In this chapter we have gone over several areas associated with BMPs and described them with regard to how their incorporation can impact or reduce the impacts of aquaculture on the environment. Many of the BMPs discussed are simple and rely on common sense approaches to nutrient problems. Others are more technologically advanced and require additional components and or descrip‐ tions that are beyond the scope of this chapter.

In the end we are all trying to get to a point at which aquaculture can be considered a sustain‐ able farming entity so that its impacts are minimal at best to the surrounding environment, there is a continuous supply of food, and it is profitable for all of those who are involved. As we consider moving ahead we must continue to remember that the world's resources are there for all and we want to maintain them for future generations to come. Again, we quote Costa-Pierce (2002) in suggesting there has to be a behavioral shift in humans rather than technology in order for aquaculture to become truly sustainable.

#### **7. Technical summary**

Tremendous efforts have been made to improve aquaculture farm practices through disease prevention and treatment, planning and management of facilities, feeding, and advances in aquaculture technology and sustainable practices. However, the industry is not without its issues and faults. Although significant accomplishments have been made in minimizing the negative impacts of aquaculture operations on the environment, it is not reached sustaina‐ bility worldwide. Further efforts ranging from husbandry practices to policy and regula‐ tions are essential to ensure the sustainability of aquaculture on a global scale. As aquaculture moves from feeding millions to billions of people in the last century, intensive culture practices have become common and require better management and monitoring ef‐ forts. Intensive production of fish farming requires significant inputs of nutrients in the form of inorganic fertilizers or feeds. Of these inputs, typically only 25% of the chemical con‐ stituents of the feed are assimilated into fish biomass while the rest is released into the water as metabolic wastes. In pond culture, fish are usually harvested after draining the pond par‐ tially or fully. The waste water expelled from these ponds into watershed, laden with organ‐ ic matter and nutrients, concerns regulatory agencies as a point-source of pollution. In addition, in most countries, including the United States, statistics are lacking on the amounts of chemicals used, and as a result, regulations cannot truly be effective. Furthermore, it is difficult to make correlations of aquaculture effluents to environmental impacts without ac‐ curate records. The main goals of effluent management or, more often referred to as best management practices, are to minimize impacts to the environment while maintaining pro‐ ductivity. Fortunately, most of these strategies are as beneficial to the aquaculturists/ farm‐ ers as they are to the environment. Both production costs and effluent can be reduced by using stock-specific feeds applied in smaller quantities several times a day, good aeration, improved husbandry practices, and paying good attention not to exceed to the carrying ca‐ pacity of the system. By lowering concentrations of phytoplankton, savings on herbicides and aeration are inevitable. Limited water exchange, integrated aquaculture, and good mon‐ itoring are further best management practices measures.

#### **Acknowledgements**

of seafood. In the past, aquaculture has been demonized for destruction of mangroves worldwide for shrimp production as well as causing potential eutrophication through

With increased environmental awareness and the general populations increased concern over its food sourcing, aquaculture has stepped up to the proverbial plate to try and fulfill the worlds seafood demands through increased production while trying to maintain more environmen‐ tally friendly practices of culturing fish through many technological advancements. Unfortu‐ nately, aquaculture has not yet truly reached its sustainability goal. However, in addition to much technological advancement, aquaculture has begun to incorporate best management practices to create a more environmentally friendly way of producing fish. In this chapter we have gone over several areas associated with BMPs and described them with regard to how their incorporation can impact or reduce the impacts of aquaculture on the environment. Many of the BMPs discussed are simple and rely on common sense approaches to nutrient problems. Others are more technologically advanced and require additional components and or descrip‐

In the end we are all trying to get to a point at which aquaculture can be considered a sustain‐ able farming entity so that its impacts are minimal at best to the surrounding environment, there is a continuous supply of food, and it is profitable for all of those who are involved. As we consider moving ahead we must continue to remember that the world's resources are there for all and we want to maintain them for future generations to come. Again, we quote Costa-Pierce (2002) in suggesting there has to be a behavioral shift in humans rather than technology

Tremendous efforts have been made to improve aquaculture farm practices through disease prevention and treatment, planning and management of facilities, feeding, and advances in aquaculture technology and sustainable practices. However, the industry is not without its issues and faults. Although significant accomplishments have been made in minimizing the negative impacts of aquaculture operations on the environment, it is not reached sustaina‐ bility worldwide. Further efforts ranging from husbandry practices to policy and regula‐ tions are essential to ensure the sustainability of aquaculture on a global scale. As aquaculture moves from feeding millions to billions of people in the last century, intensive culture practices have become common and require better management and monitoring ef‐ forts. Intensive production of fish farming requires significant inputs of nutrients in the form of inorganic fertilizers or feeds. Of these inputs, typically only 25% of the chemical con‐ stituents of the feed are assimilated into fish biomass while the rest is released into the water as metabolic wastes. In pond culture, fish are usually harvested after draining the pond par‐ tially or fully. The waste water expelled from these ponds into watershed, laden with organ‐ ic matter and nutrients, concerns regulatory agencies as a point-source of pollution. In addition, in most countries, including the United States, statistics are lacking on the amounts

unwelcomed discharges of nutrient rich effluents.

50 Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

tions that are beyond the scope of this chapter.

in order for aquaculture to become truly sustainable.

**7. Technical summary**

The authors would like to thank Dr. Karuna Chintapenta, Brian Reckenbeil, Kris Roeske, and Cory Janiak for their editorial assistance and review of the chapter. The authors would also like to thank Dr. Claude Boyd for the resources and guidance he provided both authors for their research and professional development. Some of the projects discussed in this chapter were funded by SRAC, USDA-NIFA, USDA Evans-Allen, NSF-EPSCOR, AU, DSU, and Government of Thailand.

#### **Author details**

Gulnihal Ozbay1 , Grant Blank1 and Taworn Thunjai2

#### **References**

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