*2.1. Studied Site and Communities*

The study was performed on the coasts of north-west Brittany, on the site of Porspoder (48◦28.88 N/4◦46.29 W) (Figure 1). The site is about 230 m long and 100 m wide, with a maximal tidal range of 8.15 m and mainly exhibiting dense macroalgal canopies with some pools, boulder fields and bedrock. The six macroalgal communities typically found in the north-east Atlantic were vertically distributed on the shore [8] and were grouped into 4 bathymetric levels for the study. These levels correspond to either single or mixed communities named by the dominating Fucales and Laminariales: (1) *Pelvetia canaliculata* plus *Fucus spiralis* communities, (2) *Ascophyllum nodosum*/*Fucus vesiculosus* community, (3) *Fucus serratus* community and (4) *Himanthalia elongata*/*Bifurcaria bifurcata* plus *Laminaria digitata* communities. These levels are referred to, respectively, as Pc-Fspi, An, Fser and He-Ld hereafter.

**Figure 1.** Study site of Porspoder (Brittany, France: 48◦28.88 N/4◦46.29 W) showing the 24 in situ sampling spots surveyed during the study. The color of the circles indicates the intertidal level considered: red circles, *P. canaliculata*—*F. spiralis*; yellow circles, *A. nodosum*; black circles, *F. serratus*; blue circles, *H. elongata*. The dotted lines correspond to the UAV flight lines.


Our findings also draw attention more directly to the role that ICT can play in reconfiguring the supply chain structure. From our observations, we find ICT and other technologies play a central role, like a hub or platform, instead of in the industry supply chain structure. It is not just a facilitator to other drivers but also a starting point and link to other constructs for value creation. One of the interviewers stressed, "The CAD, CAI, e-learning systems in the Craft and Design Department are helpful for meeting the industrial demands of delicately designed products. This is especially because the design system can encourage industrial employees to work together with the student

In our case study, technology is not an innovative element in itself, but constitutes the driver that enables a company to activate co-design or co-production systems that

*Museum,* experience crafts in *Our Studio*, and purchase creative products from *Our Factory*. The purpose of this customer journey is to showcase the aesthetic experience by connecting design and culture so as to synthesize humanity, creativity, cultural production creativities, and technology. In this way, it achieves the aim of service design promotion in public (Hekkert & Leder, 2008; Hekkert et. al., 2003; Helander & Tham, 2003).

5. New Technological Options:*Integrate all constructs to E-business*. Technology mainly plays a role as a facilitating or enabling factor in various innovations. Creativity and business are the elements for reaching an aesthetic economy, similar to the often-used concept of "Think Globally. Act Locally." These elements process the "Digital Archive" of Our Museum through the cultural creativities of Our Studio, producing cultural products in Our Factory in order to establish local industry-making aesthetic and economical products. The use of ICT channels could also reach a new factory, create new experiences for consumers and provide a co-production platform for designers and consumers. The majority of firms in NTUA Cultural Creative Industry Park become more effective by using technology-related techniques such as online access to art and knowledge databases, downloadable and streamed multimedia content (audio, video, podcasts), information systems (e.g. CAD, CAI, e-learning, co-design system, coproduction system, and customer relationship management system), virtual museums, QR-code attachment for products, company dedicated websites, wireless connectivity enabling live feeding of information and tools, and so on. In the near future, the proposed ICT applications based on the digital archives at the NTUA Cultural Creative Industry Park will link to different dimensions, including: online exhibitions (text, image, audiovisual); virtual exhibitions (including 360-degree room views); real and imaginary exhibitions and gallery spaces; interactive gallery maps, games and play spaces for children and young people; multimedia tours; interactive kiosks; simulation and virtual reality experiences with sound, lasers and light shows; and IMAX presentations and "theme-park-like" attractions. Linking to these various dimensions will help NTUA reach new audiences and create new experiences for consumers.

To demonstrate the proposed five-dimension model, an integral example is the "cultural and creative fashion show" at the Cultural Creative Industry Park. This specific event combines aesthetics, creativity, fashion, technology, design, and commercial networks. Government officials are invited, and students, teachers, art personnel, and the cultural creative community are also involved. Students perform as the catwalk models to show their creative products, which are designed by themselves in Our Studio and supervised by professors and coproduced with Our Factory in the park. Moreover, students are able to communicate their inspiration and products to potential customers using this new style service. Through the creative stage and exhibition layout, the application of multimedia technology combined with creative products show that all participants can really feel involved in the aesthetics of art and life. As a result, the idea of turning "Art" into "Business" is realized, while the process is combined with "Creativity," "Design," and "E-business" to transform the aesthetic values into commerce by service innovation (Lin, 2007, 2009, 2010).

#### **4.3 The roles of ICTs in service innovation**

Although one of our foci is on non-technological innovation, we do not deny the importance of technology for innovation. It is important to understand the role technology plays in the

5. New Technological Options:*Integrate all constructs to E-business*. Technology mainly plays a role as a facilitating or enabling factor in various innovations. Creativity and business are the elements for reaching an aesthetic economy, similar to the often-used concept of "Think Globally. Act Locally." These elements process the "Digital Archive" of Our Museum through the cultural creativities of Our Studio, producing cultural products in Our Factory in order to establish local industry-making aesthetic and economical products. The use of ICT channels could also reach a new factory, create new experiences for consumers and provide a co-production platform for designers and consumers. The majority of firms in NTUA Cultural Creative Industry Park become more effective by using technology-related techniques such as online access to art and knowledge databases, downloadable and streamed multimedia content (audio, video, podcasts), information systems (e.g. CAD, CAI, e-learning, co-design system, coproduction system, and customer relationship management system), virtual museums, QR-code attachment for products, company dedicated websites, wireless connectivity enabling live feeding of information and tools, and so on. In the near future, the proposed ICT applications based on the digital archives at the NTUA Cultural Creative Industry Park will link to different dimensions, including: online exhibitions (text, image, audiovisual); virtual exhibitions (including 360-degree room views); real and imaginary exhibitions and gallery spaces; interactive gallery maps, games and play spaces for children and young people; multimedia tours; interactive kiosks; simulation and virtual reality experiences with sound, lasers and light shows; and IMAX presentations and "theme-park-like" attractions. Linking to these various dimensions

will help NTUA reach new audiences and create new experiences for consumers. To demonstrate the proposed five-dimension model, an integral example is the "cultural and creative fashion show" at the Cultural Creative Industry Park. This specific event combines aesthetics, creativity, fashion, technology, design, and commercial networks. Government officials are invited, and students, teachers, art personnel, and the cultural creative community are also involved. Students perform as the catwalk models to show their creative products, which are designed by themselves in Our Studio and supervised by professors and coproduced with Our Factory in the park. Moreover, students are able to communicate their inspiration and products to potential customers using this new style service. Through the creative stage and exhibition layout, the application of multimedia technology combined with creative products show that all participants can really feel involved in the aesthetics of art and life. As a result, the idea of turning "Art" into "Business" is realized, while the process is combined with "Creativity," "Design," and "E-business" to transform the aesthetic values into

Although one of our foci is on non-technological innovation, we do not deny the importance of technology for innovation. It is important to understand the role technology plays in the

commerce by service innovation (Lin, 2007, 2009, 2010).

**4.3 The roles of ICTs in service innovation**

Tham, 2003).

*Museum,* experience crafts in *Our Studio*, and purchase creative products from *Our Factory*. The purpose of this customer journey is to showcase the aesthetic experience by connecting design and culture so as to synthesize humanity, creativity, cultural production creativities, and technology. In this way, it achieves the aim of service design promotion in public (Hekkert & Leder, 2008; Hekkert et. al., 2003; Helander & different dimensions of service innovation. In our case, it plays the role of: 1) enhancing the effectiveness of a particular strategy, 2) virtually integrating and widening the boundaries of the physical environment, 3) a platform for information distribution, and 4) value cocreation within the service systems networks.

#### **4.3.1 Enhancing the effectiveness of a particular strategy**

#### **4.3.2 The virtual integration and widening of the physical environment boundaries**

The virtual, as we have observed in the digital archive or on the website of *Our Museum*, neither substitutes nor opposes the physical environment. It integrates with the real and widens the park's boundaries, which then open up to the creation and reinterpretation of actual reality. As another interviewer indicated, "From the digital archives platform of Our Museum, students could visit the virtual art museum at any time, anywhere, and any device. This new service will enhance their incentives and abilities for them to create more delicate works of art." In this sense, we are witnessing concrete manifestations that stem from ICT and other technology (e.g. virtual museums; wireless connectivity enabling live feeding of information and tools; e-learning etc).

#### **4.3.3 Platform for information distribution**

A Discourse on the Construction of a Service

Knowledge of the characteristics of existing and competing services (Business intelligence)

Our **Art** Museum Our Factory &

New service concept New client

**Business**

interfaces

Characteristics of actual and potential clients (Market intelligence)

Marketing *Communication*

*subsystem*

*Enhancing the effectiveness of a particular strategy*

*Creative subsystem Communication*

Organization development

*The virtual integrates and widens the boundaries of the physical environment*

pathways between specific dimensions.

1. Service Subsystem Network

2. Creative Subsystem

**ABCDE Model Content**

**Revised Service Innovation Model**

**Activity/ Function**

**Linkage** New Service Concept

New Client Interfaces

**New Services Transformati on System**

New Service Delivery System/ Organization

Technology Option

key findings.

Innovation Model: Focus on the Cultural and Creative Industry Park 131

**Cultural** production system.

**New services transformation system**

Relationship with the actors, coproduction and transfer of new service (Management intelligence)

Marketing *Creative subsystem* Organization

*subsystem*

*network*

*Value co-creation with the service systems networks*

Distribution *Service subsystem*

Table 1. The relations of proposed constructs of service innovation, the ABCDE model and

adequate interface with clients, and adapting the service delivery system requires knowledge of how services are distributed (both in terms of where they are produced and of how they are delivered). Below, we briefly introduce three additional activities in the

The service subsystem network includes internal employees, private friends and other cultural gatekeepers (e.g. opinion leaders, family members, etc). The pathway emphasizes the opportunity to select people with relational and/or specific technical capabilities in order to support interaction in an industrial domain. Moreover, it is important for managers or staff in particular to have specific competencies that constitute defining co-workers for the organization. These resources allow them to take

The creative subsystem is responsible for generating new symbols or ideas. In this pathway, where Our Art Museum dematerializes their offerings, the social and

an active part in the guidance and advancement of a cultural organization.

**Art Business Creativity Design E-business**

Our **Design** Studio

New service delivery systems/ organization

Capabilities, skills & attitudes of existing and competing service workers (Human Resource Management)

development

*Service subsystem network*

*Platform for information distribution*

Distribution *Enhancing the*

ICT application and **E-**

Technology option

Technology mainly playing a role as a facilitating or enabling factor in various innovation

(Enabling technology)

*The virtual integrates and widens the boundaries of the physical environment*

*effectiveness of a particular strategy*

*distribution*

*Value co-creation with the service systems networks*

*Platform for information*

**business**

simultaneously explore and exploit knowledge from online access to art and knowledge databases. We also find development through a repository of the knowledge from the characteristics of existing and competing services, to form business intelligence at our proposed service innovation model (see Figure 4).

#### **4.3.4 Value co-creation with the service systems networks**

With the new service transformation system dimension, the customer experience could reflect much more about value integration and transformation, especially when joined with ICTs applications. Any organizations and individuals involved in the service innovation model will contribute to the creation and transfer of cultural products or a cultural journey experience. When the new service transformation is positive, it will develop a good client relationship network (e.g. CRM system), where it will integrate the whole service innovation's process. The new service transformation system can combine and transform creative ideas, technology application and consumer preferences from a global trend website or artwork and knowledge databases/virtual museum into service innovation operational reality. This is further supported by the service subsystem network, which is another important feature of our proposed service innovation model. As another interviewer said, "With all the infrastructure facilities settled, the NTUA Cultural and Creative Industry Park will have strong potential to become the most famous and unique cultural park in New Taipei City."

The relationship between the above-mentioned constructs of service innovation, the ABCDE model and the key findings (with italic type) of this paper are listed in Table 1. The new service transformation system is a combined process, and the linking of the four constructs should be exploited to improve organization development, creative sub-systems and communication sub-systems, so as to create better value for the customer. However, to ensure the success of the new services transformation system, companies need to be managed and coordinated with effective and efficient technological options. From these results, we can find the combination of technological management within an organization and human viewpoint that is responsible for increasing value co-creation, highlighting the emergence of a mostly neglected soft side of innovation. This perspective allows companies to shift their attention from innovation output to different ways to serve their market better (Vargo and Lusch, 2008).

#### **4.4 Linking the various dimensions**

The individual dimensions impact each other in both directions. From one perspective, all of the innovative works in cultural industries belong to a certain combination of the above five dimensions. Service innovation in cultural industries can only be consistently achieved through the development of each dimension and their connections and interactions. The proposed service innovation model is connected to five constructs by the following six value creation activities.

Often these cross-linkages are forged in practice by those responsible for 1) marketing, 2) organization development, and 3) distribution. Launching a new service concept or aesthetic content (for existing or new clients) requires marketing expertise e.g., the play spaces for children and young people in the Cultural Creative Industry Park. Similarly, creating an

With the new service transformation system dimension, the customer experience could reflect much more about value integration and transformation, especially when joined with ICTs applications. Any organizations and individuals involved in the service innovation model will contribute to the creation and transfer of cultural products or a cultural journey experience. When the new service transformation is positive, it will develop a good client relationship network (e.g. CRM system), where it will integrate the whole service innovation's process. The new service transformation system can combine and transform creative ideas, technology application and consumer preferences from a global trend website or artwork and knowledge databases/virtual museum into service innovation operational reality. This is further supported by the service subsystem network, which is another important feature of our proposed service innovation model. As another interviewer said, "With all the infrastructure facilities settled, the NTUA Cultural and Creative Industry Park will have strong potential to become the most famous and unique

The relationship between the above-mentioned constructs of service innovation, the ABCDE model and the key findings (with italic type) of this paper are listed in Table 1. The new service transformation system is a combined process, and the linking of the four constructs should be exploited to improve organization development, creative sub-systems and communication sub-systems, so as to create better value for the customer. However, to ensure the success of the new services transformation system, companies need to be managed and coordinated with effective and efficient technological options. From these results, we can find the combination of technological management within an organization and human viewpoint that is responsible for increasing value co-creation, highlighting the emergence of a mostly neglected soft side of innovation. This perspective allows companies to shift their attention from innovation output to different ways to serve their market better

The individual dimensions impact each other in both directions. From one perspective, all of the innovative works in cultural industries belong to a certain combination of the above five dimensions. Service innovation in cultural industries can only be consistently achieved through the development of each dimension and their connections and interactions. The proposed service innovation model is connected to five constructs by the following six value

Often these cross-linkages are forged in practice by those responsible for 1) marketing, 2) organization development, and 3) distribution. Launching a new service concept or aesthetic content (for existing or new clients) requires marketing expertise e.g., the play spaces for children and young people in the Cultural Creative Industry Park. Similarly, creating an

proposed service innovation model (see Figure 4).

cultural park in New Taipei City."

(Vargo and Lusch, 2008).

creation activities.

**4.4 Linking the various dimensions**

**4.3.4 Value co-creation with the service systems networks**

simultaneously explore and exploit knowledge from online access to art and knowledge databases. We also find development through a repository of the knowledge from the characteristics of existing and competing services, to form business intelligence at our

Table 1. The relations of proposed constructs of service innovation, the ABCDE model and key findings.

adequate interface with clients, and adapting the service delivery system requires knowledge of how services are distributed (both in terms of where they are produced and of how they are delivered). Below, we briefly introduce three additional activities in the pathways between specific dimensions.

1. Service Subsystem Network

The service subsystem network includes internal employees, private friends and other cultural gatekeepers (e.g. opinion leaders, family members, etc). The pathway emphasizes the opportunity to select people with relational and/or specific technical capabilities in order to support interaction in an industrial domain. Moreover, it is important for managers or staff in particular to have specific competencies that constitute defining co-workers for the organization. These resources allow them to take an active part in the guidance and advancement of a cultural organization.

2. Creative Subsystem

The creative subsystem is responsible for generating new symbols or ideas. In this pathway, where Our Art Museum dematerializes their offerings, the social and

A Discourse on the Construction of a Service

**6. References**

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economic actors (e.g. sophisticated museum guides, college professors, etc.) play a key role in knowledge transfer within the creative subsystem. Our results clearly show that attention paid to the creation of creativity from a widespread culture. Some actors must become genuine knowledge integrators and combine the knowledge generated from the interactions of the cultural creative activities.

3. Communication Subsystem

The communication subsystem has dual objectives. First, the subsystem strives to make vital processes specific to the design sectors they have decided to operate in more efficient. Second, it is responsible for giving meaning to new ideas, and providing them with symbolism to increase the added value of their services. In this approach, in which firms are involved in a process of replication of a school's niche strategy, factory staff, artisans and craft professors can also become genuine knowledge integrators, and include the information generated from their interactions with customers.

#### **5. Conclusions**

Based on Bilderbeek's four-dimension service innovation model and service system and cultural production system, we added a fifth "new services transformation system" dimension that plays an important role in the service innovation model for cultural creative industries. It expresses the new service concept synthetically, supported by factories and organizations, and maintains a relationship with the new client interface. On this dimension, the customer experience reflects much more about value integration and transformation, especially when joined with ICT applications. Any organizations and individuals involved in the service innovation model will contribute to the value creation and the transfer of cultural products/services. When the new service transformation is positive, it will develop a healthy client relationship network and integrate the whole service innovation process. This article allows the specificity of each construct to be emphasized, especially in terms of new services transformation systems and the role of technology. We found the convergence of cultural production systems and service science on the study of service systems to be particularly helpful in establishing a basis for systematic service innovation. The services transformation system dimension identifies the relationship with actors, value co-creation and transforms new service in enhancing management intelligence. We do not only see the generation of new service models but also perceive previous models increasing their efficiency and flexibility. From the service science perspective, we reinterpret the "ABCDE" model. We turn "Art" into "Business," while the process is combined with "Creativity," "Design," and "E-business" to transform the aesthetic values to commerce by service innovation.

This is a starting point for better understanding the role of ICT and soft innovation in supporting the redefinition of service innovation models and the conditions that enable their business development. The next step is more in-depth analysis. The proposed framework for service innovation management provides practitioners with a structured approach to manage the service innovations of the Cultural Creative Industry Park. We also anticipate that the paper will yield results of interest and usefulness to cultural parks that are developing new innovation service models around information and communication technologies. Future research efforts might be both qualitative and quantitative, and deepen the practical implications of the different roles played in service innovation in cultural and creative industries. The sample size should also be increased in future research, adding selected organizations that represent different cultural industries and different countries. Such a future study would avoid the argument that the case studies are too specific to be relevant to other organizations in culture-related businesses.

#### **6. References**

132 E-Business – Applications and Global Acceptance

interactions of the cultural creative activities.

3. Communication Subsystem

**5. Conclusions**

innovation.

economic actors (e.g. sophisticated museum guides, college professors, etc.) play a key role in knowledge transfer within the creative subsystem. Our results clearly show that attention paid to the creation of creativity from a widespread culture. Some actors must become genuine knowledge integrators and combine the knowledge generated from the

The communication subsystem has dual objectives. First, the subsystem strives to make vital processes specific to the design sectors they have decided to operate in more efficient. Second, it is responsible for giving meaning to new ideas, and providing them with symbolism to increase the added value of their services. In this approach, in which firms are involved in a process of replication of a school's niche strategy, factory staff, artisans and craft professors can also become genuine knowledge integrators, and

include the information generated from their interactions with customers.

Based on Bilderbeek's four-dimension service innovation model and service system and cultural production system, we added a fifth "new services transformation system" dimension that plays an important role in the service innovation model for cultural creative industries. It expresses the new service concept synthetically, supported by factories and organizations, and maintains a relationship with the new client interface. On this dimension, the customer experience reflects much more about value integration and transformation, especially when joined with ICT applications. Any organizations and individuals involved in the service innovation model will contribute to the value creation and the transfer of cultural products/services. When the new service transformation is positive, it will develop a healthy client relationship network and integrate the whole service innovation process. This article allows the specificity of each construct to be emphasized, especially in terms of new services transformation systems and the role of technology. We found the convergence of cultural production systems and service science on the study of service systems to be particularly helpful in establishing a basis for systematic service innovation. The services transformation system dimension identifies the relationship with actors, value co-creation and transforms new service in enhancing management intelligence. We do not only see the generation of new service models but also perceive previous models increasing their efficiency and flexibility. From the service science perspective, we reinterpret the "ABCDE" model. We turn "Art" into "Business," while the process is combined with "Creativity," "Design," and "E-business" to transform the aesthetic values to commerce by service

This is a starting point for better understanding the role of ICT and soft innovation in supporting the redefinition of service innovation models and the conditions that enable their business development. The next step is more in-depth analysis. The proposed framework for service innovation management provides practitioners with a structured approach to manage the service innovations of the Cultural Creative Industry Park. We also anticipate that the paper will yield results of interest and usefulness to cultural parks that are developing new innovation service models around information and communication technologies. Future research efforts might be both qualitative and quantitative, and deepen the practical implications of the different roles played in service innovation in cultural and

A Discourse on the Construction of a Service

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### *Edited by Princely Ifinedo*

E-Business - Applications and Global Acceptance is a collection of well-written papers that employ empirical and theoretical/conceptual approaches to highlight insights on the global acceptance of electronic business (e-business) and other useful applications and conceptualizations in the area. As our knowledge of the e-business phenomenon continues to mature and evolve, it is pertinent that new insights and information be made available. This edited book is published against such a backdrop. In essence, this book seeks to provide value to both e-business researchers and practitioners, with information sourced from differing regions of the world. The diversity in the sources of insights is welcome and this edited book covers a wide range of interesting, topical, and timely issues dealing with the acceptance of e-business applications or systems, business processes integration and management, the extension of e-business concepts to not-for-profit (nonprofit) organizations, and the construction of a service innovation model. Without a doubt, this book will be a comprehensive reference point for knowledge seekers who want to understand emerging conceptualizations, processes, and behaviors in the e-business domain.

E-Business - Applications and Global Acceptance

E-Business

Applications and Global Acceptance

*Edited by Princely Ifinedo*

Photo by ktsimage / iStock


**1. Introduction**

Currently, China is the world's largest vehicle producer and sales market. However, the rapid growth of car ownership in recent years has raised grave concerns about national energy security, traffic safety, and climate change. According to statistics, China's reliance on oil importation exceeded 65 percent by the end of 2017 [1]. At the same time, the transport sector contributes to a significant share of the country's total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Recently, the Chinese government has regarded electric vehicles (EVs) as the alternative to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to diminish GHG emissions and to alleviate the dependence on gasoline. Since 2015, China has already become the largest EV market globally and the accumulated number of EVs exceeded 1 million at the end of 2017. Besides, in the energy saving and new energy automotive industry development plan 2012–2020 [2], it is estimated that the total production and sales of pure battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in electric vehicles (PHEVs) will amount to 5 million vehicles by 2020, 5 times more than the current ownership.

BEVs and PHEVs are two main types of EVs and are already commercially available. Noticeably, hybrid electric vehicles are seen as an extended model of ICEVs because they do not take electricity from the grid [3]. The choice of vehicle technologies depends on multi-aspect factors, including affordability, engineering performance, policy guidance, and environmental benefits. The differences surrounding the economic viability and electrochemistry performance of BEVs and PHEVs are clearly recognized. For example, the higher purchase cost is required for BEVs, relative to comparable PHEVs, but this additional cost can currently be compensated by higher subsidies and lower fuel costs in operation. On the other hand, the limited range of BEVs is a major challenge for the wide diffusion of BEVs. However, from the perspective of life cycle environmental performance analysis of BEVs and PHEVs, a consensus has not reached concerning which option has more energy saving and lower emissions.

Additionally, the supportive policies in current China give priority to BEVs, enhancing BEVs attractiveness for potential customers. In the early stage of deploying EVs, such government support played a determinant role to sway automakers to adjust the production strategies. Thereby, if the targets of energy conservation and emission reduction in the transportation sector are desired to be fulfilled by promoting the development of EVs, the identification of which powertrain option has larger energy and emission reduction potential is necessary.

A broad body of literature compares the energy consumption and environmental impact of BEVs, PHEVs with ICEVs in a life cycle perspective [3–6]. However, direct and detailed comparisons between BEVs and PHEVs are hardly observed. Secondly, the majority of relevant studies compare the BEVs and PHEVs by only considering the fuel cycle but disregard the vehicle cycle [7–9]. For example, Ke et al. (2017) [10] conducted a detailed Well-to wheels (WTW) analysis based on real-world data and found that Beijing's BEVs can significantly reduce WTW carbon dioxide emissions compared with their conventional gasoline counterparts, even in a coal-rich region. Among these papers regarding the fuel cycle, most conclusions demonstrate that BEVs are superior to PHEVs in terms of environmental performance, but if the vehicle cycle is counted, the findings may not be warranted since a larger battery is necessary to be produced for BEVs than a class-equivalent PHEV to overcome the range limitation. Thirdly, the preceding research regarding the fuel cycle of BEVs and PHEVs was almost based on European or U.S. cases and indicates that the results depend on the electricity profile and driving conditions of each specific case. For example, Onat et al. (2015) [11] compared various vehicle options across 50 states and concluded that EVs are the least carbon-intensive option in 24 states. Casals et al. (2016) [12] calculated the EV global warming potential for different European countries under various driving conditions and concluded that the current electricity profile in some countries (e.g., France or Norway) is well suited to accommodate EV market penetration, while countries like Germany and the Netherlands do not offer immediate GHG emission reductions for the uptake of EVs. In this sense, the advantages of BEVs may not be guaranteed in China, where the electricity mix is dominated by coal. As the most crucial part of EVs, the traction battery determines the environmental and engineering performance of vehicles. In the current Chinese traction battery market, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) are the two dominant battery chemistries, but these two battery types have different energy requirements in their production process, along with their unique electrochemistry features, which affect the energy demand of vehicles in the use stage. Therefore, specifically considering the battery chemistries is an important part of life cycle analysis of electric vehicles.

With the above information in mind, this study aims to comprehensively compare the life cycle energy consumption and GHG emission performance of BEVs and PHEVs, where both the fuel cycle and the vehicle material cycle are involved and two mainstream battery chemistries (LFP and NMC) are considered. Here, we attempt to address two questions:

Which electric vehicle technology corresponds to lower energy consumption and GHG emissions?

Will the relative outperformance of such vehicle technology change with the variation in battery chemistries, electricity mix, driving distance, and some other important factors?

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a method to assess the life cycle potential environmental performance of a product or a service [13]. The standardized methodology defines four steps, the definition of the goal and scope, the life cycle inventory, the life cycle impact assessment and the

interpretation of results. In this study, a comparison between BEVs and PHEVs is discussed by using the LCA approach to help us identify the superiority of these vehicle technologies in terms of energy savings and GHG emission reductions.