*Article* **Paleoenvironmental and Bio-Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis of the Cretaceous Pelagic Carbonates of Eastern Tethys, Sulaiman Range, Pakistan**

**Shuja Ullah 1,\*, Irfan U. Jan 1 , Muhammad Hanif 1 , Khalid Latif 1 , Mohibullah Mohibullah 2 , Mahnoor Sabba 1 , Aqsa Anees 3 , Umar Ashraf 3 and Hung Vo Thanh 4,\***

**Abstract:** The Cretaceous pelagic carbonate succession, i.e., Goru Formation was studied in the Chutair Section, Sulaiman Range, representing part of the eastern Tethys for the paleoenvironment and bio-sequence stratigraphy. Eight planktonic foraminiferal biozones are identified which include: 1. *Muricohedbergella planispira* Interval Zone; 2. *Ticinella primula* Interval Zone; 3. *Biticinella breggiensis* Interval Zone; 4. *Rotalipora appenninica* Interval Zone; 5. *Rotalipora cushmani* Total Range Zone; 6. *Whiteinella archeocretacea* Partial Range Zone; 7. *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica* Total Range Zone; and 8. *Marginotruncana sigali* Partial Range Zone representing Albian-Turonian age. The petrographic studies revealed five microfacies: 1. Radiolarians-rich wacke-packestone microfacies; 2. Radiolarians-rich wackestone microfacies; 3. Planktonic foraminiferal wacke-packestone microfacies; 4. Planktonic foraminiferal wackestone microfacies; and 5. Planktonic foraminiferal packestone microfacies; indicating deposition of the Goru Formation in outer-ramp to deep basinal settings. Based on the facies variations and planktonic foraminiferal biozones, the 2nd and 3rd order cycles are identified, which further include six transgressive and five regressive system tracts. The sea level curve of the Goru Formation showed fluctuation between outer-ramp and deep-basin, showing the overall transgression in the 2nd order cycle in the study area, which coincides with Global Sea Level Curve; however, the 3rd order cycle represents the local tectonic control during deposition of the strata.

**Keywords:** microfacies; biostratigraphy; Chutair Section; sequence stratigraphy; Sulaiman Range; Stratigraphic Analysis; eastern Tethys

### **1. Introduction**

The Sulaiman Range in Pakistan consists of thick Triassic to Pleistocene sedimentary succession [1,2]. Whilst these units represent predominantly marine succession, the post Eocene shows the fluvial depositional realms [2]. Among all marine succession, the pelagic carbonates of the Goru Formation, which is subject of the current study, was deposited in the Cretaceous time (i.e., mid-Cretaceous) [3]. The Early and Early Late Cretaceous reflect a period of significant paleoenvironmental changes, which manifested itself in the installation of widespread dys-aerobic to anaerobic conditions in outer-shelf and basinal settings on multiple stages [4,5]. The mid-Cretaceous period (i.e., 124–90Ma) saw a shift in the oceanclimate system's dynamic. Increased tectonic activity and changing paleogeography were

**Citation:** Ullah, S.; Jan, I.U.; Hanif, M.; Latif, K.; Mohibullah, M.; Sabba, M.; Anees, A.; Ashraf, U.; Vo Thanh, H. Paleoenvironmental and Bio-Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis of the Cretaceous Pelagic Carbonates of Eastern Tethys, Sulaiman Range, Pakistan. *Minerals* **2022**, *12*, 946. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/min12080946

Academic Editors: Marianna Kulkova and Dmitry Subetto

Received: 8 June 2022 Accepted: 26 July 2022 Published: 27 July 2022

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**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

responsible for the changes [6]. The planktons preserved in deep-sea marl, organic-rich shale, and pelagic carbonate from the mid-Cretaceous (Barremian–Turonian) period provide an important record of how the marine biosphere responded to short- and long-term changes in the ocean-climate system [7]. Dynamic paleo-oceanographic settings affected the evolution of planktonic foraminifera throughout the mid-Cretaceous [8]. A vital radiation in the evolution of planktonic foraminifera occurred during the Late Albian–Cenomanian (105–93 Ma), characterised by the appearance of new morphologies, such as single-keeled trochospiral and biserial taxa with supplementary apertures, and the development of complex wall textures, such as macroperforate, muricate, and costellate, which lasted until the end of the Cretaceous [9]. The mid-Cretaceous, in the marine plankton, was likewise a time of high radiation and turnover [10]. The southern high latitudes were likely the main sources of deep-water production during the mid-Cretaceous, with subtropical convection restricted to isolated basins [11].

The autotrophic calcareous nano-plankton and heterotrophic planktonic foraminifera and radiolarians, both of which have mineralized skeletons of calcium carbonate and silica, are both abundant and well-preserved in mid-Cretaceous marine strata [7]. At or near the Oceanic Anoxic events (OAEs), radiolarians show high rates of evolutionary turnover that is extinction and radiation [12]. During the Cenomanian–Turonian boundary, the first bioevent occurred and the isochronous extinction of rotaliporids and the evolution/diversification of *Praeglobotruncana*, *Dicarinella*, and *Marginotruncana* indicate the start of the Turonian [7,13,14].

Based on planktonic foraminifera biostratigraphy, the pelagic carbonates of the Goru Formations in the Southern Kirthar Ranges represent Cretaceous age and the fauna show an open-marine environment [15]. The Goru Formation in the Lower Indus Basin (i.e., Kirthar Ranges) comprised of yellowish to greenish grey, fine to coarse grain sandstone interbedded with siltstone and shale in lower part whilst dark gray-to-black shales with siltstone and clay interbeds in upper part [16,17]. Here, the Goru Formation represents the main hydrocarbon bearing reservoir zone [18–21]. Previously researchers have conducted only patchy work on the Goru Formation in the Lower Indus Basin with respect to deposition and biostratigraphy; authors in a study [22] assigned the Albian to Cenomanian age to the Goru Formation on the Nar River Section, near Goru village in the Kirthar Range. In another study, authors [23] assigned to it Albian to Cenomanian age based on calcareous nannofossils and planktonic foraminifera of NW Pakistan. The Goru Formation in the Kirthar Range was allotted as an Lower Aptian to Coniacian age [24]. The Goru Formation has not been studied in detail in the study area for biostratigraphy, paleoenvironments and sequence stratigraphy. Therefore, the aims of this study are to determine the biostratigraphy, paleoenvironments and sequence stratigraphy of the Goru Formation.

#### **2. Tectonic and Stratigraphic Settings**

The Sulaiman Range is a structurally and tectonically active thin-skinned fold and thrust belt that developed from an oblique collision between Eurasia and India [25]. The Chaman sinistral strike slip fault and the Zhob Ophiolites (i.e., Muslim Bagh Ophiolites) form the northern and western boundaries of this thrust belt (Figure 1). It resulted by transpression of left lateral Chaman Fault as well as the southward thrusting of the western end of the India [26–28]. The Sulaiman Range has a Triassic to Oligocene stratigraphy. The Chutair Section is a part of the Sulaiman Range near Ziarat. The stratigraphic succession exposed in the study area ranges from the Triassic Wulgai Formation to the Oligocene conglomerate [3] (Figure 2), having being deposited on a broad shelf opening in the westward terminations into the southerly expansion of the Tethys during the Early Cretaceous [3]. The Goru Formation in the western part of the Sulaiman Range, where the study area is located, is primarily composed of thinly bedded limestone. The limestone has a grey hue in the lower part of the formation, a cream color in the middle, and a red and brown color in the upper part (Figure 2).

**Figure 1.** Map showing the study area and distribution of Triassic to Holocene rocks in the Sulaiman Range. (After [29]).

**Figure 2.** Generalized stratigraphy and lithologic log of Goru Formation at the study area, i.e., Chutair Section (After [3]).

#### **3. Methodology**

The Cretaceous pelagic carbonates of the Goru Formation exposed at Chutair Section (at Lat: 30◦20038.0200 N; and Long: 67◦54011.2600 E), Sulaiman Range is sampled for the determination of depositional environment, biostratigraphy, and sequence stratigraphy. The section is logged and 31 samples are collected on the basis of facies variation for the petrographic study [30]. The important features at the outcrop scale are noted. The field samples were cut into slabs and thin sections were generated at thin section laboratory of the National Centre of Excellence in Geology (NCE in Geology), University of Peshawar. The Nikon eclipse LV100ND polarizing microscope having dispersion staining observation at up to 400× magnification was used to examine and photograph the thin section at the Sedimentology and Paleontology Laboratory, NCE in Geology, University of Peshawar. The petrographic studies are carried out for the biostratigraphy and paleoenvironment. The morphological characteristics of planktonic foraminifera are used in association with published literature for identification [9,31,32]. For the sequence stratigraphic studies, the microfacies and biostratigraphy are used to define the system tracts and order of cycles, by using the sequence models from the literature [33,34].

#### **4. Results and Discussions**

#### *4.1. Planktonic Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy*

The planktonic foraminiferal studies are carried out for the determination of biostratigraphy of Goru Formation in the study area. Forty-four species of planktonic foraminifera that belonged to different genera are identified from thin section examination (Figure 3). Based on taxa's stratigraphic distribution within the Goru Formation in the study area (i.e., Chutair Section; Figure 1), 8 planktonic foraminiferal biozones are documented (Figure 4). These biozone are compared with literature [32,35–37]. The documented planktonic foraminifera are correlated with global biozonal schemes. All foraminiferal species' thin section photomicrographs are shown in Figure 3. The biozones discussed from the Albian–Turonian age of the pelagic carbonates of the Goru Formation are given as: *Muricohedbergella planispira* Interval Zone; *Ticinella primula* Interval Zone; *Biticinella breggiensis* Interval Zone; *Rotalipora appenninica* Interval Zone; *Rotalipora cushmani* Total Range Zone; *Whiteinella archeocretacea* Partial Range Zone; *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica* Total Range Zone; and *Marginotruncana sigali* Partial Range Zone. These zones are discussed in detail as follows:

#### *Muricohedbergella Planispira* **Interval Zone (Moullade,** [38]**)** *Age:* Early Albian

*Definition:* Partial range zone of *Muricohedbergella planispira* from the transition to the First Appearance Datum (FAD) of *Ticinella primula.*

**Assemblage:** *Muricohedbergella delrioensis*, *M. planispira* (Figures 3 and 4).

*Remarks:* This zone is marked based on the FAD of the *Ticinella primula*, and is characterized by the low-diversity assemblages. The zonal marker's FAD is recorded at the bottom of the section, and it may extend deeper into the unexposed stratigraphic depth, casting doubt on the Late Aptian age, although the base of the Albian is marked by the presence of *Microhedbergella renilaevis* [39] and in this part of the basin this particular species have not been identified (Figure 4).

#### *Ticinella Primula* **Interval Zone (Moullade,** [38]**)**

#### *Age:* Middle Albian

*Definition:* The zone ranges from the FAD of the *Ticinella primula* to the FAD of *Biticinella breggiensis*.

**Assemblage:** *Muricohedbergella delrioensis, M. planispira, M. rischi, M. simplex, Ticinella praeticinensis, T. primula, T. roberti* (Figures 3 and 4).

*Remarks:* The planktonic foraminifera gradually increase in this zone. Some of the planktonic species have their FADs in this zone including *M. rischi, M. simplex, and Ticinella roberti*. These taxa FADs have also been reported from this zone of the Parh Formation of Mughal Kot Section [40]. However, elsewhere in the world, the *Ticinella roberti* has been reported from the older Zone, i.e., *Ticinella bejaouaensis* zone [32,36]. This zone is correlated with the *Ticinella primula* zone of Premoli Silva and Verga [9].

## *Biticinella Breggiensis* **Interval Zone (Moullade,** [38]**)**

*Age:* Middle Albian

**Definition:** This zone started from the FAD of *Biticinella breggiensis* to the FAD of *Rotalipora appenninica* and *Planomalina buxtorfi*.

**Assemblage:** *Biticinella breggiensis, B. subbreggiensis, Macroglobigerinelloides bentonensis, Muricohedbergella delrioensis, M. planispira, M. rischi, M. simplex, Ticinella praeticinensis, T. primula, T. raynaudi* (Figures 3 and 4).

*Remarks:* The upper boundary of this zone is marked on the FAD of *Rotalipora appenninica* and *Planomalina buxtorfi* instead of *Rotalipora ticinensis,* which is the defined boundary elsewhere in the world [32,38]. The diversity in the planktonic foraminifera increase in this zone such as *M. bentonensis, T. praeticinensis, and T. raynaudi,* start to appear in this zone.

*Rotalipora Appenninica* **Interval Zone (Bronnimann,** [41]**)**

*Age:* Late Albian

**Definition:** This interval spans from the FAD of *Rotalipora appenninica* to the FAD of *Rotalipora globotruncanoides*.

**Assemblage:** *Heterohelix moremani, H. reussi, Macroglobigerinelloides bentonensis, M. caseyi, Muricohedbergella delrioensis, M. planispira, M. rischi, M. simplex, Planomalina buxtorfi, P. praebuxtorfi, Praeglobotruncana delrioensis, Rotalipora appenninica, R. balernaensis, Ticinella madecassiana, T. primula* (Figures 3 and 4).

**Remarks:** The planktonic foraminiferal diversity and abundance increase. The keeled forms mostly appeared in this zone, i.e., *Rotalipora appenninica, Planomalina praebuxtorfi, P. buxtorfi. The Heterohelix moremani, H. reussi, Macroglobigerinelloides caseyi*, and *Praeglobotruncana delrioensis*, also appeared at the base of this zone (Figure 4). Some of the species disappeared in this zone, i.e., *Biticinella breggiensis, B. subbreggiensis, Ticinella primula, T. roberti*. The lower zones that were identified [9,32,36] are missing in this succession which with other factors could also be attributed to the coarse sampling in the field.

*Rotalipora Cushmani* **Total Range Zone (Borsetti,** [42]**)**

*Age:* Middle to Late Cenomanian

**Definition:** The Total range zone of *Rotalipora cushmani*.

**Assemblage:** *Heterohelix reussi, H. moremani, Muricohedbergella delrioensis, M. planispira, M. rischi, M. simplex, Macroglobigerinelloides bentonensis, Praeglobotruncana delrioensis, P. stephani, Rotalipora balernaensis, R. cushmani, R. globotruncanoides, R. greenhornensis, R. montsalvensis, Whiteinella baltica, W. praehelvetica* (Figures 3 and 4).

*Remarks:* Most of the keeled taxa appeared in this zone. The test sizes showed increase towards the middle part and gradually started disappearing at the top. The *Whiteinella* and *Dicarinella* have their FADs in this zone (Figure 4). The *rotaliporids* are dominant in this zone and are reported in other parts of the world [9,32,42]. The *rotaliporids* are diversified and having the gradual disappearance of older species that is balanced by the younger species and then by Whiteinella and Dicarinella species. The *rotaliporids* have Last appearance datums (LADs) at the top of this zone that is also reported from elsewhere with the appearance of black shale, i.e., Ocean anoxic event-2 (OAE2) [14,36]. On the basis of bio-stratigraphic constraints, the black shale is correlated with the global bonarelli event (i.e., OAE2). Such black shales have also been reported from Parh Formation by Khan ([43]) from the Northern Suleman Range, Mughal Kot Section. However, in this study the black shale is not reported from this part of the basin in the southern Suleman Range. The planktonic foraminifera disappeared at the onset of these black shale deposition. Below this zone, some of the biozones are missing.

#### *Whiteinella Archeocretacea* **Partial Range Zone (Bolli,** [44]**)**

*Age:* Late Cenomanian to Early Turonian

**Definition:** This zone is the partial Range Zone of LAD of *Rotalipora cushmani* to the FAD of *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica*.

*Remarks:* At the onset of black shale deposition, almost all the planktonic foraminifera disappeared. Consequently, this zone is only named based on the LAD of *Rotalipora cushmani* to the FAD of *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica* as this zone is barren of foraminifera (Figure 4). The high organic rich black shale deposition corresponds to this zone [14,36]. Such black shales of OAE2 are not present in this part of the basin in the Goru Formation.

*Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica* **Total Range Zone (Dalbiez,** [45]**)**

*Age:* Early to middle Turonian

**Definition:** The total Range zone of *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica*.

**Assemblage:** *Dicarinella algeriana, D. canaliculate, D. imbricata, Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica, Heterohelix moremani, H. reussi, Macroglobigerinelloides bentonensis, Muricohedbergella delrioensis, M. planispira, M. rischi, M. simplex, Marginotruncana coronata, M. marianosi, M. pseudolinneina, M. schneegansi, M. sigali, M. renzi, Praeglobotruncana gibba, P. stephani, W. aprica, W. baltica, W. brittonensis, W. paradubia, and Whiteinella praehelvetica (Figures 3 and 4)*.

*Remarks:* This zone started above the *Whiteinella archeocretacea* zone by the appearance of zonal marker that is FADs of *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica* and extinction of *rotaliporids* (Figure 4). Some of the species survived this extinction like *Macroglobigerinelloides bentonensis*, and *Whiteinellids*. Most of the robust and large planktonic foraminifera have their FADs and diversification within this zone, i.e., *Marginotruncanids* like *Marginotruncana pseudolinneina, M. renzi, M. schneegansi, and M. sigali.*

#### *Marginotruncana Sigali* **Partial Range Zone (Barr,** [46]**)**

#### *Age:* Late Turonian

*Definition:* This zone started from the extinction of *Helvetoglobbotruncana helvetica*.

**Assemblage:** *Dicarinella canaliculate, D. concavata, D. imbricata, Heterohelix moremani, H. reussi, Muricohedbergella delrioensis, M. flandrini, M. planispira, M. rischi, M. simplex Macroglobigerinelloides bentonensis, Marginotruncana coronata, M. pseudolinneina, M. marianosi, M. renzi, M. schneegansi, M. sigali, and M. undulata* (Figures 3 and 4).

*Remarks:* The base of this zone is marked by the LADs of *Praeglobotruncana* spp. and the extinction of *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica* and FADs of *Muricohedbergella flandrini* and *Dicarinella concavata* (Figure 4). The upper boundary of this zone is not identified here. This zone is the last biozone that is encountered in the Goru Formation in the study area and is also observed elsewhere [32].

#### **Biostratigraphic Discussions**

The Goru Formation's planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy suggests Mid-Cretaceous (Early Albian to late Turonian) age in the study area (Figure 4). The planktonic foraminifera evolution in the mid-Cretaceous was defined by periods of high and low turnover. The latest Albian, the mid-Cenomanian, and the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary had the highest turnover rates [7]. All across the Cenomanian, the diversity remained high, with a wide range of morphologies [47]. The same type of conditions are also prevailing from vertebrate fauna of the peninsular India, and Cauvery Basin, India [48,49]. Almost all the identified zones in the Goru Formation are global in nature as was identified elsewhere [32,36]. The base of the deposition of pelagic carbonates of the Goru Formation started with *Muricohedbergella planispira* Zone that indicates the Early Albian age. This zone is marked based on the FAD of *Ticinella primula.* This is followed by the *Ticinella primula* Zone of Early Albian age in which the planktonic foraminifera become larger and abundant represented by the FAD of *Macroglobigerinelloides bentonensis and Muricohedbergella rischi*. In the same stage in Middle Albian time, the *Biticinella* appeared and have FAD in the *Biticnella breggiensis* Zone. Here, the notable increase in the taxa's diversity, and abundance and gradual transition in morphology from unkeeled to keeled taxa is observed. This zone is followed by the *Rotalipora appenninica* Zone of the latest Albian time in the study area. Some of the global biozone below *R. appenninica* Zone of the Late Albian are missing. Diversification of the *rotaliporids* occurs at the top of this zone where some species appeared. Some of the species become extinct at this zone that is *Ticinella's* and *biticinella's*. Above this zone, is the Total Range zone of *Rotalipora cushmani* Zone of Middle to Late Cenomanian age (Figure 4). Below this zone, some of the global biozone of Early Cenomanian age are missing in the Goru Formation that may be because of the coarse sampling intervals. At the top of this zone, is the zone OAE2 (Bonarelli event), but OAE2 black shale has not been identified in this part of the Suleman Range, despite the fact that the OAE2 black shale was identified in the Parh Formation of the Mughal Kot Section, northern Sulaiman Range [40]. This is correlated with the arbitrary biozone that is *Whiteinella archeocretacea* Biozone that is of the Latest Cenomanian to Early Turonian. Here, in the Goru Formation, the C/T (Cenomanian/Turonian) boundary is present in the pelagic carbonates. This arbitrary zone is marked on the LAD of *Rotalipora cushmani* to the FAD of *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica.* With FAD of *Helvetoglobotruncana Helvetica, the Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica* Total Range Zone of the Early to Middle Turonian started where the large, robust *Marginotrancanids* appeared. After this, the *Marginotreuncana sigali* Zone of Late Turonian age started with the extinction of the *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica*. Here, the *Praeglobotruncana* disappear

and *Muricohedbergella flandrini* appeared. The Goru Formation deposition ends with this biozone in the Chutair Section, Sulaiman Range. The biozones identified in this study have been compared to the main Tethyan biozonation system on a global scale [9]. The Goru Formation's biostratigraphy also suggests that Cretaceous sedimentation in the Eastern Tethys was nearly complete.

**Figure 3.** (**1**) Muricohedbergella planispira; (**2**) Muricohedbergella delrioensis; (**3**) Ticinella primula; (**4**) Ticinella roberti; (**5**) Muricohedbergella simplex; (**6**) Muricohedbergella rischi; (**7**) Ticinella praeticinensis; (**8**) Biticnella subbreggiensis; (**9**) Biticnella breggiensis; (**10**) Ticinella madecassiana; (**11**) Ticinella raynaudi; (**12**) Macroglobigerinelloides bentonensis; (**13**) Planomalina praebuxtorfi; (**14**) Planomalina buxtorfi; (**15**) Whiteinella praehelvetica; (**16**) Whiteinella aprica; (**17**) Whiteinella brittonensis; (**18**) Heterohelix reussi; (**19**) Rotalipora cushmani; (**20**) Rotalipora globotruncanoids; (**21**) Rotalipora greenhornensis; (**22**) Praeglobotruncana delrioensis; (**23**) Praeglobotruncana gibba; (**24**) Rotalipora appenninica; (**25**) Rotalipora balernaensis; (**26**) Rotalipora montsalvensis; (**27**) Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica; (**28**) Marginotruncana sigali; (**29**) Marginotruncana Renzi; (**30**) Marginotruncana schneegansi; (**31**) Marginotruncana marianosi; (**32**) Marginotruncana coronata; (**33**) Marginotruncana pseudolinniena; (**34**) Dicarinella concavata; (**35**) Dicarinella imbricata; (**36**) Dicarinella canaliculata; (**37**) Muricohedbergella flandrini. (Scale = 100 µm).

**Figure 4.** Biostratigraphic range chart of the Goru Formation exposed in the Chutair Section, Sulaiman Range.

#### *4.2. Microfacies*

The comprehensive petrographic analyses were carried out to evaluate the microfacies based depositional environment. Five microfacies were identified in the pelagic carbonates of the Goru Formation at Chutair Section based on texture, grain type, and other petrographic features discussed as follows:

4.2.1. Radiolarians-Rich Wacke-Packestone Microfacies (MF-1)

#### Description

The Radiolarians-rich wacke-packestone microfacies (MF-1) in the outcrop shows thin bedded dark grey color limestone. Petrographic observation reveals the presence of matrix and allochems. The planktonic foraminifera, radiolarians, calcispheres, and undifferentiated bioclasts make up the majority of the allochems. The matrix is neomorphosed and ferruginous. (Figure 5).

Interpretation

The MF-1 microfacies is mostly comprised of the deeper fauna such as radiolarians and calcisphere. The radiolarians' dominance indicates that energy levels are too low and that they are found deeper in nature [50]. An environment with low-energy levels is reflected by the extensive carbonate mud. [50]. The combination of mud, radiolarians, and planktonic foraminifera indicate that the deposition took place in a low-energy environment [50,51]. The dominant radiolarians show deposition in the outer-ramp to deep basinal settings [52]. The MF-1 is deposited in deep basinal setting of the ramp depositional environment (Figure 6).

#### 4.2.2. Radiolarians-Rich Wackestone Microfacies (MF-2)

Description

The Radiolarians-rich wackestone microfacies (MF-2) displays medium-bedded, dark grey to light grey limestone. The petrographic studies indicate the presence of grains and matrix. The radiolarian, calcisphere, and planktonic foraminiferal grains are present. The micrite is a fine bioclastic matrix that is ferruginous. (Figure 5).

Interpretation

The MF-2 has similar type of fauna to that of MF-1 but different texture. The radiolarians-rich deposit is found in deeper outer to basinal environments [53]. The presence of radiolarians and planktonic foraminifera together indicates a deeper energy condition. [54]. Hence, the MF-2 is deposited in the deeper basinal setting (Figure 6).

4.2.3. Planktonic Foraminiferal Wacke-Packestone Microfacies (MF-3)

Description

The Planktonic foraminiferal wacke-packestone microfacies (MF-3) shows thin to medium bedded grey to light grey color limestone. Planktonic foraminiferal allochems, mollusk bioclasts, and micritic matrix are the main components of this microfacies. The planktonic genera's includes the *Dicarinella, Macroglobigerinelloides,* Marginotruncana, *Muricohedbergella, Rotalipora, Ticinella* and *Whiteinella*. The other bioclasts include the mollusks, pelagic bivalves and some are undifferentiated. The radiolarians and calcisphere are in minor amount. This microfacies contains pyrite in the form of lenses and along the stylolites. The foraminiferal grains are concentrated at some places showing the tempestites nature (Figure 5).

Interpretation

The combined occurrences of the planktonic foraminifera, bioclasts of mollusks and radiolarians represents that the energy condition was low [50]. The concomitant of the radiolarians and planktonic foraminifera shows the deposition in outer ramp [54]. The pyrite rich matrix is present in most of the microfacies but here it is in more concentration, which is related to the OAEs of the cretaceous time [55,56]. Its presence represents the deeper water conditions. The tempestites in the microfacies represent the deposition near the stormy weather wave base (SWWB) [50]. The microfacies is deposited in proximal part of outer ramp setting (Figure 6).

4.2.4. Planktonic Foraminiferal Wackestone Microfacies (MF-4)

#### Description

The Planktonic foraminiferal wackestone microfacies (MF-4) in outcrop shows medium bedded grey limestone. The MF-4's major components are micritic matrix and allochems. Bioclasts are present and undifferentiated, while also belonging to bivalves, ostracodes, and echinoderms. The major planktonic foraminifera in MF-4 include *Dicarinella, Heterohelix, Macrglobigerinelloides Marginotruncana, Muricohedbergella,* and *Whiteinella* (Figure 5).

Interpretation

There is a lot of lime mud in the MF-4. Lime mud's presence suggests low-energy conditions beneath the fair-weather wave base. [50]. The presence of bioclasts, as well as planktonic foraminifera and lime mud, support low-energy conditions [57]. Planktonic foraminifers show sediment deposition in an outer-ramp setting [30]. The micorfacies suggest deposition in the proximal outer ramp environment (Figure 6).

#### 4.2.5. Planktonic Foraminiferal Packestone Microfacies (MF-5)

Description

The Planktonic foraminiferal packestone microfacies (MF-5) is identified by the presence of a micritic matrix, foraminiferal grains, and pyrite. The micritic matrix is fine bioclastic matrix. *Dicarinella, Heterohelix, Marginotruncana, and Muricohedbergella, and Whiteinella* are the dominant foraminifera present in MF-5. The foraminiferal chambers are filled with pyrite. The micritic matrix contains a significant amount of brown pyrite. The pyritization also occurred along the stylolites. Additionally, there are radiolarians, a small number of calcispheres, and sponge spicules. (Figure 5).

Interpretation

The pyrite is in the form of matrix and suture boundaries is the dominant feature of this microfacies. The lack of neritic fauna and dominance of the pyritic matrix shows deposition in outer ramp setting [43]. The coexistence of radiolarians and planktonic foraminifera supports deposition in outer ramp environments [54]. In the light of the above-mentioned biota and other features, distal outer ramp environment is suggested for this microfacies (Figure 6).

#### 4.2.6. Depositional Environment

The geoscientists need to understand the depositional environment since it determines the architecture, heterogeneity, and ultimately the quality of any reservoirs [58–61]. The Goru Formation is the study area and is comprised of pelagic thin bedded carbonates. Based on petrographic studies, the texture is wackestone, wacke-packestone, and packestone. Allochems and micritic matrix are the most important constituents. The grains are of radiolarians, calcispheres, planktonic foraminifera, whilst others are bioclasts. The majority of the bioclasts are undifferentiated, although some are planktonic foraminifera and mollusks (bivalves), ostracodes and echinoderms. The micritic matrix is fine and mud dominated. The limestone's mud-dominated texture indicates that the mud was deposited from a suspended load in a low-energy environment [62]. A deep marine outer ramp energy setting below the storm wave base is suggested by the presence of planktonic foraminifera in the limestone unit [30]. The other grains such as radiolarians and calcisphere indicate the deeper water conditions [54]. Radiolarians are a key paleoenvironmental indicator that accumulate on the seabed because of suspended load, but they may also be found in the outer ramp setting [63]. The high content of radiolarians, planktonic foraminifera together with pelagic lime mud show outer ramp setting. Based on the microfacies details, the sediments of the Goru Formation are pelagic in nature and were deposited in the distal middle ramp via distal outer ramp to deep basinal setting in low-energy conditions (Figure 6). The ramp depositional environment was suggested for these carbonates because there is nothing about the deposition of resedimented deposits, i.e., turbidities, and also there is nothing about the grain stone belts and reefal offshore facies. All this evidence suggests a low-energy gradient slope that is the feature of ramp rather than a shelf [64].

**Figure 5.** (**a**) Photomicrograph of the Radiolarians rich wacke-packestone microfacies (MF-1) showing radiolarians (Ra) and Calcisphere (C); (**b**) Photomicrograph of the MF-1 (zoomed view) showing matrix (M), radiolarians (Ra) and Calcisphere (C); (**c**) Photomicrograph of the Radiolarians rich wackestone microfacies (MF-2) showing radiolarians (Ra), matrix (M) and *muricohedbergella* (Mhd); (**d**) Photomicrograph of the Planktonic foraminiferal wacke-packestone microfacies (MF-3) showing *rotalipora* sp. (Rt), *rotalipora appenninica* (Rta), and matrix (M); (**e**) Photomicrograph of the MF-3 (zoomed view) showing *Rotalipora appenninica* (Rta), and *rotalipora* sp. (Rt); (**f**) Photomicrograph of the Planktonic foraminiferal wackestone microfacies (MF-4) having *muricohedbergella* (Mhd), *Ticinella* (T) and matrix (M); (**g**) Photomicrograph of the MF-4 (zoomed view) having iron filaments (Fe) and *rotalipora* (Rt); (**h**) Photomicrograph of the Planktonic Foraminiferal Packestone Microfacies (MF-5) showing *marginotruncana* (M) and *dicarinella* (D); (**i**) Photomicrograph of the MF-5 (zoomed view) having *dicarinella* (D); and *marginotruncana* (M).

**Figure 6.** Proposed depositional model of the Goru Formation at Chutair Section, Sulaiman Range.

#### *4.3. Sequence Stratigraphy*

The microfacies studies along with bio-stratigraphic investigations of the pelagic carbonates of the Goru Formation are done, which indicates the outer ramp to deep basinal environment of deposition for the pelagic carbonates of Goru Formation in Albian to Turonian time (Figure 4). It is essential to classify depositional sequences according to their cyclicity orders because tectonics controls the eustatic rise and fall that might occur throughout a series of time periods [65]. Each sequence is the result of a specific tectonic or eustatic cycle order. The stratigraphic cycle is usually demonstrated in the following four orders of million years' time span [66]. That is, the first order (greater than 50 Ma), second order (3–50 Ma), third order (0.5–3 Ma), and fourth order (0.1–0.5 Ma) order of cycles [65,67]. The current bio-stratigraphic results show an Albian to Turonian age (113–89.8 Ma) for the deposition of Goru Formation in the study area (Figure 3). This represents an overall time span of 23.2 Ma for the deposition of Goru Formation. This time indicates that the Goru Formation is deposited in Second (2nd) order cycle. For the third (3rd) order cyclicity, the Transgressive-Regressive (T-R) sequence model [33] is used. The T-R sequence model employs the unconformable portion of the boundary as sub-aerial unconformity over the basin margin, and the correlative conformity as the maximum regressive surface (MRS) farther seaward. This model provides a special technique of classifying strata into sequences. T-R sequences are classified as transgressive systems tract (TST) or regressive systems tract (RST) based on Maximum Flooding Surfaces (MFS) (Figure 7). Six depositional sequences are identified that represent system tracts [68,69]. Two types of system tracts that is TST and RST are identified by using the T-R sequence model in a measured section of the Goru Formation in the Chutair Section.

#### 4.3.1. Depositional Sequences

Depending on the sequence model used, depositional sequence corresponds to the depositional product of a whole cycle of base-level changes or shoreline movements [68]. The consequence of the interactions between Eustasy, climate, and tectonic, the depositional

sequence constitutes a full cycle of deposition [65,70]. In the Goru Formation, the identified sequences contain total of eleven system tracts, which are the following.

#### 4.3.2. System Tracts

#### Transgressive system tract (TST)

Six transgressive system tracts are identified comprising of the deeper pelagic carbonates of the Goru Formation. All the transgressive system tracts (TST1-TST6) represent a retro gradational stacking pattern that is the shallower microfacies are overlain by deeper microfacies (Figure 7). The TST1 and TST2 contains the deep basinal microfacies that are overlain by the proximal outer ramp microfacies. The TST3-TST5 are represented by the distal outer ramp microfacies that are overlain by the proximal outer ramp microfacies. The TST6 shows distal outer microfacies that is present at the top of the Formation and also overlain by the proximal outer ramp microfacies. Stratigraphically, the TST1, TST2, and TST3 are present in the Albian time. The TST4 in late Cenomanian to Early Turonian and TST5, TST6 in the Late Turonian time (Figure 7).

Regressive System tract (RST)

Five regressive system tracts are identified comprising of outer ramp carbonates of the Goru Formation. The regressive system tracts are characterized by the progradational facies pattern that is the deeper facies are overlain by the shallower facies (Figure 7). The RST1 is represented by the proximal outer ramp microfacies that is underlain and overlain by of deep basinal microfacies. The RST2 contains the same microfacies as that of RST1 that is the proximal outer ramp microfacies. The RST2 is underlain by deeper basinal microfacies and overlain by the distal outer ramp microfacies. The RST3, RST4, and RST5 is represented by proximal outer ramp microfacies and overlain by distal outer ramp microfacies. Similarly, the bio stratigraphic position of the RST1, and RST2 are present in Albian time. The RST3 in late Cenomanian to Early Turonian time and RST4, RST5 in Middle to Late Turonian time (Figure 7).

#### 4.3.3. Comparison of Local with Global Sea Level Curve

The cretaceous is defined by the long- and short-term sea level oscillations [71]. The overall trend of sea level in the Cretaceous is characterized by a fall in the Cenomanian, a maximum rise in the early Turonian, a prolonged fall from the middle Turonian to the Santonian, a rise in the late Santonian to the early Campanian, and then a subsequent fall in the Middle Campanian that lasts until the Danian [72]. Long-term sea-level variations can be connected to paleoclimate, for example, the boundary between the late Cenomanian and early Turonian is documented as a worldwide warming event of OAE2 defined by positive δ 13C excursion, high organic burial and global sea level rise [4,56,73]. The Cretaceous' maximum sea-level increase occurred during the Earliest Turonian (93.5), and is believed to have been 240–250 m. above present-day mean sea level (or 180–190 m without the existing ice cap, which is anticipated to store water equal to another 60 m of sea-level rise) [71]. Therefore, the sea level curve of the Goru Formation is constructed on the basis of microfacies types under the bio stratigraphic framework. This local sea level curve of the formation is compared with the global curve of Haq et al., [34] to infer about the global and local tectonic on the Goru Formation deposition. The Long-term sea-level variations in Goru Formation have continued to deposit a second-order composite transgressive systems tract, which is comparable with Haq et al.'s, [34] long-term sea-level curve (Figure 7). The short-term 3rd order sea level fluctuations show six episodes of rise and fall, whilst the Haq et al., [34] curve shows almost double to these conditions (Figure 7). The difference in the short-term pattern of sea-level variation in the study area from the global short-term sea-level curve at the time of deposition is attributed to the local tectonics in the study area.

**Figure 7.** Showing the vertical distribution of microfacies, paleoenvironment, vertical distribution of sequences and system tracts, global sea level curve of the Goru Formation at Chutair Section, Sulaiman Range, Pakistan.

#### **5. Conclusions**

The Cretaceous Goru Formation in the study area is comprised of thin to medium bedded, greenish grey, whitish and dark grey color pelagic carbonates. Based on planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphic studies, eight biozones are established: *Muricohedbergella planispira* Interval Zone; *Ticinella primula* Interval Zone; *Biticinella breggiensis* Interval Zone; *Rotalipora appenninica* Interval Zone; *Rotalipora cushmani* Total Range Zone; *Whiteinella archeocretacea* Partial Range Zone; *Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica* Total Range Zone; and *Marginotruncana sigali* Partial Range Zone. Based on these biozones, an Albian–Turonian (113–89.8 Ma) age is assigned to the Goru Formation in the study area. The detailed petrographic studies revealed five microfacies types, namely: radiolarians rich wackpackestone (deep basinal settings); radiolarians rich wackestone (deep basinal settings); planktonic foraminiferal wack-packestone; planktonic foraminiferal wackestone; and planktonic foraminiferal packestone suggesting deposition of Goru Formation in outer ramp to deep basinal settings. The biostratigraphic and microfacies types are used to establish sequence stratigraphic studies that show transgressive and regressive sea level episodes in the Goru Formation. Six depositional sequences are established that include eleven system tracts including six transgressive and five regressive system tracts ranging from Albian to Turoniian age. Two orders of cycles are identified including 2nd and 3rd order. The overall deposition of the Goru Formation takes place at 2nd order of cycle which includes

the small-scale 3rd order cycles. The 2nd order local sea level curve of the Goru Formation is matching with the Global Sea level curve whilst the 3rd order curve is not that much matching showing a local tectonic control in the difference in the 3rd order cyclicity.

**Author Contributions:** S.U., I.U.J. and M.H. proposed the main concept and involved in write up. K.L. and M.M. helped in collection of field data. M.S. and A.A. helped in lab work, preparation of figures and establishing biostratigraphy. U.A. and H.V.T. did provision of relevant literature, review and proofread of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research work was funded by National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar and PSF-TUBITAK project having project no. PSF-TUBITAK/Earth/KP-UoP (08) by the Pakistan Science Foundation.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Acknowledgments:** The research provided in this paper was conducted as part of the first author's doctoral dissertation. Authors are thankful to the National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar for providing funds for field work. Thanks are extended to Mukhtiar Ghani, Geological Survey Pakistan, for his help during geological field work. The authors acknowledge the PSF-TUBITAK project having project no. PSF-TUBITAK/Earth/KP-UoP (08), which was given to Muhammad Hanif at the National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar by the Pakistan Science Foundation for providing funds for the laboratory analysis.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


**3.7 Seed production technology**

The quality seed production of grasses is a challenging task for the breeders and agronomist. The major constraint in development of pasture is supply of inadequate, poor quality seed. In our country, the requirement of tropical range grasses and legumes is about 3000 t/year whereas the supply is only about 450 t/year having a very large gap between demand and supply. Many problems are associated with the grass seed production. Very low effort has been made to develop the high yielding grass varieties. It has also been noticed that the high fodder yielding varieties are very poor seed yielder. The maintenance of seed purity is also difficult due to its perennial nature and tussock making habit. The seed maturity in sewan grass is unsynchronized. The seed production is vulnerable to adverse weather conditions i.e. windstorms, rainfall, drought etc. It has been noticed that the high wind velocity leads to the mature seeds to fall on the ground and occasional heavy rainfall destroy the seeds. The occurrence of drought or moisture scarcity results in lower seed production. Under these circumstances, seed production opportunity and its exploration are very poor, which restricts popularization of sewan seed production among the farmers. Due to the unsynchronized maturity, it takes seven to ten days for all the spikelet to mature in normal season and it may extend up to 20 days in cooler months [31]. As per Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards

#### **Table 2.**

*Soil-Moisture conservation measures.*

#### **Table 3.**

*Field and Seed standards for Sewan grass (*Lasiurus scindicus*) as per IMSCS.*

(IMSCS), Field and seed standards for identification, release sewan grass cultivars are mentioned in **Table 3**.

### **3.8 Seed collection**

Different methods have been applied to collect sewan grass seed with less effort:

maturity called traditional method. The results revealed that mean seed germination percentage of October and November harvests was at par in both the methods while in March harvest this was almost double to the traditional method. However, germination was more in the seed harvest of traditional method. Hence modified method is less labor intensive and cost effective [22].

c.In the forest areas, seed is collected manually from the ground, these seeds have very poor germination percentage due to damage caused by ants. Hand collection as per maturity seed provides quality seed of good germination.


According to Friedmann [24], no compulsion in religion in Islam is a trait of tolerance inherited since the early days of Islam. Although the people of Mecca and Madinah were not forced to choose Islam, but what happened was that a group of Muslims who believed in Allah (SWT) and the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) were forced to leave Islam while in Mecca before the Hijrah. Such incidents happened on Bilal bin Rabah, Ammar bin Yasar, and several other companions of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), and this shows that tolerance did not exist among the Quraish people in Mecca ([24], p. 103). Having said that, al-Qur'an is a proof of the implementation of tolerance without coercion in religion, thus the *Sahīfah Madīnah* treaty made by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) immediately after leading the city of Madinah proves that the Islamic leadership recognizes peaceful coexistence where indirectly rejects racism and preserving equality as well as guaranteeing the right to freedom of religious choice [25].

*Sahīfah Madīnah* signed in 622 AD between the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and the leaders of the Arab tribes in Medina was considered to be the earliest document of statehood in the history of human civilization [25]. In addition, the agreement reached in the *Sahīfah Madīnah* is also recognized as a guiding model of coexistence in the diversity of society's different races and cultures in this modern era [26]. The *Sahīfah of Madīnah* has 47 articles, and the following are the things that need to be agreed upon while respecting the principle of no religious compulsion:

#### *Humane Leadership in Islamic Approaches DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.103735*

It is very clear that the leadership style led by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) has the highest interest of values in humanity. With the *Sahīfah of Madīnah* as an example, it shows that the Muslim population must respect and treat the non-Muslims with good consideration and generosity. In a situation where the non-Muslims does not do any harm or become a threat to the Muslim population, then tolerance should be shown.  Surely Allah loves those who are fair.*

Fourth, the value of humanity that can be emulated from the personality of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is from the command to call to Islam (*da'wah*) with three basic principles: wisdom, good advice, and debating or discussing politely and kindly. These three basic principles are based on verse 125 of surah *al-Nahl*:

*"Invite ˹all˺ to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and kind advice, and only debate with them in the best manner. Surely your Lord ˹alone˺ knows best who has strayed from His Way and who is ˹rightly˺ guided."*

*Da'wah* aims to invite people to obey Allah (SWT) in accordance with the Qur'anic mission as mentioned in surah *al-Zāriyyāt* verse 56. This verse emphasizes that the duty and responsibility of human beings are to serve Allah by following all His commands and abandoning all His prohibitions. Therefore, the implementation of *da'wah* which is the task inherited from all prophets must be used methods or approaches that are appropriate to the target group so that it does not become a slander to religion. This is important in ensuring the effectiveness of *da'wah* and its development continues effectively. The importance of proper approaches and methods in doing *da'wah* is due to the nature of Islamic *da'wah* assured human life by ensuring eternal goodness in the hereafter [27].

*Da'wah* is one of the noblest acts that entail a high reward. *Da'wah* is one of the means to propagate Islam to others. This is unanimously agreed in Islam and the Qur'an itself which absolutely go against compulsion in religion. People need to be convinced the truth that Islam brings to mankind. According to Račius [28], the word "*da'wah*" in the Qur'ān has three primary meanings, namely (1) worshiping God or idols, 2) addressing, asking, and calling (God, idols, and people), and (3) inviting to religion (Islam or other). The first two meanings of "*da'wah*," worshiping and calling, are frequent in the Qur'ān, for example, in 2:186, 3:38, 6:40, 11:22, 11:106, 19:48, 19:91, 22:12, 72:18, and others. Meanwhile in the last meaning, the Qur'ān urged the Prophet Muḥammad to appeal to pagan Arabs and (occasionally) Jews and Christians, for example, in 12:108, 13:36, 16:125, 23:73, 40:10, 41:33, and 70:17.

Ismatullah [29] explains the method of *da'wah* from verse 125 of surah *al-Nahl* where Hamka states that this verse is a basic guide to the prophets in conveying the message of Islam so that people have straight path toward Allah (SWT). The word wisdom in this verse carries various interpretations among scholars. For example, commentators such as Imam Fakhrul al-Radzi explained the word *al-Hikmah* in the verse is the basic approach in inviting people to do goodness effectively. It should be based on the revelation of the Qur'an and refer to the *sunnah* of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), and it must be based on true religious understanding in ensuring that the target group understands the essence of what is to be conveyed [30]. Meanwhile, Wahbah al-Zuhailiy thinks that the wisdom (*al-Hikmah*) in the verse has been bestowed on a chosen and pious servant such as Luqman al-Hakim, as a great gift from Allah (SWT). This attribute was given to justify the deep understanding and intelligence level anyone had in considering the best decision to make ([31], p. 2024). Furthermore, wisdom can also be referred as a noble attribute that describes activity of *da'wah*. Thus, the wisdom in *da'wah* includes any behavior and manners, speech, community service, and leadership [32]. So it is clear here that the element of wisdom is important in the management of humanity which is not limited to religious questions but also covers the welfare of society.

The second element in the same verse is *mau'izah al-hasanah* or a good advice. In conveying the message of *da'wah* through the method of good advice is important. This is because human beings have soft heart and instinct; hence, good speech and advice are more easily to be accepted than hurtful messages and feelings [33]. In this regard, Hamka in his tafsir Tafsir al-Azhar explains that the element of good advices should start from the home where education and teaching from parents in the home have a direct impact on *da'wah* activities outside the house and on the various target of *da'wah* [29].

In addition, there are many examples of good advice used by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in conveying the message of Islam in Mecca and Madinah. Abdul Fattah Abu Ghuddah [34] explained that the method of giving good advice shown by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) has a positive effect where the noble values are successfully normalized among his companions and family members and then show that his leadership style has high human values [17]. In the meantime, Mohamad et al. also listed the important elements that must be present in conveying good advice, namely gradual delivery, contextual, be exemplary, repetitive methods, direct communication, metaphorical methods, and stories ([17], pp. 7–15). For example, when the Prophet (peace be upon him) spoke about something, he would repeat the matter three times so that those who heard the matter could understand it well, as narrated in Sahih al-Bukhari, meaning:

*"From Anas bin Malik, and Prophet (peace be upon him) says; verily whenever Prophet (peace be upon him) spoke, he will repeat it three times so that people can understand" (no.94, Sahih al-Bukhari).*

Having good discussions or giving good arguments has an intrinsic human value that defines the relationship with leadership style. It is worth to note from the mentioned verse, Don [33] through Fu'ad Ifram al-Bustani explains the meaning of "*mujadalah"* is a method of debate with politeness and proficient in the issues discussed where the purpose is only to reveal the truth. Zin [35] emphasizes that the arguments must be reasonable, appealing to reason and refrain from indulging in polemics, sophistry, and controversy. Elaborating further on this, he points out that "one should adopt a comprehensive method to convince the addressee which includes: arguments and appeal to his feeling; condemnation of evils and deviations as well as repugnance to all that lies embedded in the human nature, warning of the consequence of evil; soundness of argument, excellence of guidance and righteous deed." Another point mentioned is that "admonition should be administered in such a manner as to show sincere concern for the welfare of the addressee."

The goal of having a good debate for truth is also recorded in surah *al-Ankabut* verse 46 which means:

*"Do not argue with the People of the Book unless gracefully, except with those of them who act wrongfully. And say, "We believe in what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to you. Our God and your God is ˹only˺ One. And to Him we ˹fully˺ submit."*

And from surah *al-Fussilat* verse 34:

*"Good and evil cannot be equal. Respond ˹to evil˺ with what is best, then the one you are in a feud with will be like a close friend."*

Based on above three keywords – wisdom, good advice, and good argument - the priority is to bring rational dialog and discussion with all parties. Thus, it is important for a leader to have these skills to debate or discuss with facts and evidences in revealing the truth so that none is persecuted at the end of discussion. Abdullah Nasih Ulwan [36] stressed that it is important for the preacher (*da'wah* activist) owned two strengths in debating or arguing which can help them to convey the true message and then be accepted with an open heart. The two strengths are satisfactory strength (*quwwah al-iqnaiyyah*) and factual strength (*quwwah al-hujjah*). In Syed Qutb's view, these two strengths belong only to the prophets and some of the *da'wah* scholars and activists only because the mission is to elevate the rank of *da'i* and quality them to the degree of *al-'azīm* [33].

Based on the discussion through the descriptive method of literature review, it can be understood that the leadership style of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) when in Mecca and Madinah has signified the values of humanity as requirements to meet the basic human nature as the best creation (Al-Quran, Al-Tīn: 4). So many explanations are shown in the Qur'an and the hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) regarding the value of humanity which is the cornerstone in leading people toward goodness and abandoning evil for the sake of eternal prosperity in the hereafter.

Even so, the world today faces leadership problems that stem from a misunderstanding of evaluating the human aspect in human beings. The next discussion will discuss some of the current problems that stem from leadership styles that do not give priority to the humanitarian aspect. Failure to prioritize human values in leadership has the potential to jeopardize the development of the global society and further destroy the civilization of a country.

#### **4. Crisis of human values in today's leadership**

The exemplary leadership inherited by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is to strengthen the practice of Islamic teachings that elevate the human dignity in this world and in the hereafter. It is appropriate to Muslim leaders today to pay attention to the advancement of society by values-based development. This is because the value of humanity that already exists in each individual, without limiting on one's background of race, religion, culture, and language, is the key to the successful development of civilization as well as a state.

Francis Fukuyama in his book The Great Disruption explains that the strength of civilization and the development of a country depend on the paradigm shift of human values (humanity) on the changes that are happening globally in various sectors such as economic, social, information, and political leadership structure. Assessing these factors, he asserts that social law and universally shared moral values do not lie in individual choice; instead, it also depends on the social system and the strength of the leadership structure ([37], p. 85). Therefore, he also thinks that the value of humanity in an uncertain global environment will be determined by the political factors of power compared to the values that exist in religion ([37], p. 126).

For example, "trust" is the most important value that binds togetherness between civil society and leaders or administrators within the national structure as well as public and private organizations. Yet, the world today faces a crisis of trust at all levels of organizational and national leadership. A report from the Edelman Trust Barometer shows from 2016 to 2020, four sectors: governments, business organizations, NGOs, and the media, which are facing a crisis of public confidence despite the growing global economic sector. In addition, the same report also states that clerics are in the same group as politicians and businessmen, who have the lowest "believe" scores compared to the media and NGO activists. This crisis of trust stems from the public view that these three groups are not convinced that they are able to solve the problems they face, including managing the country out of the global crisis. Although most studies state that the ability to manage the economy is the biggest factor influencing public trust, the ability to lead by focusing on the well-being of human values also contributes to increased levels of trust in leaders. If this matter is not given priority, then slowly the value of humanity will erode from the compass of leadership and will eventually collapse the social system as a whole [38].

Corruption has had a major contribution to the collapse of human values in the current leadership setting. The worse of corruption can bring down a strong civilization, and rebuilding a destroyed civilization needs time. The Corruption Perceptions Index 2021 report states that since January 2020, the global has not only faced a health and economic crisis due to the COVID-19 pandemic but also faced a protracted corruption crisis. According to CPI 2021 spokesperson Delia Ferreira Rubio, "the crime of corruption is the only problem unsuccessfully solved by most countries compared to health problems." Apart from that, the failure to manage the crime of corruption is because there is no precise definition to describe the meaning of "corruption" [39]. On that basis, some of the corruption cases that occur involve the top leadership of a country. This means that the human values glorified by Allah (SWT) are not respected by leaders, thus willingly involve in corruption. On that basis, to stop one from involving corruption needs a proper planning. For example, in Indonesia, coworkers and leaders are the main factors that contribute to a person engaging in corruption and at the same time these two groups are also the main indicators in ensuring that corrupt practices do not occur [40].

Generally, researcher views corruption is a domestic crime in any country. It is a local cultural phenomenon that depends on the level of understanding and cultural values of the society [41]. Thus, in modern perspective, a person who is not involved in corruption is not able to justify another person who is involved in a crime of corruption because he or she has different values of belief and point of view. However, in the Islamic point of view, corruption is a major crime that can damage the whole system and structure of a prosperous society, thus demean human dignity [42]. Human dignity held high position in Islam and has direct connection to leadership. Azra [43] explains that Islam places great emphasis on the concept of *akhlāq al-karīmah* or moral par excellence. In this regard, Islam strongly opposes all types of activities that violate the values of human dignity such as corruption, theft, and robbery which can result injustice to others.

Of equal importance, abuse of power is also a problem in today's leadership. Many reports state that world leaders from both the Western and the Islamic world are involved in abuses of power. Noam Chomsky in his book Failed State states that a leader who fails to preserve his citizens from violence and destruction can be considered a failed state ([44], p. xi). Not only that, for the leader of a country who abuses his power and commits violence or brings harm to another country, is also categorized as a failed country. This is because, every life has the right to live in peace and prosperity as enshrined in the declaration of human rights (UNDHR). Therefore, the power in the hands of leaders should be used in preserving universal human values and rights as prescribed by law (international and local). Take the

#### *Humane Leadership in Islamic Approaches DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.103735*

example from Muslim world where many were associated with the act of abuse of power in their leadership. In fact, abuse of power has originated from a misinterpretation of religion and leadership concepts that Willy, Karwur, and Karouw [45] found as a major cause to violent extremism and terrorism that happened in Iraq and Pakistan.

Having said that, abuse of power can occur anywhere including at the highest levels of the nation and also in the workplace in small organizations. Based on 20 years of study, Dacher Keltner [46] stated that the workplace or company/ organization is the easiest place for abuse of power to occur without being noticed by the individual involved. This is because, within an organization, a person has the authority or can be empowered due to promotion or change of department based on the job performance. Yet, having such power has slowly made him or her irritable, unethical, and selfish which eventually at last engages in abuse of power. To Dacher Keltner, this situation is called "the power paradox" and it is just as dangerous as the country's leaders abusing power for personal gain. In other words, the abuse of power can erode the value of humanity in oneself and fail to respect the value of humanity in others. On that basis, one good example made by Manuela Priesemuth as she launched the "Time's up for toxic workplace" campaign and accordingly this campaign was expanded to the election of national leaders who openly abused power to the public.

Concurrent to these crises in today's leadership that obstructed the development of global society, at times Muslim population is expected to rise to 2.2 billion by 2030, Shadi Hamid [47] argues Islam and Muslim readiness in reshaping the world outside the Arab world play a major role in governance, law, and politics. He further emphasizes the exceptionalism of Islam in the leadership manifestation that can be played by Muslim leaders in a value-neutral sense in response to twentieth- and twenty-first-century challenges. Such notion has firstly been analyzed by Sardar's *Islamic Futures: The Shape of Ideas to Come* as the future is controllable and common societal desires and goals have influenced in shaping future Islamic resurgence and realization [48]. Realizing that, Hasan [49] reminds that the *ummah* is in dire need a new breed of leaders who committed to lead Muslim societies and nations out of valley of despair and indignity to a better future civilization of Islam. Inspired by the Prophetic model of leadership, the future leaders that Muslim must produce shall embed the following characters: high moral integrity, *taqwā*, and deep spiritual and moral awareness (*ihsān*) of Divine omnipresence and omniscience. In fact, Rafiki [50] had done great work by simplifying 56 leadership attributes from Quranic verses that celebrate the value of humanity. These can be a future consideration in determining Islamic leadership approaches toward humane leadership framework.

#### **5. Conclusion**

The concept of Islamic leadership is built on principles and concerns for human values. From the discussion of the literature, it shows that Islamic leadership is blended with human development in an integrated manner with an emphasis on four values that can be emulated from the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The elements of humanity found in the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) are peace between communities, recognizing the right to life and prohibiting murder, no coercion in religion and social problems, and the practice of da'wah calling to good and forbidding evil.

Nonetheless, today's leadership is seen not to adhere in elevating the dignity of human values in their leadership style. The problems of corruption, abuse of power, and deficits of trust in leaders both at the national and organizational levels are becoming a global trend today [51]. The involvement of key national leaders in corruption and misuse of power for personal gain has slowly resulted in the country's development being disrupted and had bad impact on the well-being of civil society. Therefore, the Muslim community firmly rejects leadership that ignores and debunks the basics of human values as highlighted by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) where such examples can be referred in the Qur'an and *hadith*.

To sum up, it can be concluded that the future of balanced society lies on a leadership style based on human values which are embodied in the basic principles as outlined by Islam. This is not optional to Muslim leaders except agreeing to practice Islamic leadership within these frameworks and making them a policy in the administrative and leadership approach. With that application of human values, it would definitely elevate "human leadership" as a new approach of human development in a comprehensive and holistic manner now rather to wait in the future.

#### **Author details**

Mohd Faridh Hafez Mhd Omar Universiti Sains Islam, Malaysia

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Humane Leadership in Islamic Approaches DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.103735*

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### Section 2


*3.3.2 Veld reinforcement*

Veld reinforcement is the introduction, to the rangeland, of new grass or legume species in order to improve both the quantity and quality of the natural vegetation. Legume forages such as *Desmodium uncinatum*, *Macroptilium atropurpureum*, *Stylosanthes guianensis*, and *Cassia rotundifolia* can be used, while grass species including *Cynodon nlemfuensis*, *Paspalum notatum*, and *Panicum maximum* are also good for veld reinforcement*.*


**2. Materials and Methods**

### *2.1. Pre-Processing: Stretched Wallis Shadow Compensation Method*

Due to the light angle, terrain undulation, and building blockage, light is blocked in some regions of the UAV aerial image. The resulting shadows cover parts of the image, so the associated pseudo-information is unavoidable [30]. Recovery of aerial images by shadow recovery methods to remove shadow information is capable to improve the subsequent matching accuracy.

Here, a stretched Wallis shadow compensation method is proposed. The pixel contrastbased stretching factor is introduced in the Wallis filtering method, aiming for adaptive compensation for different degrees of shadow occlusions, to improve the contrast within the shadow region. Wallis is based on the property that the mean and variance of different regions in the whole image (without shadows) are essentially constant. Using the mean and variance of the image, the filter coefficients are constructed to achieve the shaded areas being restored to the normal lighting situation [31]. With the shaded regions being restored, the difference between these two parts is reduced and the brightness of the shaded regions is increased. The Wallis is described as:

$$\begin{cases} \, \, ^{I^t}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y}) = \alpha I(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y}) + \beta\\ \, \, \, \, \mathbf{a} = \frac{\frac{\sigma^t}{\sigma^t + \frac{\sigma^t}{\sigma^2}}}{\frac{\sigma^t}{\sigma^2} + (1 - b - a)m} \end{cases} \tag{1}$$

where *I* denotes the pixel value of the original image at (*x*, *y*), *I t* is the target pixel value, *a*, *b* are hyperparameters, and the *σ*, *m*, *σt* , *mt* are variance in the neighborhood, pixel mean in the neighborhood, target variance, and target pixel mean, respectively. Different *α* are obtained via adjusting *a*, which is used to modify the variance of the shaded areas relative to the whole image, contributing to the increase in contrast in the shaded areas. Similarly, by changing the parameter *β* through *b*, the mean value of the shaded regions is increased and the brightness is improved. The result of shading recovery is shown in Figure 1. It can be observed that the recovery method based on the overall image does not address the effects of different lighting in the shadow regions, suffering from inadequate compensation.

**Figure 1.** Shadow compensation results using Stretched Wallis.

Considering the diversity of shadow intensities in different regions, a pixel contrastbased stretching factor is proposed and integrated to *α*. The pixel value *I* is calculated as:

$$I(\mathbf{x}, y) = \mathcal{R} \cdot V(\mathbf{x}, y) \tag{2}$$

where *R* is the reflectance and *V* is the light intensity *V* at (*x*, *y*), which is determined by the direct light intensity *Vd* and environmental light intensity *Ve*:

$$V = V^d + V^c \tag{3}$$

Given the part of the obscured image, the shadow regions can be approximated as if only the environmental light intensity is available. Thus, the mean pixel value *I* can be written separately according to the shaded and unshaded areas as:

$$I^{\text{shadow} - frac} = R \cdot (V^d + V^\epsilon) = \frac{\sum\_{i=1}^{\mathcal{U}} I^{s - f}\_i(x, y)}{n} \tag{4}$$

$$I^{\text{shadow}} = R \cdot V^{\varepsilon} = \frac{\sum\_{i=1}^{n} I\_i(x, y)}{n} \tag{5}$$

Therefore, the proportional relationship between environmental light intensity and direct light intensity in an aerial image can therefore be defined as:

$$r = \frac{I^{\text{shadow} - free} - I^{\text{shadow}}}{I^{\text{shadow}}} = \frac{1}{3} (\sum\_{R, G, B} \frac{\sum\_{j=1}^{m} I^{s-f} - \sum\_{i=1}^{n} I}{\sum\_{i=1}^{n} I}) \tag{6}$$

It can be seen that a larger *r* means that the contrast between the shadow-free region and shaded region is larger and more information needs to be recovered. Most of the *r* values in the shaded regions are in the range of 2 to 6. To ensure adequate compensation for strong shading and smoothness of stretching, the stretching factor *S* is defined as:

$$S = \log(1 + e^r) \tag{7}$$

Then, with the addition of the stretching factor *S*, *α* can be expressed as:

$$a = \frac{\sigma^t}{\sigma^t + \frac{\sigma}{\left(Sa\right)^2}} = \frac{\sigma^t}{\sigma^t + \frac{\sigma}{\left(\log\left(1 + \epsilon^r\right)a\right)^2}}\tag{8}$$

The region of width K around the shadow detected by reference [32] is represented as the non-shaded region associated with this shaded region, which is obtained by morphological expansion. The mean and variance of the shaded and non-shaded regions are calculated according to the above regions to solve for the parameters *α* and *β* of the stretched Wallis shading compensation. The recovery of the shaded area is shown in Figure 1. Obviously, the overall brightness and contrast of the shadows are significantly enhanced by the stretched Wallis compensation method. In addition, the pixel-based contrast stretching factor compensation is more adaptive and the contrast enhancement effect is more targeted.

### *2.2. M-O SiamRPN with Weight Adaptive Joint Multiple Intersection over Union for Visual Localization*

Visual localization is accomplished by comparing real-time aerial imagery with prestored satellite images, matching the most similar region in the satellite image to the target, and marking the coordinate position. Considering the non-ideal effects of small target size, blurred edges, and non-balanced information in aerial images, we propose an M-O SiamRPN and a weight adaptive joint multiple intersection over union loss function. The former is designed to address the localization task as a classification and detection problem in satellite maps using real-time aerial images as a template through a SiamRPN backbone, where multi-order with multi-resolution features is used to improve the expression ability and sensitivity to edge textures. The latter balances the effectiveness of a large number of negative samples and a small number of positive samples by simultaneously constraining the anchor box with weight adaptive scale and multiple intersection over union.


*Edited by Fumiaki Uchiumi*

Sixty years after the "central dogma," great achievements have been developed in molecular biology. We have also learned the important functions of noncoding RNAs and epigenetic regulations. More importantly, whole genome sequencing and transcriptome analyses enabled us to diagnose specific diseases. This book is not only intended for students and researchers working in laboratory but also physicians and pharmacists. This volume consists of 14 chapters, divided into 4 parts. Each chapter is written by experts investigating biological stresses, epigenetic regulation, and functions of transcription factors in human diseases. All articles presented in this volume by excellent investigators provide new insights into the studies in transcriptional control in mammalian cells and will inspire us to develop or establish novel therapeutics against human diseases.

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