**3. Offensive extrusomes**

*Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

offense-defense mechanisms adopted by some groups of protists can be compared,

In this context, a common feeding mechanism found in heterotrophic protists is phagocytosis, a process which requires specific organelles for food assimilation and which occurs in three steps: food capture, phagosome formation, and food digestion [5]. Different techniques of phagocytosis have been described in various protists, where they have especially been investigated in ciliates [5–7]. Verni and Gualtieri [5] describe three main phagocytotic processes in ciliates: filter feeding, suctorial feeding, and raptorial feeding. The authors compare them to the strategies used in fishing, like netting, trapping, and harpooning. In filter-feeding ciliates, the food, represented by small organisms or edible debris of various types, was pushed into the ciliate buccal cavity by the rhythmical beats of the cilia located in its adoral apparatus. Suctorial-feeding ciliates are represented by sessile or sedentary species that for most of their lives remain attached to other organisms or various substrates, intercepting the food particles with their specialized tentacles. Finally, raptorial ciliates are able to directly catch other organisms using peculiar organelles

**2. Extrusomes, the specialized organelles for predator-prey interaction**

The term "extrusome" was proposed, for the first time, by Grell in 1973 for extrusive (ejectable) bodies, which occur widely in protists [8]. They are membranebound organelles usually located in the cell cortex, attached to the cell membrane. They can display differences in structure and morphology, but they share the common characteristic of discharging their contents to the outside of the cell in response to mechanical or chemical stimuli. Remarkably, when the extrusomes are discharged, the cell remains intact and functional. Studies on extrusomes and related organelles have been reviewed by Hausmann [9], Dragesco [10], Kugrens et al. [11], Hausmann and Hülsmann [12], and Rosati and Modeo [13]. Typical examples of these organelles include toxicysts, trichocysts, mucocysts, cortical, or pigment granules in ciliates and flagellates, haptocysts in suctorians, and kinetocysts in heliozoan actinopods. Some extrusomes are known to be related in predator-prey interactions, for example, to catch and kill the prey (such as toxicysts, haptocysts, kinetocysts, and some cortical granules), or used as defensive organelles (such as the trichocysts and various cortical or pigment granules), but the role of other kinds of extrusomes such as the mucocysts in *Tetrahymena* or the trichites in Strombidiidae [13] still remains obscure.

in terms of complexity and variability, with those observed in animals.

*General scheme of predator-prey interactions. Redrafted from [4].*

to paralyze and/or kill their prey, generally called extrusomes.

**14**

**Figure 1.**

Offensive extrusomes generally possessed by raptorial protists and located usually at or near the feeding apparatus are discharged after contact with a possible prey, which is immobilized, damaged, or firmly bound to the predator. Among these, organelles, certainly the most widely studied, belong to the category of toxicysts (toxic extrusomes) and they play an essential role in capturing and killing prey [7, 13]. Toxicysts are synthesized in Golgi or ER vesicles and are usually localized in the cell cortex attached to the cell membrane. Most of them are observed in species belonging to the class Litostomatea and subclass Haptoria, but they are also present in other predatory ciliates. They are usually positioned in a specific region of the cell, near the oral apparatus, and generally in the first portion which contacts the prey during the raptorial feeding [13]. Independently of the specific differences in the morphology of the cytostome, the toxicysts are always present in an appreciable number, for example, in the genera *Didinium*, *Dileptus*, *Prorodon*, *Litonotus*, *Colpes*, *Homalozoon*, and many others. In resting position, the toxicysts appear generally as rod-like elements (**Figure 2**), and could be discharged in milliseconds, if exposed to an appropriate stimulus such as contact with a prey (**Figure 3**) [7]. In this case, the tubules of the toxicysts are suddenly introduced into the cytoplasm of the prey's body, like hypodermic needles, to inject the toxic material. Hausmann [7] reports essentially two ways by which the toxicysts may be discharged: in the first case, there is a fusion of the toxicyst's membrane with the plasma membrane, followed by the tubule discharge via evagination; in the second, observed in certain ciliate species, a telescopic discharge of the tubules was observed. During or near the end of the toxicysts' discharge, the toxic secondary metabolites were secreted by the tubules. It is worth noting that this mechanism of discharging toxic substances shows the structural and functional similarities that can be found between the toxicysts in ciliated protists and nematocysts in Cnidaria, despite the substantial differences in size [7].

In contrast with recent and less recent studies about the nature of the toxic secondary metabolites used by ciliates in chemical defense, no exhaustive data are yet available about the composition of the toxins stored in the toxicysts of predatory ciliates. This is essentially due to the difficulty in separating the content of extrusomes from other molecules produced by the ciliate, in order to purify them at homogeneity for subsequent chemical and structural analyses.

#### **Figure 2.**

*Transmission electron microscope (TEM) picture of the toxicysts in a dividing cell of a ciliate* Didinium nasutum*. Scale bar = 1* μ*m. Original picture by R. Allen from http://www.cellimagelibrary.org/images/10010.*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Predatory behavior of* Coleps hirtus *on* Pseudokeronopsis erythrina*. The predator attacks the prey with its toxicysts (arrow). Micrograph extracted from a film clips. Scale bar = 200* μ*m.*

To date the presence of acid phosphatase has been demonstrated in the toxicysts of *Didinium nasutum* [14] and four other raptorial ciliates such as *Enchelys mutans*, *Lacrymaria olor*, *Homalozoon vermiculare*, and *Pseudoprorodon niveus* [15]. It has been supposed that this enzyme, generally present in lysosomes of animal cells, may probably be used by these ciliates to start the digestion of the prey.

#### **3.1 The predatory behavior of** *Coleps hirtus*

The complete analysis of the content of the toxicysts, together with observations of the predatory behavior, was also performed on another species, *Coleps hirtus*, a freshwater protostomatid ciliate. *C. hirtus* (40–65 × 20–35 μm) has an oral apparatus placed at the anterior end of the cell and its barrel-shaped body is covered by calcified armor arranged in plates. This ciliate is able to feed off bacteria, algae, flagellates, and ciliates, but it is also histophagous, that is, it feeds on living plant and animal tissue such as rotifers, crustaceans, and fish [16, 17]. *Coleps* is also reported to show a scavenger feeding on tissues of dead metazoans, such as *Daphnia*, *Diaphanosoma*, and chironomid larvae [18], as well as toward dead ciliates and dead specimens of its own species. *Coleps* is usually equipped with toxicysts used by the ciliate to assist its carnivorous feeding, and its predatory behavior has recently been analyzed against another ciliate species used as prey, *Euplotes aediculatus.* Observations conducted on a mixture of predators and prey showed several contacts between the specimens of *Colpes* and *Euplotes*, but only after 5–10 min did interactions between the anterior section of a predator with a specimen of *Euplotes* become effective. This time was probably essential for prey detection and recognition, followed by prolonged contact between predator and prey, generally ending with the rapid backward swimming of the latter which separated the two organisms. When the attacks became numerous some individuals of *Coleps* remained attached to their prey (**Figure 4**), which decreased their swimming speed and gradually stopped swimming. After 20–30 min, the prey was fragmented and eaten by several specimens of *Coleps*, and a similar predatory behavior was also observed using different ciliate species as prey [19]. On the contrary the toxicysts-deficient

**17**

**Figure 4.**

**Figure 5.**

*a film clips. Scale bar = 200* μ*m.*

specimens of *Colpes* (**Figure 5**) obtained by means of the application of the coldshock method capable of inducing an exclusive massive discharge of extrusomes in

*(A) The toxicysts in* Coleps hirtus *appear as rod-shaped organelles (arrow) in the oral basket of a cell. (B) The photomicrograph shows the toxicysts discharged (arrow) into the medium, immediately after a cold-shock treatment. (C) No toxicysts are detected in a toxicyst-deprived cell. Photomicrographs of fixed*

*Multiple attacks by different cells* Coleps hirtus *on a cell of* Euplotes aediculatus*. Micrograph extracted from*

Unexpectedly, the analysis of the bioactive fraction of the toxicyst discharge of *Coleps hirtus* (performed by liquid chromatography-electro-spray-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) showed the presence of a mixture of 19 saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated free fatty acids (FFAs) with the addition of a minor amount of a diterpenoid (phytanic acid) but did not reveal

ciliates [20] appear unable to catch and kill their prey [19].

*specimens by protargol stain. Scale bar = 10* μ*m. Pictures from [19].*

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622* *Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

To date the presence of acid phosphatase has been demonstrated in the toxicysts of *Didinium nasutum* [14] and four other raptorial ciliates such as *Enchelys mutans*, *Lacrymaria olor*, *Homalozoon vermiculare*, and *Pseudoprorodon niveus* [15]. It has been supposed that this enzyme, generally present in lysosomes of animal cells,

*Predatory behavior of* Coleps hirtus *on* Pseudokeronopsis erythrina*. The predator attacks the prey with its*

The complete analysis of the content of the toxicysts, together with observations of the predatory behavior, was also performed on another species, *Coleps hirtus*, a freshwater protostomatid ciliate. *C. hirtus* (40–65 × 20–35 μm) has an oral apparatus placed at the anterior end of the cell and its barrel-shaped body is covered by calcified armor arranged in plates. This ciliate is able to feed off bacteria, algae, flagellates, and ciliates, but it is also histophagous, that is, it feeds on living plant and animal tissue such as rotifers, crustaceans, and fish [16, 17]. *Coleps* is also reported to show a scavenger feeding on tissues of dead metazoans, such as *Daphnia*, *Diaphanosoma*, and chironomid larvae [18], as well as toward dead ciliates and dead specimens of its own species. *Coleps* is usually equipped with toxicysts used by the ciliate to assist its carnivorous feeding, and its predatory behavior has recently been analyzed against another ciliate species used as prey, *Euplotes aediculatus.* Observations conducted on a mixture of predators and prey showed several contacts between the specimens of *Colpes* and *Euplotes*, but only after 5–10 min did interactions between the anterior section of a predator with a specimen of *Euplotes* become effective. This time was probably essential for prey detection and recognition, followed by prolonged contact between predator and prey, generally ending with the rapid backward swimming of the latter which separated the two organisms. When the attacks became numerous some individuals of *Coleps* remained attached to their prey (**Figure 4**), which decreased their swimming speed and gradually stopped swimming. After 20–30 min, the prey was fragmented and eaten by several specimens of *Coleps*, and a similar predatory behavior was also observed using different ciliate species as prey [19]. On the contrary the toxicysts-deficient

may probably be used by these ciliates to start the digestion of the prey.

*toxicysts (arrow). Micrograph extracted from a film clips. Scale bar = 200* μ*m.*

**3.1 The predatory behavior of** *Coleps hirtus*

**16**

**Figure 3.**

*Multiple attacks by different cells* Coleps hirtus *on a cell of* Euplotes aediculatus*. Micrograph extracted from a film clips. Scale bar = 200* μ*m.*

#### **Figure 5.**

*(A) The toxicysts in* Coleps hirtus *appear as rod-shaped organelles (arrow) in the oral basket of a cell. (B) The photomicrograph shows the toxicysts discharged (arrow) into the medium, immediately after a cold-shock treatment. (C) No toxicysts are detected in a toxicyst-deprived cell. Photomicrographs of fixed specimens by protargol stain. Scale bar = 10* μ*m. Pictures from [19].*

specimens of *Colpes* (**Figure 5**) obtained by means of the application of the coldshock method capable of inducing an exclusive massive discharge of extrusomes in ciliates [20] appear unable to catch and kill their prey [19].

Unexpectedly, the analysis of the bioactive fraction of the toxicyst discharge of *Coleps hirtus* (performed by liquid chromatography-electro-spray-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) showed the presence of a mixture of 19 saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated free fatty acids (FFAs) with the addition of a minor amount of a diterpenoid (phytanic acid) but did not reveal

the presence of enzymes, as reported for other predatory ciliates [19]. To date this is the only report on the presence of FFAs as toxic substances in the extrusomes of ciliated protists, but the use of this class of compounds as toxins by *Coleps* is shared with at least 15 freshwater, 13 marine, and 6 brackish water potentially harmful microalgae, as well with some multicellular organisms. For example, a chemical defense by a mixture of FFAs was studied and demonstrated for the harmful microalga *Fibrocapsa japonica* (Raphidophyceae) [21–23], and also in animals, a defensive strategy mediated by FFAs was recently described for the fish *Barbus barbus* which adopted it to protect its eggs from predators [24].

Very little is known about the role and source of phytanic acid in ciliates, this being the additional component detected in the toxicyst discharge of *Coleps*. Phytanic acid can be produced from the biodegradation of the side chain of chlorophyll [25], so one possible source arises from *Coleps'* carnivorous feeding on photosynthetic microorganisms [19]. Some insects, such as the sumac flea beetle, accumulate chlorophyll-derived metabolites as a chemical deterrent in excrements [26]. Komen et al. [27] demonstrated the toxic effect of phytanic acid on human skin fibroblasts, where it impaired mitochondrial respiration through protonophoric action. Regarding the role of phytanic acid in *Coleps*, it is possible to hypothesize that it can be used as a weapon, deterrent, or, at least, it could be stored in toxicysts given its potential toxic activity. In addition, it is known that ciliates themselves are also able to synthesize a huge number of terpenoids [28, 29]. This is the case of *Euplotes focardi* [30] and *Euplotes rariseta* [31] where the production of new diterpenoids was demonstrated. Terpene compounds and FFAs may also act together to exert cytotoxic effects [19]. FFAs may serve as a matrix to deliver toxic compounds to prey or predators and also to create a perfect environment where toxic metabolites can exert their functions.

It has been demonstrated that the substances discharged from the toxicysts by *Coleps* are highly toxic for a number of ciliate species such as *Euplotes aediculatus*, *Paramecium tetraurelia*, *Spirostomum teres*, and *S. ambiguum* or *Oxytricha* sp. [19], and their action mechanism appears to be related to a necrotic process. The term necrosis refers to a rapid (unprogrammed) cell death, with plasmatic membrane rupture, often caused by external factors such as toxins. On the contrary, the apoptosis is programmed cell death characterized by nuclear condensation, cytoplasmic shrinkage, and disintegration of the cell into small, membrane-bounded fragments. As shown in **Figures 6** and **7**, the purified toxin from *Coleps* is able to induce rapid cell death in *E. aediculatus* and in *S. ambiguum* preceded by cell membrane fracture without any changes in the morphology of the macronucleus. An action mechanism of this type seems to be a "good choice" for *Coleps* as it induces paralysis and a very rapid death in the prey.

Interestingly, the cells of *Coleps* can also be damaged if exposed, *in vitro*, to their own toxin discharge [19]. Nevertheless, this cannot occur in nature, because on the one hand, the toxins are stored in the toxicysts of the ciliate, thus avoiding autotoxicity and on the other hand, the accidental exposure of *Coleps* to the toxicyst discharge dissolved in the medium is also unlikely, due to the choice of the predator to directly inject the toxins into the prey [19]. In this context, it is worth remembering the peculiar predatory behavior of *Coleps*, which usually leads to the observation that the same prey undergoes multiple attacks by several raptorial specimens, a behavior also adopted against young larvae of zebrafish [17]. It is likely that this behavior has evolved to ensure a fast immobilization of the prey, that after simultaneous multiple attacks, it can easily accumulate lethal concentrations of toxins injected by numerous predators. Therefore, essentially for the "wolf-like" group hunting behavior of *Coleps*, the species that appeared relatively resistant to its toxicyst discharge may also be easily caught and killed.

**19**

**Figure 6.**

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

**3.2** *Didinium nasutum***, a specialized hunter**

Differently to *Coleps*, other ciliate species have specialized in hunting and catching a few preferential prey. This is, for example, the case of *Didinium nasutum* that is capable of capturing and killing several species of *Paramecium* and few other ciliates. Generally, *Paramecium* species are able to defend themselves by means of mechanical extrusomes like trichocysts (that will be discussed later on this chapter) but *Didinium* seems to overcome the defense of *Paramecium* by means of a highly specialized combination of extrusomes. Present on the proboscis of *Didinium* are several units of two different kinds of extrusomes: toxicysts, as in other Litostomatea, and pexicysts, another specialized offensive extrusome observed only in this species [32]. These authors describe the discharge of pexicysts as the first response after the prey recognition [14], which is typically followed by the discharge of toxicysts. At the same time, the prey (generally a *Paramecium*) discharges its trichocysts which separate the two organisms, but the proboscis of *Didinium* remains attached to the prey by a tiny connection probably composed of a bundle of discharged pexicysts and toxicysts (**Figure 8**). Subsequently, the *Paramecium* will be reached again and captured by the predator. In the light of this observation, the pexicysts seem to act most by a mechanical function (as harpoon-like organelles) rather than with a chemical offense. This assumption is supported by the fact that another species of predatory ciliate, *Monodinium balbiani*, which is morphologically similar and phylogenetically close to *Didinium*, but without the presence of the

*(A) Necrotic effects of the toxicyst discharge of* Coleps hirtus *on* Euplotes aediculatus *and (B)* Spirostomum

ambiguum*. Arrows indicate the cell-membrane fractures. Scale bar = 100* μ*m. Pictures from [19].*

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

#### **Figure 6.**

*Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

adopted it to protect its eggs from predators [24].

toxic metabolites can exert their functions.

rapid death in the prey.

the presence of enzymes, as reported for other predatory ciliates [19]. To date this is the only report on the presence of FFAs as toxic substances in the extrusomes of ciliated protists, but the use of this class of compounds as toxins by *Coleps* is shared with at least 15 freshwater, 13 marine, and 6 brackish water potentially harmful microalgae, as well with some multicellular organisms. For example, a chemical defense by a mixture of FFAs was studied and demonstrated for the harmful microalga *Fibrocapsa japonica* (Raphidophyceae) [21–23], and also in animals, a defensive strategy mediated by FFAs was recently described for the fish *Barbus barbus* which

Very little is known about the role and source of phytanic acid in ciliates, this being the additional component detected in the toxicyst discharge of *Coleps*. Phytanic acid can be produced from the biodegradation of the side chain of chlorophyll [25], so one possible source arises from *Coleps'* carnivorous feeding on photosynthetic microorganisms [19]. Some insects, such as the sumac flea beetle, accumulate chlorophyll-derived metabolites as a chemical deterrent in excrements [26]. Komen et al. [27] demonstrated the toxic effect of phytanic acid on human skin fibroblasts, where it impaired mitochondrial respiration through protonophoric action. Regarding the role of phytanic acid in *Coleps*, it is possible to hypothesize that it can be used as a weapon, deterrent, or, at least, it could be stored in toxicysts given its potential toxic activity. In addition, it is known that ciliates themselves are also able to synthesize a huge number of terpenoids [28, 29]. This is the case of *Euplotes focardi* [30] and *Euplotes rariseta* [31] where the production of new diterpenoids was demonstrated. Terpene compounds and FFAs may also act together to exert cytotoxic effects [19]. FFAs may serve as a matrix to deliver toxic compounds to prey or predators and also to create a perfect environment where

It has been demonstrated that the substances discharged from the toxicysts by *Coleps* are highly toxic for a number of ciliate species such as *Euplotes aediculatus*, *Paramecium tetraurelia*, *Spirostomum teres*, and *S. ambiguum* or *Oxytricha* sp. [19], and their action mechanism appears to be related to a necrotic process. The term necrosis refers to a rapid (unprogrammed) cell death, with plasmatic membrane rupture, often caused by external factors such as toxins. On the contrary, the apoptosis is programmed cell death characterized by nuclear condensation, cytoplasmic shrinkage, and disintegration of the cell into small, membrane-bounded fragments. As shown in **Figures 6** and **7**, the purified toxin from *Coleps* is able to induce rapid cell death in *E. aediculatus* and in *S. ambiguum* preceded by cell membrane fracture without any changes in the morphology of the macronucleus. An action mechanism of this type seems to be a "good choice" for *Coleps* as it induces paralysis and a very

Interestingly, the cells of *Coleps* can also be damaged if exposed, *in vitro*, to their own toxin discharge [19]. Nevertheless, this cannot occur in nature, because on the one hand, the toxins are stored in the toxicysts of the ciliate, thus avoiding autotoxicity and on the other hand, the accidental exposure of *Coleps* to the toxicyst discharge dissolved in the medium is also unlikely, due to the choice of the predator to directly inject the toxins into the prey [19]. In this context, it is worth remembering the peculiar predatory behavior of *Coleps*, which usually leads to the observation that the same prey undergoes multiple attacks by several raptorial specimens, a behavior also adopted against young larvae of zebrafish [17]. It is likely that this behavior has evolved to ensure a fast immobilization of the prey, that after simultaneous multiple attacks, it can easily accumulate lethal concentrations of toxins injected by numerous predators. Therefore, essentially for the "wolf-like" group hunting behavior of *Coleps*, the species that appeared relatively resistant to its

toxicyst discharge may also be easily caught and killed.

**18**

*(A) Necrotic effects of the toxicyst discharge of* Coleps hirtus *on* Euplotes aediculatus *and (B)* Spirostomum ambiguum*. Arrows indicate the cell-membrane fractures. Scale bar = 100* μ*m. Pictures from [19].*

#### **3.2** *Didinium nasutum***, a specialized hunter**

Differently to *Coleps*, other ciliate species have specialized in hunting and catching a few preferential prey. This is, for example, the case of *Didinium nasutum* that is capable of capturing and killing several species of *Paramecium* and few other ciliates. Generally, *Paramecium* species are able to defend themselves by means of mechanical extrusomes like trichocysts (that will be discussed later on this chapter) but *Didinium* seems to overcome the defense of *Paramecium* by means of a highly specialized combination of extrusomes. Present on the proboscis of *Didinium* are several units of two different kinds of extrusomes: toxicysts, as in other Litostomatea, and pexicysts, another specialized offensive extrusome observed only in this species [32]. These authors describe the discharge of pexicysts as the first response after the prey recognition [14], which is typically followed by the discharge of toxicysts. At the same time, the prey (generally a *Paramecium*) discharges its trichocysts which separate the two organisms, but the proboscis of *Didinium* remains attached to the prey by a tiny connection probably composed of a bundle of discharged pexicysts and toxicysts (**Figure 8**). Subsequently, the *Paramecium* will be reached again and captured by the predator. In the light of this observation, the pexicysts seem to act most by a mechanical function (as harpoon-like organelles) rather than with a chemical offense. This assumption is supported by the fact that another species of predatory ciliate, *Monodinium balbiani*, which is morphologically similar and phylogenetically close to *Didinium*, but without the presence of the

#### **Figure 7.**

*(A, B) Effects of the toxicyst discharge of* Coleps hirtus *on the macronuclear morphology in specimens of*  Euplotes aediculatus *and (C, D)* Spirostomum ambiguum*. Cells were stained with acridine orange and ethidium bromide and observed by fluorescent microscopy. Viable cells show intact, bright green nuclei, nonviable cells show red/orange nuclei. M = macronucleus, m = micronucleus. Scale bar = 100* μ*m. Pictures from [19].*

#### **Figure 8.**

*Scanning electron microscope (SEM) picture on the predator-prey interaction between a cell of* Didinium nasutum *and a cell of* Paramecium multimicronucleatum*. The bundle of toxicysts and pexicysts can be seen between the two organisms (arrow). Magnification ×50. Original picture by G. Antipa from http://www. cellimagelibrary.org/images/21991.*

pexicysts on its proboscis, unlike the *Didinium*, is sensitive to the defense mechanism possessed by *Paramecium,* which is often able to avoid capture [33].

### **3.3 The peculiar tentacles of suctorians**

In this context it is also relevant to mention the subclass Suctoria, represented by ciliates which become sessile during development and consequently lose the

**21**

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

the haptocysts.

**4. Defensive extrusomes**

chemical extrusomes.

**4.1 The mechanical defense**

of protein biosynthesis [36] for a review.

ciliary structure. Suctorians are able to feed on other protists and frequently on other ciliates by means of specialized tentacles. The distal ends of these tentacles are often equipped by peculiar extrusomes called haptocysts that are involved in prey capture. When a tentacle touches a possible prey, the discharge of haptocysts is able to penetrate the prey's membrane, forming a connection between the predator and the prey and injecting the extrusome content into the latter, which also concurs to the fusion of the membranes belonging to the two organisms [13, 34]. However, the fusion of the two membranes is not always immediate, for example, in *Heliophrya erhardi,* Spoon et al. [35] observed that many specimens of *Paramecium* contacting the tentacles of the suctorian escaped discharging trichocysts at the point of contact, suggesting that *Paramecium* is able to defend itself from the puncture of

In addition to predatory behavior, ciliated protists have also evolved different defense strategies, many based on the discharge of extrusomes. Two different mechanisms involved in their defense behavior are essentially observed: the first is mediated by the mechanical actions of trichocysts as in *Paramecium* or *Frontonia and* the second is mediated by the toxic secondary metabolites of different kinds of

Spindle trichocysts (or simply, trichocysts) are spindle-shaped organelles which discharge their content in the form of a thread. They are found in some ciliates and flagellates and are sometimes furnished with a specially constructed tip [9]. The best known and studied trichocysts are those in the genus *Paramecium*. Trichocysts in *Paramecium* are 3–4 μm long, carrot-shaped membrane-bounded organelles armed with a sharply pointed tip, and are present in thousands all over the cell surface, except at the oral apparatus (**Figures 9** and **10**). When paramecia are subjected to various stimuli, the membranes of the trichocysts and the cell membrane blend together, and the content of the extrusomes is immediately discharged to the outside of the cell, forming a spear-like structure in milliseconds (**Figure 11**) (see [13] for a review). Trichocyst discharge has therefore been extensively studied as a model system of exocytosis [36] (see [37] for a review). Synthesis, processing, and sorting of component proteins in trichocysts are also studied as model systems

Maupas, one of the pioneers of protozoology, first proposed the defensive function of trichocysts in *Paramecium* in 1883, observing its morphological features and judging it as self-evident [38]; however, this point was questioned for years. The main controversy was due to the fact that *Paramecium* species are easily preyed upon by *Didinium* in spite of massive trichocyst discharge by paramecia. Pollack reported that *Didinium* preys on wild-type cells as easily as trichocyst-defective mutants in *P. tetraurelia* [39]. However, further studies have unequivocally indicated that trichocysts in *Paramecium* exert an effective defensive function against unicellular predators, including the raptorial protists *Dileptus margaritifer*, *Monodinium balbiani*, *Climacostomum virens*, *Echinosphaerium akamae,* and *E. nuceofilum* [33, 40–43]. In addition, a more recent paper also analyzed the defensive function of trichocysts in *P. tetraurelia* against some microinvertebrate predators, such as a rotifer (*Cephalodella* sp.), an ostracod (*Eucypris* sp.), and a turbellarian flatworm (*Stenostomum sphagnetorum*) [44]. The results of this study show the success in

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

*Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

*(A, B) Effects of the toxicyst discharge of* Coleps hirtus *on the macronuclear morphology in specimens of*  Euplotes aediculatus *and (C, D)* Spirostomum ambiguum*. Cells were stained with acridine orange and ethidium bromide and observed by fluorescent microscopy. Viable cells show intact, bright green nuclei, nonviable cells show red/orange nuclei. M = macronucleus, m = micronucleus. Scale bar = 100* μ*m. Pictures from [19].*

pexicysts on its proboscis, unlike the *Didinium*, is sensitive to the defense mecha-

*Scanning electron microscope (SEM) picture on the predator-prey interaction between a cell of* Didinium nasutum *and a cell of* Paramecium multimicronucleatum*. The bundle of toxicysts and pexicysts can be seen between the two organisms (arrow). Magnification ×50. Original picture by G. Antipa from http://www.*

In this context it is also relevant to mention the subclass Suctoria, represented by ciliates which become sessile during development and consequently lose the

nism possessed by *Paramecium,* which is often able to avoid capture [33].

**3.3 The peculiar tentacles of suctorians**

*cellimagelibrary.org/images/21991.*

**20**

**Figure 8.**

**Figure 7.**

ciliary structure. Suctorians are able to feed on other protists and frequently on other ciliates by means of specialized tentacles. The distal ends of these tentacles are often equipped by peculiar extrusomes called haptocysts that are involved in prey capture. When a tentacle touches a possible prey, the discharge of haptocysts is able to penetrate the prey's membrane, forming a connection between the predator and the prey and injecting the extrusome content into the latter, which also concurs to the fusion of the membranes belonging to the two organisms [13, 34]. However, the fusion of the two membranes is not always immediate, for example, in *Heliophrya erhardi,* Spoon et al. [35] observed that many specimens of *Paramecium* contacting the tentacles of the suctorian escaped discharging trichocysts at the point of contact, suggesting that *Paramecium* is able to defend itself from the puncture of the haptocysts.

## **4. Defensive extrusomes**

In addition to predatory behavior, ciliated protists have also evolved different defense strategies, many based on the discharge of extrusomes. Two different mechanisms involved in their defense behavior are essentially observed: the first is mediated by the mechanical actions of trichocysts as in *Paramecium* or *Frontonia and* the second is mediated by the toxic secondary metabolites of different kinds of chemical extrusomes.

### **4.1 The mechanical defense**

Spindle trichocysts (or simply, trichocysts) are spindle-shaped organelles which discharge their content in the form of a thread. They are found in some ciliates and flagellates and are sometimes furnished with a specially constructed tip [9]. The best known and studied trichocysts are those in the genus *Paramecium*. Trichocysts in *Paramecium* are 3–4 μm long, carrot-shaped membrane-bounded organelles armed with a sharply pointed tip, and are present in thousands all over the cell surface, except at the oral apparatus (**Figures 9** and **10**). When paramecia are subjected to various stimuli, the membranes of the trichocysts and the cell membrane blend together, and the content of the extrusomes is immediately discharged to the outside of the cell, forming a spear-like structure in milliseconds (**Figure 11**) (see [13] for a review). Trichocyst discharge has therefore been extensively studied as a model system of exocytosis [36] (see [37] for a review). Synthesis, processing, and sorting of component proteins in trichocysts are also studied as model systems of protein biosynthesis [36] for a review.

Maupas, one of the pioneers of protozoology, first proposed the defensive function of trichocysts in *Paramecium* in 1883, observing its morphological features and judging it as self-evident [38]; however, this point was questioned for years. The main controversy was due to the fact that *Paramecium* species are easily preyed upon by *Didinium* in spite of massive trichocyst discharge by paramecia. Pollack reported that *Didinium* preys on wild-type cells as easily as trichocyst-defective mutants in *P. tetraurelia* [39]. However, further studies have unequivocally indicated that trichocysts in *Paramecium* exert an effective defensive function against unicellular predators, including the raptorial protists *Dileptus margaritifer*, *Monodinium balbiani*, *Climacostomum virens*, *Echinosphaerium akamae,* and *E. nuceofilum* [33, 40–43]. In addition, a more recent paper also analyzed the defensive function of trichocysts in *P. tetraurelia* against some microinvertebrate predators, such as a rotifer (*Cephalodella* sp.), an ostracod (*Eucypris* sp.), and a turbellarian flatworm (*Stenostomum sphagnetorum*) [44]. The results of this study show the success in

#### **Figure 9.**

*Scheme of the ciliary structure and the trichocysts of* Paramecium*. Picture from http://biodidac.bio.uottawa.ca, redrafted by R. D'Arcangelo.*

#### **Figure 10.**

*Membrane details of resting trichocysts under the freeze fracture. The trichocyst tip (tt) and body (tb) are covered by the same membrane. The A-face of this membrane (A-tin) possesses randomly distributed particles whereas the B-face (B-tin) shows corresponding depressions. Scale bar = 1* μ*m. Picture from [9].*

the defensive function of trichocysts against the rotifer and the ostracod while the mechanism seems ineffective against the flatworm. The authors speculate that the efficiency of the defense by means of trichocysts depends essentially on the kind of prey-capture behavior displayed by the predators. In particular, the success of the defense mediated by trichocysts appears positively related to the time that the predator requires to capture and manipulate the prey before ingestion. Consequently, and different from the turbellarian flatworm that directly swallows paramecia, predators such as the rotifer and the ostracod that, prior to ingesting paramecia, contact it with a ciliated corona or articulated appendices, give the prey sufficient time to activate the trichocysts discharge that allows it to escape [44]. Essentially this looks

**23**

against *Dileptus*.

**Figure 11.**

*bar = 100* μ*m.*

**4.2 The chemical defense**

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

like the same phenomenon observed during the interaction between *Paramecium* and the predatory ciliate *Dileptus margaritifer*, that attempts to paralyze its prey with the toxicysts on its proboscis before ingestion, thereby inducing an explosive extrusion of trichocysts by *Paramecium*, which then swims away [44]. In this regard, another interesting observation was made when *Paramecium* was placed in a cellfree fluid containing the toxic material derived from the toxicysts from *Dileptus* [45] (Miyake A. personal communication); indeed after contact with this toxic solution, *Paramecium* cells violently reacted by immediately discharging most of their trichocysts before being killed. In this reaction, sometimes a single specimen (cell) of *Paramecium* was completely surrounded by its discharged trichocysts. When this occurred, the *Paramecium* survived long after other cells were killed, moving slowly in the narrow space in the capsule of discharged trichocysts. But when it happened that one of these encapsulated cells managed to squeeze out of the capsule, it was quickly killed. This observation suggests that discharged trichocysts of *Paramecium* function as a barrier against the *Dileptus* toxins and hence the locally discharged trichocysts in the *Paramecium-Dileptus* interaction function as an instant shield

*The trichocysts discharged by a cell of* Paramecium tetraurelia *exposed to picric acid solution. Scale*

To summarize, the mechanical defense by trichocysts and related extrusomes appear to be multiple, including quick physical displacement, the thrust into a predator, and protection against the predator's toxins, increasing the chance for the prey to survive and escape. However, especially in ciliates and flagellates, other kinds of extrusomes used for defense were found, ones that, unlike trichocysts, are

capable of discharging toxic materials in response to predatory behavior.

**Pigment granules** (also called pigmentocysts) and **cortical granules** are extrusive organelles containing pigmented or colorless toxic material, respectively, and they were originally classified as a special type of mucocysts [9]. Pigment and cortical granules are mainly present in heterotrich and karyorelictean ciliates, such as *Blepharisma*, *Stentor*, *Loxodes,* and *Trachelonema,* but they may also exist in other groups of ciliates. They are usually present in great numbers throughout the cell cortex, sometimes providing bright colors to their bearers. Examples are *Stentor coeruleus*, whose coloration is due to the pigment called stentorin, and several red

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

#### **Figure 11.**

*Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

*Scheme of the ciliary structure and the trichocysts of* Paramecium*. Picture from http://biodidac.bio.uottawa.ca,*

the defensive function of trichocysts against the rotifer and the ostracod while the mechanism seems ineffective against the flatworm. The authors speculate that the efficiency of the defense by means of trichocysts depends essentially on the kind of prey-capture behavior displayed by the predators. In particular, the success of the defense mediated by trichocysts appears positively related to the time that the predator requires to capture and manipulate the prey before ingestion. Consequently, and different from the turbellarian flatworm that directly swallows paramecia, predators such as the rotifer and the ostracod that, prior to ingesting paramecia, contact it with a ciliated corona or articulated appendices, give the prey sufficient time to activate the trichocysts discharge that allows it to escape [44]. Essentially this looks

*Membrane details of resting trichocysts under the freeze fracture. The trichocyst tip (tt) and body (tb) are covered by the same membrane. The A-face of this membrane (A-tin) possesses randomly distributed particles*

*whereas the B-face (B-tin) shows corresponding depressions. Scale bar = 1* μ*m. Picture from [9].*

**22**

**Figure 10.**

**Figure 9.**

*redrafted by R. D'Arcangelo.*

*The trichocysts discharged by a cell of* Paramecium tetraurelia *exposed to picric acid solution. Scale bar = 100* μ*m.*

like the same phenomenon observed during the interaction between *Paramecium* and the predatory ciliate *Dileptus margaritifer*, that attempts to paralyze its prey with the toxicysts on its proboscis before ingestion, thereby inducing an explosive extrusion of trichocysts by *Paramecium*, which then swims away [44]. In this regard, another interesting observation was made when *Paramecium* was placed in a cellfree fluid containing the toxic material derived from the toxicysts from *Dileptus* [45] (Miyake A. personal communication); indeed after contact with this toxic solution, *Paramecium* cells violently reacted by immediately discharging most of their trichocysts before being killed. In this reaction, sometimes a single specimen (cell) of *Paramecium* was completely surrounded by its discharged trichocysts. When this occurred, the *Paramecium* survived long after other cells were killed, moving slowly in the narrow space in the capsule of discharged trichocysts. But when it happened that one of these encapsulated cells managed to squeeze out of the capsule, it was quickly killed. This observation suggests that discharged trichocysts of *Paramecium* function as a barrier against the *Dileptus* toxins and hence the locally discharged trichocysts in the *Paramecium-Dileptus* interaction function as an instant shield against *Dileptus*.

To summarize, the mechanical defense by trichocysts and related extrusomes appear to be multiple, including quick physical displacement, the thrust into a predator, and protection against the predator's toxins, increasing the chance for the prey to survive and escape. However, especially in ciliates and flagellates, other kinds of extrusomes used for defense were found, ones that, unlike trichocysts, are capable of discharging toxic materials in response to predatory behavior.

#### **4.2 The chemical defense**

**Pigment granules** (also called pigmentocysts) and **cortical granules** are extrusive organelles containing pigmented or colorless toxic material, respectively, and they were originally classified as a special type of mucocysts [9]. Pigment and cortical granules are mainly present in heterotrich and karyorelictean ciliates, such as *Blepharisma*, *Stentor*, *Loxodes,* and *Trachelonema,* but they may also exist in other groups of ciliates. They are usually present in great numbers throughout the cell cortex, sometimes providing bright colors to their bearers. Examples are *Stentor coeruleus*, whose coloration is due to the pigment called stentorin, and several red

species of *Blepharisma*, whose coloration is due to blepharismins, formerly overall called zoopurpurin by Giese [46]. The coloration of these common heterotrichs has long attracted attention and most studies on pigment granules have been carried out using *S. coeruleus,* and a few red species of *Blepharisma*. *B. japonicum* (**Figure 12**) is the best studied species of the genus *Blepharisma* and it presents pigment granules usually in a size of 0.3–0.6 μm diameter, arranged in stripes between the rows of cilia that confer a red-pink coloration to the ciliate (**Figure 13**). These granules have been shown to contain a mixture of five compounds called blepharismins that are multifunctional quinone derivatives structurally related to hypericin, a photodynamic toxin of *Hypericum perforatum* (St. John's Wort), and stentorin, produced by the ciliate *S. coeruleus* [47, 48] (**Figure 14**). To date, two primary functions of blepharismins have been demonstrated: light perception and defense function against predators [47–52]. With regard to light perception, *B. japonicum* shows a temporal backward swimming or rotating movement (stepup photophobic response) if exposed to a sudden increase in light intensity. The step-up photophobic response helps the cells avoid strongly illuminated regions and lethal damage due to the photodynamic action of blepharismins [53]. In addition to light perception, blepharismins were found to act as chemical weapons via their light-independent cytotoxic effect against predatory protozoans and methicillinresistant Gram-positive bacteria [49, 50, 54]. A possible explanation for this cytotoxicity can be found in the capability of blepharismins to form cation-selective channels in planar phospholipid bilayers [51], a phenomenon also expected to occur in the cell membranes of microorganisms exposed to toxic concentrations of ciliate pigments. The defensive function of blepharismins was initially proposed by Giese in 1949 who found that crude extracts of *Blepharisma* were toxic to various ciliates but not to *Blepharisma* itself [55]. Unfortunately, however, his preliminary tests did not support this assumption, that is, *Blepharisma* was easily eaten by predators such as the heliozoan *Actinospherium eichhorni* and small crustaceans [46, 55]. Some predators, *Didinium nasutum*, *Woodruffia metabolica,* and *Podophrya fixa*, did not

**25**

**Figure 14.**

*(n-hexyl)); B1 (R1 = SO3*

*−*

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

*Extrusive pigment granules in* Blepharisma japonicum *(arrow) visible as red/pink dots under a vacuole.*

*Main secondary metabolites produced by ciliated protists. Erythrolactones: A1 (R1 = SO3*

*; R2 = C7H15 (n-heptyl)); C1 (R1 = SO3*

*R2 = C6H13 (n-hexyl); B2 (R1 = H; R2 = C7H15 (n-heptyl)); C2 (R1 = H; R2 = C8H17 (n-octyl)).*

*−*

*−*

*; R2 = C8H17 (n-octyl)); A2 (R1 = H;*

*; R2 = C6H13*

**Figure 13.**

*Scale bar = 100* μ*m.*

**Figure 12.** *External morphology of a living cell of* Blepharisma japonicum*. Scale bar = 100* μ*m.*

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

#### **Figure 13.**

*Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

species of *Blepharisma*, whose coloration is due to blepharismins, formerly overall called zoopurpurin by Giese [46]. The coloration of these common heterotrichs has long attracted attention and most studies on pigment granules have been carried out using *S. coeruleus,* and a few red species of *Blepharisma*. *B. japonicum* (**Figure 12**) is the best studied species of the genus *Blepharisma* and it presents pigment granules usually in a size of 0.3–0.6 μm diameter, arranged in stripes between the rows of cilia that confer a red-pink coloration to the ciliate (**Figure 13**). These granules have been shown to contain a mixture of five compounds called blepharismins that are multifunctional quinone derivatives structurally related to hypericin, a photodynamic toxin of *Hypericum perforatum* (St. John's Wort), and stentorin, produced by the ciliate *S. coeruleus* [47, 48] (**Figure 14**). To date, two primary functions of blepharismins have been demonstrated: light perception and defense function against predators [47–52]. With regard to light perception, *B. japonicum* shows a temporal backward swimming or rotating movement (stepup photophobic response) if exposed to a sudden increase in light intensity. The step-up photophobic response helps the cells avoid strongly illuminated regions and lethal damage due to the photodynamic action of blepharismins [53]. In addition to light perception, blepharismins were found to act as chemical weapons via their light-independent cytotoxic effect against predatory protozoans and methicillinresistant Gram-positive bacteria [49, 50, 54]. A possible explanation for this

cytotoxicity can be found in the capability of blepharismins to form cation-selective channels in planar phospholipid bilayers [51], a phenomenon also expected to occur in the cell membranes of microorganisms exposed to toxic concentrations of ciliate pigments. The defensive function of blepharismins was initially proposed by Giese in 1949 who found that crude extracts of *Blepharisma* were toxic to various ciliates but not to *Blepharisma* itself [55]. Unfortunately, however, his preliminary tests did not support this assumption, that is, *Blepharisma* was easily eaten by predators such as the heliozoan *Actinospherium eichhorni* and small crustaceans [46, 55]. Some predators, *Didinium nasutum*, *Woodruffia metabolica,* and *Podophrya fixa*, did not

*External morphology of a living cell of* Blepharisma japonicum*. Scale bar = 100* μ*m.*

**24**

**Figure 12.**

*Extrusive pigment granules in* Blepharisma japonicum *(arrow) visible as red/pink dots under a vacuole. Scale bar = 100* μ*m.*

#### **Figure 14.**

*Main secondary metabolites produced by ciliated protists. Erythrolactones: A1 (R1 = SO3 − ; R2 = C6H13 (n-hexyl)); B1 (R1 = SO3 − ; R2 = C7H15 (n-heptyl)); C1 (R1 = SO3 − ; R2 = C8H17 (n-octyl)); A2 (R1 = H; R2 = C6H13 (n-hexyl); B2 (R1 = H; R2 = C7H15 (n-heptyl)); C2 (R1 = H; R2 = C8H17 (n-octyl)).*

### *Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

eat *Blepharisma*, but they also ignored some other ciliates including uncolored ones. In the absence of further evidence, Giese was skeptical about the assumption [46]. This hypothesis was further unequivocally demonstrated by Miyake, Harumoto, and collaborators, comparing normally pigmented red cells of *B. japonicum*, albino mutant cells, and light-bleached cells (a phenocopy of the albino mutant) as prey for the raptorial ciliate *Dileptus margaritifer* and evaluating the toxicity of purified blepharismins on various ciliate species [49, 50]. As a response to the attack by *D. margaritifer* versus one cell of *B. japonicum*, the latter releases the toxic blepharismins, visible as spherical bodies of 0.2–0.6 μm in diameter under scanning electron microscopy (**Figure 15**). The discharge take place within a second and it is able to repel the predator, while the albino and light-bleached cells are much more sensitive to the attacks of *D. margaritifer* [49, 50]. Recently the defensive function of blepharismins was also investigated in two additional species of *Blepharisma, B. stoltei,* and *B. undulans* against two predatory protists (*C. hirtus* and *Stentor roeseli*) and one metazoan, the turbellarian *S. sphagnetorum* [56]. The results indicate that the chemical defense mechanism present in *B. stoltei* and *B. undulans* is mediated by the same five blepharismins present in *B. japonicum*, although produced in different proportions [56]. Authors speculate that the conservation of this panel

#### **Figure 15.**

*SEM micrographs of the predator-prey interaction between a cell of* Dileptus margaritifer *(DI) and a cell of*  Blepharisma japonicum *(BL). (A)* Blepharisma *being attacked by* Dileptus*. Arrow indicates the site of the damage inflicted by the proboscis of the* Dileptus*. The rupture runs across the adoral zone of membranelles of the* Blepharisma*. Scale bar = 50* μ*m. (B) Enlargement of the region near the rupture in A. Scale bar = 5* μ*m. (C) The rupture magnification in B, showing the surface of* Blepharisma *peppered with spherules discharged from pigment granules. The surface is also pitted with small depressions presumably formed at the spots where the spherules have passed through the cell membrane. Scale bar = 5* μ*m. (D) Enlargement of a part of C. Scale bar = 0.5* μ*m. Pictures from [50].*

**27**

**Figure 16.**

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

only for *S. coeruleus* [60].

of toxic secondary metabolites suggests that distinct roles for these molecules are likely required at least for the fine control of photophobic reactions, as initially proposed by Matsuoka et al. [48]. Summarizing, the *Blepharisma* species studied are able to defend themselves against *C. hirtus,* although *S. sphagnetorum* and *S. roeseli* seem to overcome *Blepharisma*'s chemical defense, but it was observed that after the ingestion of intact cells of the toxic ciliates these predators are not able to reproduce, suggesting the presence of the post-ingestion toxicity phenomena [56]. Additional toxic pigments, structurally related to hypericin, were found in other heterotrich ciliate species, such as stentorin in *S. coeruleus* (see [57] for a review), amethystin in *S. amethystinus* [58], and maristentorin in the marine ciliate *Maristentor dinoferus* [59], but the defensive function was experimentally proved

Karyorelictean ciliates also possess pigment granules which are similar in size, structure, and distribution to those in the heterotrichs, but principally due to the difficulties to the growing species of karyorelictid in the laboratory, the chemical nature of their pigments is still unknown. The most studied species is freshwater *Loxodes striatus*, which presents yellow-brown pigment granules previously examined as photoreceptors [61]. More recently it has been proved that the pigment granules in *L. striatus* are extrusive organelles which contain a toxic photodynamic pigment used for chemical defense against predators [62]. *Loxodes* are able to discharge the toxic pigment as response to attacks of the ciliate *D. margaritifer* (**Figure 16**) or of the turbellarian *S. sphagnetorum* repelling predators. Intriguingly Finlay and Fenchel already proposed a defensive function for the pigment granules in *Loxodes* (*L. striatus* and *L. magnus*) based on different evidences; specifically,

*Predator-prey interaction between* Dileptus margaritifer *and* Loxodes striatus*. (A)* Dileptus *(the slender cell at the left) starts swimming backward after hitting a* Loxodes *with its proboscis. (B) The same cells as in A, about a second later, showing the retreated* Dileptus *and a mass of brownish material (arrow) near the*

Loxodes*. Micrograph extracted from a film clips. Magnification ×70. Pictures from [62].*

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

*Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

eat *Blepharisma*, but they also ignored some other ciliates including uncolored ones. In the absence of further evidence, Giese was skeptical about the assumption [46]. This hypothesis was further unequivocally demonstrated by Miyake, Harumoto, and collaborators, comparing normally pigmented red cells of *B. japonicum*, albino mutant cells, and light-bleached cells (a phenocopy of the albino mutant) as prey for the raptorial ciliate *Dileptus margaritifer* and evaluating the toxicity of purified blepharismins on various ciliate species [49, 50]. As a response to the attack by *D. margaritifer* versus one cell of *B. japonicum*, the latter releases the toxic blepharismins, visible as spherical bodies of 0.2–0.6 μm in diameter under scanning electron microscopy (**Figure 15**). The discharge take place within a second and it is able to repel the predator, while the albino and light-bleached cells are much more sensitive to the attacks of *D. margaritifer* [49, 50]. Recently the defensive function of blepharismins was also investigated in two additional species of *Blepharisma, B. stoltei,* and *B. undulans* against two predatory protists (*C. hirtus* and *Stentor roeseli*) and one metazoan, the turbellarian *S. sphagnetorum* [56]. The results indicate that the chemical defense mechanism present in *B. stoltei* and *B. undulans* is mediated by the same five blepharismins present in *B. japonicum*, although produced in different proportions [56]. Authors speculate that the conservation of this panel

*SEM micrographs of the predator-prey interaction between a cell of* Dileptus margaritifer *(DI) and a cell of*  Blepharisma japonicum *(BL). (A)* Blepharisma *being attacked by* Dileptus*. Arrow indicates the site of the damage inflicted by the proboscis of the* Dileptus*. The rupture runs across the adoral zone of membranelles of the* Blepharisma*. Scale bar = 50* μ*m. (B) Enlargement of the region near the rupture in A. Scale bar = 5* μ*m. (C) The rupture magnification in B, showing the surface of* Blepharisma *peppered with spherules discharged from pigment granules. The surface is also pitted with small depressions presumably formed at the spots where the spherules have passed through the cell membrane. Scale bar = 5* μ*m. (D) Enlargement of a part of C. Scale*

**26**

**Figure 15.**

*bar = 0.5* μ*m. Pictures from [50].*

of toxic secondary metabolites suggests that distinct roles for these molecules are likely required at least for the fine control of photophobic reactions, as initially proposed by Matsuoka et al. [48]. Summarizing, the *Blepharisma* species studied are able to defend themselves against *C. hirtus,* although *S. sphagnetorum* and *S. roeseli* seem to overcome *Blepharisma*'s chemical defense, but it was observed that after the ingestion of intact cells of the toxic ciliates these predators are not able to reproduce, suggesting the presence of the post-ingestion toxicity phenomena [56]. Additional toxic pigments, structurally related to hypericin, were found in other heterotrich ciliate species, such as stentorin in *S. coeruleus* (see [57] for a review), amethystin in *S. amethystinus* [58], and maristentorin in the marine ciliate *Maristentor dinoferus* [59], but the defensive function was experimentally proved only for *S. coeruleus* [60].

Karyorelictean ciliates also possess pigment granules which are similar in size, structure, and distribution to those in the heterotrichs, but principally due to the difficulties to the growing species of karyorelictid in the laboratory, the chemical nature of their pigments is still unknown. The most studied species is freshwater *Loxodes striatus*, which presents yellow-brown pigment granules previously examined as photoreceptors [61]. More recently it has been proved that the pigment granules in *L. striatus* are extrusive organelles which contain a toxic photodynamic pigment used for chemical defense against predators [62]. *Loxodes* are able to discharge the toxic pigment as response to attacks of the ciliate *D. margaritifer* (**Figure 16**) or of the turbellarian *S. sphagnetorum* repelling predators. Intriguingly Finlay and Fenchel already proposed a defensive function for the pigment granules in *Loxodes* (*L. striatus* and *L. magnus*) based on different evidences; specifically,

#### **Figure 16.**

*Predator-prey interaction between* Dileptus margaritifer *and* Loxodes striatus*. (A)* Dileptus *(the slender cell at the left) starts swimming backward after hitting a* Loxodes *with its proboscis. (B) The same cells as in A, about a second later, showing the retreated* Dileptus *and a mass of brownish material (arrow) near the*  Loxodes*. Micrograph extracted from a film clips. Magnification ×70. Pictures from [62].*

they found that light induces in *Loxodes* a characteristic behavior to escape from toxic water and that the pigment granules are the photoreceptors for this reaction [61]. They assumed that this reaction may serve to localize *Loxodes* in regions of low oxygen tension where predators, such as planktonic metazoan, are rare and therefore the pigment may function as a predator-avoidance strategy. If this is the case, pigment granules of *Loxodes* participate in two very different kinds of defense, chemical defense and the behavior-based predator-avoidance, conferring to the ciliate an ability to defend itself against a wider range of predators [62].

Pigmented granules are found also in other groups of ciliates as the Spirotrichea, and mainly in the genus *Pseudokeronopsis,* which shows species equipped with reddish-brown pigment granules morphologically similar to those in heterotrichs [63]. Particularly in *P. carnea* [64] and in *P. erythrina* [65], these granules are reported as extrusive organelles. New secondary metabolites, keronopsins and keronopsamides, respectively, produced by *P. rubra* and *P. riccii,* were recently isolated together with their sulfate esters (**Figure 14**) [66, 67]. In the case of *P. rubra*, it was demonstrated that a crude extract of this organism containing keronopsins, A1 and A2, and their sulfate esters B1 and B2, is capable of paralyzing or even killing ciliates and flagellates [66]. For these reasons a defensive function for these secondary metabolites has been proposed; however, no data relative to their cellular localization and mechanism of action are available to date. On the other hand, in the case of *P. riccii*, the function of the alkaloid secondary metabolite keronopsamide A and its sulfate esters B and C has not been investigated, and the possible localization of the pigments in the cortical granules is only presumed [67]. The most extensively studied species is *P. erythrina*; previously described as an estuarine one, it was successively found also in the freshwater environment and hence reported as a euryhaline organism [68]. This ciliate shows an elongated body (**Figure 17**) equipped with spherical, dark-reddish, brown, or brick red colored pigment granules of about 1 μm in diameter that are mainly arranged around ciliary organelles [69]. As the content of pigment granules, three new secondary metabolites have recently been characterized and named erythrolactones A2, B2, and C2. These are characterized by a central 4-hydroxy-unsaturated δ lactone ring bearing an alkyl saturated chain at carbon-2 and a butyl-benzenoid group at carbon-5 [65, 68]. These molecules were detected in the crude extract of whole cells together with their respective sulfate esters, erythrolactones A1, B1, and C1 (**Figure 14**). After the application of the cold-shock method on massive cell cultures of *P. erythrina* to induce the exclusive discharge of pigment granules, it was demonstrated that only non-sulfonated molecules A2, B2, and C2 were contained in the extrusomes of the ciliate [65]. The mixture of these three molecules has been proven to repel some predators, such as the ciliate *C. hirtus*, and to be toxic for a panel of ciliates and microinvertebrates [65]. Erythrolactones A2, B2, and C2 are the only toxins present in the extrusome discharge of *P. erythrina*, whereas their respective sulfate esters

**29**

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

related analogues.

metazoans [44, 76].

active compounds, in the cortical pigment granules.

A1, B1, and C1 remain confined inside the cell environment [68]. It is known that the process of sulfonation of endogenous molecules is a major metabolic reaction in eukaryotes that can increase water solubility and influence conformational changes but can also lead to the activation or inactivation of a biological effect (see [70] for a review). Buonanno and collaborators [64] speculate that the exclusive maintenance of the sulfate esters of the erythrolactones inside the *P. erythrina* cell may be associated with their temporary inactivation, in order to prevent the phenomenon of self-toxicity that could occur before their definitive storing, as non-sulfonated and

Other organelles strictly related to pigment granules are the colorless **cortical granules** in the heterotrich, sometimes reported as granulocysts to underline their extrusive nature. These organelles show a greatest morphological similarity to pigment granules, as in the case of the cortical granules of *Climacostomum virens* [71] and *Blepharisma hyalinum* [72]. The function and biological activity of the secondary metabolites contained in the cortical granules seem to be primarily related to chemical defense or offense, and the cortical granules in *C. virens* are to date the most studied. This freshwater heterotrich ciliate, if properly stimulated, is able to repel predators by discharging the colorless toxin climacostol (**Figure 14**) and some

This toxin may be chemically classified within a large group of natural compounds

known as resorcinolic lipids (also called alkylresorcinols or 5-alkylresorcinols), widely detected in prokaryotes and eukaryotes [73] and with reported antimicrobial,

A typical defensive behavior of *C. virens* occurs when a predator, such as the ciliate *D. margaritifer*, contacts a *C. virens* cell with its toxicysts bearing proboscis (**Figure 18A**). *D. margaritifer* swims backward while dense material is visible under dark field microscopy, emerging from the site where the proboscis touched the *C. virens* (**Figure 18B**) which swims away [75]. Sometimes, together with the discharged material from *C. virens*, it is also possible to detect some hazy material consisting of needle-like structures which appear to be discharged toxicysts of *D. margaritifer* (**Figure 19**), suggesting a possible further protection against the toxic extrusomes of predators [75]. Interestingly, the chemical defense adopted by *C. virens* against *D. margaritifer* is also effective against some other protists and

If the defensive function of cortical granules in *C. virens* is widely demonstrated, some evidences indicate that these extrusomes could be also successfully used for chemical offense. Differently from the *Paramecium* species which do not have trichocysts (exclusively for defense) localized in the oral apparatus, *C. virens* presents a wide number of cortical granules in the buccal cortex suggesting an additional offensive function for these extrusomes [71]. *C. virens* is able to catch and ingest prey of different sizes, from small flagellates such as *Chlorogonium elongatum* to large ciliates, such as *B. japonicum* or *Spirostomum ambiguum* [43, 77]. These prey are sucked up into the buccal cavity *of C. virens,* which is formed of a peristomial field and a buccal tube, and then ingested in a food vacuole, which arises at the end of the tube [43]. A cell of *P. tetraurelia* which is entirely taken into the buccal tube of *C. virens* is able to discharge the trichocysts and escape from the predator [43], different to what happens when an individual of the same species is totally caught in the pharynx of the microturbellarian *S. sphagnetorum* [44]. Perhaps, as in the case of contact with the toxicysts of the raptorial ciliate *D. margaritifer,* the trichocysts were discharged after contact with climacostol released from *C. virens* to kill the prey. A similar phenomenon also occurs with different preys which possess chemical extrusomes for defense such as the ciliate *S. ambiguum.* In this case, after a cell-cell contact, the *S. ambiguum* displays rapid cell contraction, and according to the authors, it is likely

antiparasitic, antitumoral, and genotoxic activities (see [74] for a review).

**Figure 17.** *External morphology of a living cell of* Pseudokeronopsis erythrina*. Scale bar = 100* μ*m.*

#### *Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

*Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

ciliate an ability to defend itself against a wider range of predators [62].

*External morphology of a living cell of* Pseudokeronopsis erythrina*. Scale bar = 100* μ*m.*

and mainly in the genus *Pseudokeronopsis,* which shows species equipped with reddish-brown pigment granules morphologically similar to those in heterotrichs [63]. Particularly in *P. carnea* [64] and in *P. erythrina* [65], these granules are reported as extrusive organelles. New secondary metabolites, keronopsins and keronopsamides, respectively, produced by *P. rubra* and *P. riccii,* were recently isolated together with their sulfate esters (**Figure 14**) [66, 67]. In the case of *P. rubra*, it was demonstrated that a crude extract of this organism containing keronopsins, A1 and A2, and their sulfate esters B1 and B2, is capable of paralyzing or even killing ciliates and flagellates [66]. For these reasons a defensive function for these secondary metabolites has been proposed; however, no data relative to their cellular localization and mechanism of action are available to date. On the other hand, in the case of *P. riccii*, the function of the alkaloid secondary metabolite keronopsamide A and its sulfate esters B and C has not been investigated, and the possible localization of the pigments in the cortical granules is only presumed [67]. The most extensively studied species is *P. erythrina*; previously described as an estuarine one, it was successively found also in the freshwater environment and hence reported as a euryhaline organism [68]. This ciliate shows an elongated body (**Figure 17**) equipped with spherical, dark-reddish, brown, or brick red colored pigment granules of about 1 μm in diameter that are mainly arranged around ciliary organelles [69]. As the content of pigment granules, three new secondary metabolites have recently been characterized and named erythrolactones A2, B2, and C2. These are characterized by a central 4-hydroxy-unsaturated δ lactone ring bearing an alkyl saturated chain at carbon-2 and a butyl-benzenoid group at carbon-5 [65, 68]. These molecules were detected in the crude extract of whole cells together with their respective sulfate esters, erythrolactones A1, B1, and C1 (**Figure 14**). After the application of the cold-shock method on massive cell cultures of *P. erythrina* to induce the exclusive discharge of pigment granules, it was demonstrated that only non-sulfonated molecules A2, B2, and C2 were contained in the extrusomes of the ciliate [65]. The mixture of these three molecules has been proven to repel some predators, such as the ciliate *C. hirtus*, and to be toxic for a panel of ciliates and microinvertebrates [65]. Erythrolactones A2, B2, and C2 are the only toxins present in the extrusome discharge of *P. erythrina*, whereas their respective sulfate esters

they found that light induces in *Loxodes* a characteristic behavior to escape from toxic water and that the pigment granules are the photoreceptors for this reaction [61]. They assumed that this reaction may serve to localize *Loxodes* in regions of low oxygen tension where predators, such as planktonic metazoan, are rare and therefore the pigment may function as a predator-avoidance strategy. If this is the case, pigment granules of *Loxodes* participate in two very different kinds of defense, chemical defense and the behavior-based predator-avoidance, conferring to the

Pigmented granules are found also in other groups of ciliates as the Spirotrichea,

**28**

**Figure 17.**

A1, B1, and C1 remain confined inside the cell environment [68]. It is known that the process of sulfonation of endogenous molecules is a major metabolic reaction in eukaryotes that can increase water solubility and influence conformational changes but can also lead to the activation or inactivation of a biological effect (see [70] for a review). Buonanno and collaborators [64] speculate that the exclusive maintenance of the sulfate esters of the erythrolactones inside the *P. erythrina* cell may be associated with their temporary inactivation, in order to prevent the phenomenon of self-toxicity that could occur before their definitive storing, as non-sulfonated and active compounds, in the cortical pigment granules.

Other organelles strictly related to pigment granules are the colorless **cortical granules** in the heterotrich, sometimes reported as granulocysts to underline their extrusive nature. These organelles show a greatest morphological similarity to pigment granules, as in the case of the cortical granules of *Climacostomum virens* [71] and *Blepharisma hyalinum* [72]. The function and biological activity of the secondary metabolites contained in the cortical granules seem to be primarily related to chemical defense or offense, and the cortical granules in *C. virens* are to date the most studied. This freshwater heterotrich ciliate, if properly stimulated, is able to repel predators by discharging the colorless toxin climacostol (**Figure 14**) and some related analogues.

This toxin may be chemically classified within a large group of natural compounds known as resorcinolic lipids (also called alkylresorcinols or 5-alkylresorcinols), widely detected in prokaryotes and eukaryotes [73] and with reported antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antitumoral, and genotoxic activities (see [74] for a review).

A typical defensive behavior of *C. virens* occurs when a predator, such as the ciliate *D. margaritifer*, contacts a *C. virens* cell with its toxicysts bearing proboscis (**Figure 18A**). *D. margaritifer* swims backward while dense material is visible under dark field microscopy, emerging from the site where the proboscis touched the *C. virens* (**Figure 18B**) which swims away [75]. Sometimes, together with the discharged material from *C. virens*, it is also possible to detect some hazy material consisting of needle-like structures which appear to be discharged toxicysts of *D. margaritifer* (**Figure 19**), suggesting a possible further protection against the toxic extrusomes of predators [75]. Interestingly, the chemical defense adopted by *C. virens* against *D. margaritifer* is also effective against some other protists and metazoans [44, 76].

If the defensive function of cortical granules in *C. virens* is widely demonstrated, some evidences indicate that these extrusomes could be also successfully used for chemical offense. Differently from the *Paramecium* species which do not have trichocysts (exclusively for defense) localized in the oral apparatus, *C. virens* presents a wide number of cortical granules in the buccal cortex suggesting an additional offensive function for these extrusomes [71]. *C. virens* is able to catch and ingest prey of different sizes, from small flagellates such as *Chlorogonium elongatum* to large ciliates, such as *B. japonicum* or *Spirostomum ambiguum* [43, 77]. These prey are sucked up into the buccal cavity *of C. virens,* which is formed of a peristomial field and a buccal tube, and then ingested in a food vacuole, which arises at the end of the tube [43]. A cell of *P. tetraurelia* which is entirely taken into the buccal tube of *C. virens* is able to discharge the trichocysts and escape from the predator [43], different to what happens when an individual of the same species is totally caught in the pharynx of the microturbellarian *S. sphagnetorum* [44]. Perhaps, as in the case of contact with the toxicysts of the raptorial ciliate *D. margaritifer,* the trichocysts were discharged after contact with climacostol released from *C. virens* to kill the prey. A similar phenomenon also occurs with different preys which possess chemical extrusomes for defense such as the ciliate *S. ambiguum.* In this case, after a cell-cell contact, the *S. ambiguum* displays rapid cell contraction, and according to the authors, it is likely

#### **Figure 18.**

*Predator-prey interaction between* Dileptus margaritifer *and* Climacostomum virens*. (A)* Dileptus *(the slender cell at the center) starts swimming backward after hitting with the proboscis* Climacostomum*. A small bulge (arrow) is developing on the surface of the* Climacostomum *at the site where the proboscis has just hit. (B) The same cells as in A, about a second later, show the retreated* Dileptus *and a small cloud (arrow) near the* Climacostomum*. Dark field micrographs of living cells. Magnification ×70. Pictures from [75].*

#### **Figure 19.**

*Hazy cloud consisting of needle-like structures discharged from the toxicysts of* Dileptus margaritifer*. Magnification ×720. Pictures from [75].*

that this contraction is induced by the discharge of extrusomes by *C. virens* [77]. If this is the case, it is likely that the cortical granules of *C. virens* could be equally used as multifunctional extrusomes, both for chemical defense and offense.

**31**

**Figure 20.**

*Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

*Er-1* from *Euplotes* species (see [82] for a review).

*External morphology of living cells of* Spirostomum ambiguum*. Scale bar = 200* μ*m.*

Besides the natural role of climacostol and thanks to the availability of a straight-

Returning to the topic of this chapter, different secondary metabolites have been also isolated and characterized from other heterotrics, such as *Spirostomum ambiguum, and S. teres*. *S. ambiguum* (**Figure 20**) is a colorless freshwater species and one of the largest and elongated existing ciliates (800–2000 × 48–60 μm). The species is very common in the sludge-water contact zone of wells, ponds, sewage ponds, lakes, oxbows, ditches, and in the sediments of alpha- to beta-mesosaprobien rivers [77]. The defensive function of its cortical granules was recently demonstrated against different predators and the toxicity of its content was tested on a panel of freshwater ciliates [77, 83]. *S. ambiguum* has numerous cortical granules which, under a phase contrast microscope, appear as dots placed in the region between ciliary lines that could be observed in a large transparent contractile vacuole placed at

forward method for its chemical synthesis [78], other bioactivities of the toxin and its potential application to human health are, to date, investigated in various biological systems. The toxicity of climacostol proves very effective against pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria such as *Staphylococcus aureus* or *S. pneumoniae* and against a fungal pathogen, *Candida albicans* [79]. In addition, on the basis of the anticancer properties of other resorcinolic lipids, the toxic potential of climacostol is also studied against cancerous and non-cancerous mammalian cells, including human cell lines. The results show that climacostol effectively inhibits the growth of some tumor cell lines in a dose-dependent manner by inducing programmed cell death, with non-tumor cells proving significantly to be more resistant to the toxin [73, 80]. More recently the anti-tumor therapeutic activity of this toxin was also proved *in vivo*, using a melanoma allograft model in mice [81]. These results are quite interesting also in light of the fact that different molecules produced by other ciliate species show some particular pharmacological properties such as the sesquiterpenoid euplotin C or the cell type-specific signaling protein pheromone

#### *Predator-Prey Interactions in Ciliated Protists DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78622*

*Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites - Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological...*

that this contraction is induced by the discharge of extrusomes by *C. virens* [77]. If this is the case, it is likely that the cortical granules of *C. virens* could be equally used

*Hazy cloud consisting of needle-like structures discharged from the toxicysts of* Dileptus margaritifer*.*

*Predator-prey interaction between* Dileptus margaritifer *and* Climacostomum virens*. (A)* Dileptus *(the slender cell at the center) starts swimming backward after hitting with the proboscis* Climacostomum*. A small bulge (arrow) is developing on the surface of the* Climacostomum *at the site where the proboscis has just hit. (B) The same cells as in A, about a second later, show the retreated* Dileptus *and a small cloud (arrow) near the* Climacostomum*. Dark field micrographs of living cells. Magnification ×70. Pictures from [75].*

as multifunctional extrusomes, both for chemical defense and offense.

**30**

**Figure 19.**

*Magnification ×720. Pictures from [75].*

**Figure 18.**

Besides the natural role of climacostol and thanks to the availability of a straightforward method for its chemical synthesis [78], other bioactivities of the toxin and its potential application to human health are, to date, investigated in various biological systems. The toxicity of climacostol proves very effective against pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria such as *Staphylococcus aureus* or *S. pneumoniae* and against a fungal pathogen, *Candida albicans* [79]. In addition, on the basis of the anticancer properties of other resorcinolic lipids, the toxic potential of climacostol is also studied against cancerous and non-cancerous mammalian cells, including human cell lines. The results show that climacostol effectively inhibits the growth of some tumor cell lines in a dose-dependent manner by inducing programmed cell death, with non-tumor cells proving significantly to be more resistant to the toxin [73, 80]. More recently the anti-tumor therapeutic activity of this toxin was also proved *in vivo*, using a melanoma allograft model in mice [81]. These results are quite interesting also in light of the fact that different molecules produced by other ciliate species show some particular pharmacological properties such as the sesquiterpenoid euplotin C or the cell type-specific signaling protein pheromone *Er-1* from *Euplotes* species (see [82] for a review).

Returning to the topic of this chapter, different secondary metabolites have been also isolated and characterized from other heterotrics, such as *Spirostomum ambiguum, and S. teres*. *S. ambiguum* (**Figure 20**) is a colorless freshwater species and one of the largest and elongated existing ciliates (800–2000 × 48–60 μm). The species is very common in the sludge-water contact zone of wells, ponds, sewage ponds, lakes, oxbows, ditches, and in the sediments of alpha- to beta-mesosaprobien rivers [77]. The defensive function of its cortical granules was recently demonstrated against different predators and the toxicity of its content was tested on a panel of freshwater ciliates [77, 83]. *S. ambiguum* has numerous cortical granules which, under a phase contrast microscope, appear as dots placed in the region between ciliary lines that could be observed in a large transparent contractile vacuole placed at

**Figure 20.** *External morphology of living cells of* Spirostomum ambiguum*. Scale bar = 200* μ*m.*

the posterior end of the cell (**Figure 21A**) [77]. The cold-shock method was applied to *S. ambiguum* to obtain the cortical granule-deficient cells, which showed a markedly reduced number of extrusomes (**Figure 21B**). Both untreated and cortical granule-deficient cells were exposed to the attack of *C. virens*, and when the buccal apparatus of the predator makes contact with an untreated cell of *S. ambiguum,* it showed a rapid contraction while the predator swam backwards (**Figure 22A**). Similarly to untreated cells, cortical granule-deficient cells of *S. ambiguum* also showed rapid contraction after attack by *C. virens*, but they were successfully captured and sucked up by the predator into its buccal cavity (**Figure 22B**) [77]. The toxin involved in this interaction was purified by reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), and its structural characterization was carried out through nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS) measurements and revealed as 2-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)benzene-1,4-diol(mono-prenyl hydroquinone) (**Figure 14**). Prenylated-hydroquinone derivatives are metabolites of abundant occurrence and have been isolated from fungi, algae, plants, animals, and bacteria [77]. In this case the involvement of this molecule in predator-prey interaction is clear. Interestingly, another freshwater species of the genus *Spirostomum, S. teres,* possesses a different colorless toxin used for defense, characterized as spiro[(2,5-dimethyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalene-1,4-dione)-8,6′-(pyrane2',5′-dione)] and named spirostomin (**Figure 14**) [84]. It is no novelty that closely related organisms can produce different or even biogenetically distant specific secondary metabolites [77], and it is very common for ciliates [56]. To date, the only reported exception to this phenomenon is related to the genus *Blepharisma* in which the three species *B. japonicum, B. stoltei* and *B. undulans* share the same mixture of blepharismins even if produced in different proportions [56].


**3. Altruism**

Although there are partial similarities in the assessment of potential organ donors, there are regional differences in how assessments are carried out. The criteria explaining who is allowed to donate and who will be disqualified as a donor also differ.

Family members who make an organ donation will benefit from a successful organ transplant operation to their loved ones, which can be effective in the risk and benefit discussion during the approval process. It may be necessary to limit the sacrifice allowed. For example, while we do not accept a living heart donor for obvious reasons, we know that most donors can live with a single kidney.

It is difficult to predict whether a particular organ donation is an altruistic act because while most recipients benefit from the transplant, the recipient may be in a worse condition if an organ is rejected or the operation fails. As an altruistic action/ practice is judged by the outcome, it is difficult to pre-operationally determine whether any special donation proposal is acceptable. Altruism is one of the basic principles of organ transplantation. In organ transplantation;

1. altruistic action must be an action that leads to an outcome,

2.the action should be directly linked to the aim,

*Coupling and Deviating of Altruism-Voluntariness Relationship in Organ Transplantation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95895*

## **3.1 Definitions of altruism and altruism in the context of organ transplantation**

Merriam-Webster dictionary defines altruism as unselfish respect and commitment to the well-being of others [10]. The Contemporary Turkish Dictionary of the Turkish Language Association defines the concept of altruism as "the state of being altruistic, selflessness". The synonyms of altruist and altruism are given as selfless and selflessness. According to the same dictionary, an altruist is a person who tries to be useful to someone else without pursuing any personal benefits [11].

The word altruism is derived from the word alter, which comes from Latin meaning "other". In the 1830s, Auguste Comte used this word as a general term to mean "care for others". While altruism often points out to sparing thought for another, people can self-sacrifice due to environmental pressure while taking an altruistic approach. While volunteering and personal preference come to the fore in altruism, it may be possible for the person to act as a donor even if they are not willing. If a person acts with completely altruistic motives, that is, if the self-seeking motives are completely absent, we can define this action as a "pure" state of altruism. We must be careful to distinguish purely altruistic behavior from self-sacrificing behavior: the former does not pursue personal gains, while the latter involves some loss. Altruism is the opposite of egoism. However, the person who transcends egoism can be altruistic. A person, not who takes action in a situation where their interests are not harmed at all, but who does what is necessary in a situation that touches their own interests or who can do what should be done and act fairly will be altruistic.

Sacrifice can be seen as a manifestation of individual autonomy. In this case, it is necessary to accept a certain risk in advance. It is unavoidable that the operation to be performed to remove the transplantable graft is risky even if the donor's health is excellent. The short-term mortality risk for living kidney donors is roughly the same as the risk taken by any patient under general anesthesia. People take risks in their daily lives, which are far greater than the risks often imposed by donor surgery, with little or no direct benefit to their health. The risk of damage from kidney donation is much less compared to the many risks we all face in daily life. Therefore, if both the donor and the recipient are informed about the risks of the surgery, the long-term outcomes of the donation, and the forecast of factors that may affect the success of the transplant, the living organ donation will not push the limits of an acceptable sacrifice.

Schopenhauer mentions denial of the will, silencing the ego, and transcending egoism, which are essential for the existence of freedom, justice, and love in the world and says that this can occur in two ways: by gaining knowledge of the suffering of others or by the person's own great suffering. Schopenhauer says that the vast majority of those who deny the will achieve it in the latter way; not only by the acquisition of knowledge but also by the experience of pain. According to Kant I, the fact that action or the will at the basis of the action is determined by the self-love of maxims makes that action unethical. Therefore, it would not be wrong to say that morality and freedom can only be achieved when the person who determines the actions does not have desires and tendencies [8].

If a social behavior decreases the appropriateness of the organism performing the behavior but increases the suitability of others, it is considered an altruistic behavior. Although the concept of altruism was first introduced within the discipline of sociology, today it is frequently used in fields, such as sociology, psychology, theology, and education. Definitions of altruism handled in different perspectives and different disciplines naturally vary, too. In almost all disciplines, altruism is not understood as showing helping behavior without an expectation of personal reward or benefit. Should altruism be understood as the individual's consideration of well-being of others as much as his/her own or as seeing the well-being of others above his/her own? If a person sees others' well-being over/before his/her own, he/she will be seen to be sacrificing for others without expecting a response. When altruistic behavior is shown with the expectation of gaining benefit from the person sacrificing, this situation may sometimes appear in the form of cooperation or showing off.

Since the altruism in question here is realized with the expectation of selfinterest, this situation is based on mutual altruism, and it can be said that altruism is a kind of strategy that aims to gain respect in society. Gaining public reputation and the desire to benefit from the new opportunities that society offers to them can also support this type of behavior. The person who acts altruistically in the latter form of altruistic behavior, which is based on volunteering without any expectation of benefit, and where the motivation to live for others is dominant, does not seek reward, and deterrent effects do not influence him/her in any way. It should not be forgotten that in the domain between these two views regarding altruism, a spiritual gain to be obtained from the person who has sacrificed will be dominant. It is in this domain that one's moral gains in return for altruistic behavior are called theological and moral altruism [12].

The most important factor that distinguishes altruism from other purposive behaviors such as "helping" and "obeying social rules" is that the altruist sacrifices something from themselves and takes on a burden depending on their behaviors. This burden distinguishes altruistic behavior from individual behavior, such as "benevolent" or "kind, manners". The behavior of the altruist, which emerges in social life and is "for the benefit of someone else but brings harm to themselves", varies by the conditions, the cause that leads to the behavior, and the behavior process. For this reason, the concept of altruism also swings between Kropotkin's understanding of absolute altruism [13] and mutual altruism approaches based on expectations.

Pro-social behaviors include behaviors that may be for the benefit of another person or a group, which are shown without being under pressure and voluntarily. Bierhoff [14] distinguishes helping behavior, pro-social behavior, and altruistic behavior as follows. Helping is a broad term covering all types of interpersonal support. Pro-social behavior is a rather narrower concept than helping because the action is intended to improve the status of the recipient, and the recipient is not an institution but a person. Altruism, on the other hand, is pro-social behavior, which means that with an additional restriction, the motivation of the person who helps is determined by perspective acquisition and empathy.

The proportion of healthy adults who are potentially able to donate kidneys is greater than the number of deaths under conditions that comply with a donation. The number of people willing to donate instead is limited. It is not surprising that a healthy person may be reluctant to undergo surgery without clinical benefit, and some donors in most countries donate to family or close friends. Some factors affecting this situation, such as the number of people waiting for transplantation and the benefits of organ donation, can be presented through various channels, and this can highlight the person in terms of donation. Some organ donation campaigns