**DISTILLATION – ADVANCES FROM MODELING TO APPLICATIONS**

Edited by **Sina Zereshki**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/2396 Edited by Sina Zereshki

#### **Contributors**

José Del Carmen Zavala Loría, Asteria Narváez García, Sergio Nicolau Freire Bruno, Christopher Chintua Enweremadu, Susanne Wagner, Angela Pfleger, Mandl Michael, Herbert Boechzelt, Pelin Onsekizoglu, Stefan Toepfl, Toshio Hasegawa, Poppy Intan Tjahaja, Feng Wang, Steven C Cermak, James Kenar, Roque Evangelista, Vu Trieu Minh, Ana Briones, Juan Úbeda, Luis Hernandez-Gomez

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**1. Introduction**

210 Distillation – Advances from Modeling to Applications

materials can be clarified by microscale fractional bulb-to-bulb distillation. To determine important components in natural materials with complex compositions, the method presented in this chapter is useful not only for perfumery chemicals but for many substances

I would like to thank Hideo Yamada at Yamada-matsu Co., Ltd., for providing plant specimens and contributing to sensory evaluations and fruitful discussions. I also would

Hamm, S; Bleton, J; Connan, J.; Tchapla A. (2005) *Phytochemistry*, pp. 1499-1514, ISSN 0031-

Hasegawa, T.; Kikuchi, A.; Yamada, H. (2011) *The Journal of Essential Oil Research, 2011 ISEO*

Hasegawa, T.; Toriyama, T.; Ohshima, N.; Tajima, Y.; Mimura, I.; Hirota, K.; Nagasaki, Y.;

Mertens, M.; Buettner, A.; Kirchhoff, E. (2009) *Flavour and Fragrance Journal* Vol. 24, pp. 279-

Nabeta, K.; Kawauchi, J.; Sakurai, M. (1993) *Development in Food Science*, Vol. *32*, pp. 577-589,

Singh, M.; Sharma, S.; Ramesh, S. (2002) *Industrial Crops and Products*, Vol. *16*, pp. 101-107,

Weyerstahl, P.; Marschall, H.; Splittgerber, U.; Wolf, D.; Surburg, H. (2000) *Flavour and*

Yamada, H. (2011) *Flavour and Fragrance Journal,* Vol.26, pp. 98-100, ISSN 0882-5734.

like to thank Shohei Tamada for work in early experiments on vetiver.

Anonis, D. P. (2004) *Perfumer & Flavorist*, Vol. *29*, pp. 30-36, ISSN 0272-2666.

*Fragrance Journal* Vol. 15, pp. 395-412, ISSN 0882-5734.

in natural products chemistry.

**4. Acknowledgments**

**5. References**

9422.

*Abstracts*, p. 8, ISSN 1041-2905.

300, ISSN 0882-5734.

ISSN 0167-4501.

ISSN 0926-6690.

Mass transport processes in the food industry are mostly based on the diffusion of soluble products out of food tissue. The main barrier for the diffusion is the biological membrane separating the inner cellular material from the outside. A rupture of the membrane results in an enhanced diffusion rate resulting in a higher yield of the product located in the cell. Most methods used for disintegration of cellular material are mechanical, chemical or thermal based treatments. A new promising technique for cell rupture is the application of pulsed electric fields (PEF). The product is treated with pulses of microseconds at a high electric field strength. The electric field affects the cell membrane of the biological tissue in order to increase the permeability resulting in pore formation. Pore formation facilitates the diffusion process. Moderate PEF settings are used to achieve a disintegration of the cellular material. Some researchers define a moderate PEF treatment by applying a field strength of 0,5 to 1,0 kV/cm and treatment times in a range of 100 and 10.000 µs. The same effects were obtained by other researchers using electric field strengths of 1 to 10 kV/cm and shorter treatment times in the range of 5 to 100 µs (Schilling et al., 2007; Corrales et al., 2008; López et al., 2009).

It has been reported that PEF induces an increase of the mass transfer process resulting in a higher extraction of different intracellular materials, such as sucrose from sugar beet, betalains from red beetroot or polyphenols from grapes during the wine production. An increase in the extraction yield of juices from different fruits and vegetables has also been noted. The drying process can also be improved by PEF application. The reduction in the drying time yields a better end product quality. For example an accelerated osmotic dehydration and drying was reported for different fruits and vegetables, such as potatoes and pepper. An improvement of the distillation processes by PEF, for example distillation of rose oil was also reported.

The following chapter describes in detail the effect of PEF on the mass transfer and the related application fields.

#### **2. Principle of action of cell disintegration using PEF technology**

The application of PEF using short pulses of a high voltage affects the membrane of a cell resulting in a permeabilisation of the biological membranes.

Mass Transport Improvement by PEF –

of cellular material by PEF (Dobreva et al., 2010).

**3. Determination of cell disintegration index**

(Dimitrov 1984).

1988).

disintegration.

Applications in the Area of Extraction and Distillation 213

as a process condition leads to a lower critical potential if long pulse durations are applied

The induced pore formation by the external electric field leads to an increase of the permeability of the membrane. Due to the intensity of the pulses reversible and irreversible pores can be formed. Reversible pores are formed, applying less energy than the critical potential. Using that intensity of the electric pulses stress reactions in plant cells can be induced and the production of secondary metabolites can be stimulated (Schilling et al., 2007). If the intensity of the electric pulses exceeds the critical potential irreversible pores are formed, which causes lethal cell damages. This potential can be applied to inactivate pathogen and non-pathogenic microorganisms or to facilitate the mass transfer and to improve the diffusion of intra- and extracellular liquids. The result of a facilitated mass transfer and improved diffusion is a facilitated distillation process due to the disintegration

Consequently applying PEF using intensities higher than the critical value two different effects can be observed. On the one hand inactivation of microorganisms (Heinz et al., 2001; Toepfl et al., 2007) and on the other hand the cell disintegration (Angersbach&Heinz 1997; Angersbach et al., 2000). The difference between these two effects is the applied intensity of the electric field and the specific energy, which represents two of the main process parameters of a PEF treatment. The electric field strength is defined as the electric potential difference (U) for two given electrodes in space divided by the distance (d) between them, separated by a non-conductive material (Zhang et al., 1995). The specific energy describes the intensity of the treatment with high intensity pulses and is expressed in kJ/kg. Because of the small size of the microorganisms and the composition of their membranes, a high energy input is required for a successful inactivation (Glaser et al.,

For a microbiological inactivation of different vegetative microorganisms, which has been widely demonstrated by various researchers (Álvarez et al., 2000; Toepfl et al., 2007) an electric field strength of 15 to 20 kV/cm and a specific energy of 40 to 1000 kJ/kg is required. In contrast for a disintegration of cellular material lower values for electric field strength (range of 0,7 to 3 kV/cm) and a specific energy (range of 1 to 20 kJ/kg) is required (Corrales et al., 2008). The comparison of the values shows less energy is required for cell

The application of PEF induces a polarization of the cellular membrane resulting in an increased trans membrane potential. The increase leads to a rapid electrical breakdown and to local structural changes in the membrane. The result of the applied external electric field is the formation of pores related to an increase of permeability of the membrane. A permeabilisation influences the diffusion processes, for example increasing the extraction yield and shortening the distillation time. To make the best use of the permeabilisation, a maximum of cell disintegration is required. But it has to be noted that cell permeabilisation by PEF leads to a softer structure. An optimum for the PEF settings (process parameters) has to be defined as for some liquid solid separation techniques a too soft texture may be limiting. Up to now different methods are available to measure the permeability of membranes. Microscopic methods can be

The membrane acts as a semi permeable barrier for the intra- and extracellular transport of ions and macromolecules. The membrane can be considered as a capacitor filled with dielectric material of low electrical conductance and a dielectric constant in the range of 2 (Castro et al., 1993; Barbosa-Cánovas et al., 1999). The accumulation of the free charges in- and outside the cell leads to the formation of a concentration gradient, which is called trans membrane potential. The resulting voltage varied in a range from 20 to 50 mV (Wilhelm et al., 1993).

The exposure of the cell to an electric field with a specific intensity causes a movement of the charges along the electric field lines, which results in an induction of an additional potential. The trans membrane potential increased due to the electric field up to a value of 1 V (Zimmermann et al., 1976; Weaver 2000). The action of polarizing the cell is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Induction of cell polarization caused by PEF application (adapted from (Dimitrov 1995))

The polarization of the membrane is related to an increase of conductivity of the membrane in the range of more than 1 S/cm² (Dimitrov 1984; Tsong 1991; Wilhelm et al., 1993). Due to this increase the resistance of the membrane decreases and results in dramatic change in permeability for potassium and sodium (Pliquett et al., 2007). The higher permeability leads to a dielectric breakdown of the cell, which occurs at different electric potentials depending on the electrical pulse duration (Dimitrov 1984).

Due to the polarization of the membrane, which is related to the movement of free charges, forms electro compressive forces causing the local dielectric rupture of the membrane. Dielectric rupture is the formation of pores and a drastic increase of permeability, which can be termed as dielectric breakdown (Zimmermann et al., 1976). This electro mechanical process is still the most accepted explanation for describing the effect of applying an external electric field on biological cells. Other theories describe the membrane as a viscoelastic model with fluctuating surfaces. The external applied electric field induces reorientation and deterioration of the membrane molecules resulting in pore formation and also the expansion of the pores leading to mechanical breakdown of the membrane (Dimitrov 1984).

The electric breakdown occurs if the applied electrical potential exceeds a critical value, which is termed the critical potential. Temperature, cell size and shape as well as medium and process conditions are influencing factors for the critical potential. The pulse duration

The membrane acts as a semi permeable barrier for the intra- and extracellular transport of ions and macromolecules. The membrane can be considered as a capacitor filled with dielectric material of low electrical conductance and a dielectric constant in the range of 2 (Castro et al., 1993; Barbosa-Cánovas et al., 1999). The accumulation of the free charges in- and outside the cell leads to the formation of a concentration gradient, which is called trans membrane potential. The resulting voltage varied in a range from 20 to 50 mV (Wilhelm et al., 1993).

The exposure of the cell to an electric field with a specific intensity causes a movement of the charges along the electric field lines, which results in an induction of an additional potential. The trans membrane potential increased due to the electric field up to a value of 1 V (Zimmermann et al., 1976; Weaver 2000). The action of polarizing the cell is illustrated in

Fig. 1. Induction of cell polarization caused by PEF application (adapted from (Dimitrov

on the electrical pulse duration (Dimitrov 1984).

The polarization of the membrane is related to an increase of conductivity of the membrane in the range of more than 1 S/cm² (Dimitrov 1984; Tsong 1991; Wilhelm et al., 1993). Due to this increase the resistance of the membrane decreases and results in dramatic change in permeability for potassium and sodium (Pliquett et al., 2007). The higher permeability leads to a dielectric breakdown of the cell, which occurs at different electric potentials depending

Due to the polarization of the membrane, which is related to the movement of free charges, forms electro compressive forces causing the local dielectric rupture of the membrane. Dielectric rupture is the formation of pores and a drastic increase of permeability, which can be termed as dielectric breakdown (Zimmermann et al., 1976). This electro mechanical process is still the most accepted explanation for describing the effect of applying an external electric field on biological cells. Other theories describe the membrane as a viscoelastic model with fluctuating surfaces. The external applied electric field induces reorientation and deterioration of the membrane molecules resulting in pore formation and also the expansion of the pores leading to mechanical breakdown of the membrane

The electric breakdown occurs if the applied electrical potential exceeds a critical value, which is termed the critical potential. Temperature, cell size and shape as well as medium and process conditions are influencing factors for the critical potential. The pulse duration

Fig. 1.

1995))

(Dimitrov 1984).

as a process condition leads to a lower critical potential if long pulse durations are applied (Dimitrov 1984).

The induced pore formation by the external electric field leads to an increase of the permeability of the membrane. Due to the intensity of the pulses reversible and irreversible pores can be formed. Reversible pores are formed, applying less energy than the critical potential. Using that intensity of the electric pulses stress reactions in plant cells can be induced and the production of secondary metabolites can be stimulated (Schilling et al., 2007). If the intensity of the electric pulses exceeds the critical potential irreversible pores are formed, which causes lethal cell damages. This potential can be applied to inactivate pathogen and non-pathogenic microorganisms or to facilitate the mass transfer and to improve the diffusion of intra- and extracellular liquids. The result of a facilitated mass transfer and improved diffusion is a facilitated distillation process due to the disintegration of cellular material by PEF (Dobreva et al., 2010).

Consequently applying PEF using intensities higher than the critical value two different effects can be observed. On the one hand inactivation of microorganisms (Heinz et al., 2001; Toepfl et al., 2007) and on the other hand the cell disintegration (Angersbach&Heinz 1997; Angersbach et al., 2000). The difference between these two effects is the applied intensity of the electric field and the specific energy, which represents two of the main process parameters of a PEF treatment. The electric field strength is defined as the electric potential difference (U) for two given electrodes in space divided by the distance (d) between them, separated by a non-conductive material (Zhang et al., 1995). The specific energy describes the intensity of the treatment with high intensity pulses and is expressed in kJ/kg. Because of the small size of the microorganisms and the composition of their membranes, a high energy input is required for a successful inactivation (Glaser et al., 1988).

For a microbiological inactivation of different vegetative microorganisms, which has been widely demonstrated by various researchers (Álvarez et al., 2000; Toepfl et al., 2007) an electric field strength of 15 to 20 kV/cm and a specific energy of 40 to 1000 kJ/kg is required. In contrast for a disintegration of cellular material lower values for electric field strength (range of 0,7 to 3 kV/cm) and a specific energy (range of 1 to 20 kJ/kg) is required (Corrales et al., 2008). The comparison of the values shows less energy is required for cell disintegration.


**3.2 Experimental procedure**

The polymerization of PPy films was carried out using a computer-controlled potentiogalvanostat (Hokuto Denko HZ-5000). A counter electrode (Ti), a reference electrode (Ag/AgCl), and a working electrode (Ti) were immersed into methyl benzoate solutions of 0.25 M pyrrole and 0.2 M N,N-diethyl-N-methyl-N-(2-methoxyethyl)ammonium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, and the potential voltage was controlled to keep a constant current of 0.2 mAcm-2 for 4 h at 20 oC between the counter electrode and the working electrode. The thickness of the PPy films was measured to be approximately 150 m using a micrometer. The obtained films were peeled off from the electrode, rinsed with acetone, and dried in air. The PPy films were cut into 20 x 5 mm2 strips to form the PPy actuators.

The actuator characterization system that utilizes a balance to measure the expansion and contraction ratios under load stress was described in Fig. 2.4. (Morita et al., 2010, Chida et al., 2010). The PPy actuator was used as the working electrode in the 1 M LiTFSI aqueous electrolyte solutions containing 2-propanol at various concentrations of 0, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, and 100%. Both of the PPy actuator ends were clipped with two metal plates. The PPy actuator exhibited the expansion and contraction motions under the alternating potential with the triangular wave shape applied between the PPy actuator and the counter electrode. The potential voltage difference between the PPy actuator and the electrolyte solution was monitored using the Ag/AgCl reference electrode. The peak values of the potential voltage

to decrease within the voltage swing (-1 V to + 1 V) for 15 cycles. Thus, it may possible to conclude that the corrugated PPy actuator have better performances than those of the plane

**3. Effect of 2-propanol concentration in electrolyte solution on polypyrrole**

Recently, it has been reported that some PPy actuators exhibit strains of more than 10%, and that some of those even achieved strains of up to 40% (Hara et al., 2004). The improved strain has been mostly achieved using an electrolyte of tetra-n-butylammonium bis(trifluoromethansulfonyl)imide (TBATFSI) during PPy electropolymerization. These

Hara et al. reported that their TFSI-doped porous PPy films exhibited increased deformation when their aqueous lithium bis(trifluoromethansulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) electrolyte solutions contained propylene carbonate (Hara et al., 2004). They attributed those effects to the swelling of the PPy film caused by the penetration of propylene carbonate. The swelled PPy film could more easily pass TFSI anions. We also immersed TFSI-doped PPy films into several organic chemicals, and found that the PPy films showed notable swelling in 2 propanol (Hoshino et al., 2011). Therefore, it was interesting to investigate whether the PPy actuators show improved deformation behaviors in aqueous LiTFSI solutions containing 2 propanol. In this section, the electrochemical deformation characteristics of TFSI-doped PPy soft actuators in aqueous LiTFSI solutions with different 2-propanol concentrations are

The polymerization of PPy films was carried out using a computer-controlled potentiogalvanostat (Hokuto Denko HZ-5000). A counter electrode (Ti), a reference electrode (Ag/AgCl), and a working electrode (Ti) were immersed into methyl benzoate solutions of 0.25 M pyrrole and 0.2 M N,N-diethyl-N-methyl-N-(2-methoxyethyl)ammonium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, and the potential voltage was controlled to keep a constant current of 0.2 mAcm-2 for 4 h at 20 oC between the counter electrode and the working electrode. The thickness of the PPy films was measured to be approximately 150 m using a micrometer. The obtained films were peeled off from the electrode, rinsed with acetone, and dried in air. The PPy films were cut into 20 x 5 mm2 strips to form the PPy

The actuator characterization system that utilizes a balance to measure the expansion and contraction ratios under load stress was described in Fig. 2.4. (Morita et al., 2010, Chida et al., 2010). The PPy actuator was used as the working electrode in the 1 M LiTFSI aqueous electrolyte solutions containing 2-propanol at various concentrations of 0, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, and 100%. Both of the PPy actuator ends were clipped with two metal plates. The PPy actuator exhibited the expansion and contraction motions under the alternating potential with the triangular wave shape applied between the PPy actuator and the counter electrode. The potential voltage difference between the PPy actuator and the electrolyte solution was monitored using the Ag/AgCl reference electrode. The peak values of the potential voltage

actuators generally function under a low potential voltage range less than 1 V.

PPy actuator.

**3.1 Introduction**

reported.

actuators.

**3.2 Experimental procedure**

**actuator performance**

were -1 and +1 V, and the potential sweep rate was 10 mVs-1. The extension and contraction of the PPy actuator was measured by monitoring the displacement of the weight position using a laser displacement sensor (Keyence LE-4000). Moreover, a load stress of 0.3 MPa was applied on the PPy actuator by placing corresponding weights on the saucer of the balance.


**Meet the editor**

Dr. Mahmood Aliofkhazraei works in the Corrosion and Surface Engineering Group at the Tarbiat Modares University, Iran. He is the head of Aliofkhazraei research group www.aliofkhazraei.com. Dr. Aliofkhazraei has received several honors, including the Khwarizmi award and the best young nanotechnologist award of Iran. He is a member of the National Association of Surface

Sciences, Iranian Corrosion Association, and National Elite Foundation of Iran. His research focuses on materials science, nanotechnology and its use in surface and corrosion science.

## Contents

#### **Preface XI**

**at 1550°C 357** R. Khanna, I. Mansuri and V. Sahajwalla

### Preface

Chapter 10 **Influence of Wettability and Reactivity on Refractory**

**Steelmaking Refractories at 1550°C 271** R. Khanna, M. Ikram-ul-Haq and V. Sahajwalla

Chapter 11 **The Wetting of Leaf Surfaces and Its Ecological**

Huixia Wang, Hui Shi and Yanhui Wang

Chapter 12 **Wettability and Other Surface Properties of Modified**

Chapter 13 **Wettability of Carbonaceous Materials with Molten Iron**

R. Khanna, I. Mansuri and V. Sahajwalla

**Significances 295**

**VI** Contents

**Polymers 323**

Vaclav Svorcik

**at 1550°C 357**

**Degradation – Interactions of Molten Iron and Slags with**

Nikola Slepickova Kasalkova, Petr Slepicka, Zdenka Kolska and

Each substance has an end at a point or place. This point or place is the surface and it is not an actual end point; but it is a point to distinguish two states or physical concepts. On the surface of a liquid, the molecules have fewer neighbors in comparison with the bulk vol‐ ume. As a result the energy interaction shows its self in the surface tension, a force which is being applied to decrease the area of the free surface of the liquid. Traditionally, the surface tension can be assumed as a force in the unit of the length which can be counted by the unit of Newton on squared meter, or energy on the units of the surface. The surface tension, im‐ plies the interface between liquid and vapor, which is an example of the surface tensions. The equilibrium between these surface tensions, decides that a droplet on a solid surface, would have a droplet form or will change to layer form. As we saw in the recently publish‐ ed papers, the lexicology of the word "wettability" has not been clearly paraphrased.

This book collects new developments in wetting and wettability science. I like to express my gratitude to all of the contributors for their high quality manuscripts. I hope open access format of this book will help all researchers and that they will benefit from this collection.

> **Dr. Mahmood Aliofkhazraei** Tarbiat Modares University Iran www.aliofkhazraei.com

### **Water Vapor Adsorption and Soil Wetting**

#### Abdelmonem Mohamed Ahmed Amer

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60953

#### **Abstract**

Soil water management and irrigation practices largely depend on a timely and accurate characterization of temporal and spatial soil moisture dynamics in the root zone. Consequently, measurements and detailed information about soil water sorption, water content, behavior, and potential are required. In that concern, water vapor adsorption is an important phenomenon in arid and semi-arid regions, as well as in dry periods of tropical soils. Therefore, quantifying adsorption is important for agricultural water management, surface energy balance studies, ecological studies, and remote sensing investigations (changes in surface soil moisture content will affect land surface properties such as albedo, emissivity, and thermal inertia). The vapor pressure and isothermal adsorption of water vapor can be used to predict soil moisture adsorption capacity (*Wa*), specific surface area, and hydro-physical properties of arid soils such as in Egypt and in the tropical soils in Ecuador. Theory of adsorption of water vapor on soil particles is developed among the mono-molecular and poly-molecular adsorption with respect to Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) theory. Data of soil-water adsorption (W%) at different relative vapor pressures (P/Po) can be obtained for the soils, where the W% values are increased with increasing P/Po in general. The highest values of water adsorption capacity (*Wa*), specific surface area (S), and other hygrophysical properties such as adsorbed layers and maximum hygroscopic water are observed in the clay depths of soil profiles, while the lowest values can be found in coarse textured soils (sandy and sandy loam soils profiles). Two equations were assumed: (1) to predict P/Po at water adsorption capacity (*Wa*) and (2) to apply *Wa* in prediction of soil moisture retention, i.e., ψ (W) function at pF < 4.5.

**Keywords:** Water adsorption capacity, vapor pressure isotherm, soil hydro-physical properties, specific surface area, poly-molecular adsorption, soil wetting

© 2015 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **1. Introduction**

The depletion in irrigation water in arid and semi-arid regions, as well as in some tropical zones, may be due to the discharge scarcity of water resources in dry periods at which the high temperature and dry weather supports to more evapotranspiration. In that concern, water vapor is adsorbed from the atmosphere by a thin layer of top soil where the amounts of adsorbed water can be considerable, up to 70% of daily evaporation depending on water vapor amount, pressure, and temperature [20, 17, 1].

Adsorbed water on soil surface layer can be caused not only by vapor adsorption but also by dew deposition. Dew deposition is a phenomenon recorded for most soil and climate types [16]. It occurs with decreasing the temperature, particularly during the night, when dew point is reached and it results in a discernible wetting of the surface.

The vapor pressure and isothermal adsorption of water vapor is used to predict soil moisture adsorption capacity (*Wa*) and the specific surface area (S). The specific surface area is closely related to the physic-chemical soil properties, which refer to the absence or presence of internal pores. It can be used to evaluate quality, fertility, chemical reactions, and mineralogical composition of soils and subsequently, its nutrition elements status for crop production.

#### **2. Water vapor pressure**

According to the kinetic theory, molecules in a liquid are in continuous motion reflecting their thermal energy. Occasionally, one or another of the molecules absorbs sufficient momentum to leap out of the liquid into the atmosphere above it. The relative movement rates of molecules depend upon the concentration of vapor in the atmosphere relative to its concentration at a state of equilibrium (i.e., when the movement in both directions of water and air is equal). An atmosphere that is at equilibrium with a body of pure water that is at atmospheric pressure is considered to be saturated with water vapor; the partial pressure of the vapor in such an atmosphere is called the saturation (or equilibrium) vapor pressure. The vapor pressure at equilibrium with any body of water depends upon the physical condition of the water (pressure and temperature) and its chemical condition (solutes), but does not depend on the absolute or relative quantity of liquid or gas in the system [11]. The saturation vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature. If the temperature range is not too wide, the depend‐ ence of saturation vapor pressure on temperature is expressible by the equation:

$$\text{In Pa }\text{Po} = \text{ a} - \text{ b} / T \tag{1}$$

where *ln Po* is the logarithm to the base "e" of the saturation vapor pressure Po, *T* is the absolute temperature, and *a* and *b* are constants.

#### **3. Atmospheric humidity**

**1. Introduction**

2 Wetting and Wettability

amount, pressure, and temperature [20, 17, 1].

**2. Water vapor pressure**

temperature, and *a* and *b* are constants.

is reached and it results in a discernible wetting of the surface.

The depletion in irrigation water in arid and semi-arid regions, as well as in some tropical zones, may be due to the discharge scarcity of water resources in dry periods at which the high temperature and dry weather supports to more evapotranspiration. In that concern, water vapor is adsorbed from the atmosphere by a thin layer of top soil where the amounts of adsorbed water can be considerable, up to 70% of daily evaporation depending on water vapor

Adsorbed water on soil surface layer can be caused not only by vapor adsorption but also by dew deposition. Dew deposition is a phenomenon recorded for most soil and climate types [16]. It occurs with decreasing the temperature, particularly during the night, when dew point

The vapor pressure and isothermal adsorption of water vapor is used to predict soil moisture adsorption capacity (*Wa*) and the specific surface area (S). The specific surface area is closely related to the physic-chemical soil properties, which refer to the absence or presence of internal pores. It can be used to evaluate quality, fertility, chemical reactions, and mineralogical composition of soils and subsequently, its nutrition elements status for crop production.

According to the kinetic theory, molecules in a liquid are in continuous motion reflecting their thermal energy. Occasionally, one or another of the molecules absorbs sufficient momentum to leap out of the liquid into the atmosphere above it. The relative movement rates of molecules depend upon the concentration of vapor in the atmosphere relative to its concentration at a state of equilibrium (i.e., when the movement in both directions of water and air is equal). An atmosphere that is at equilibrium with a body of pure water that is at atmospheric pressure is considered to be saturated with water vapor; the partial pressure of the vapor in such an atmosphere is called the saturation (or equilibrium) vapor pressure. The vapor pressure at equilibrium with any body of water depends upon the physical condition of the water (pressure and temperature) and its chemical condition (solutes), but does not depend on the absolute or relative quantity of liquid or gas in the system [11]. The saturation vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature. If the temperature range is not too wide, the depend‐

ence of saturation vapor pressure on temperature is expressible by the equation:

where *ln Po* is the logarithm to the base "e" of the saturation vapor pressure Po, *T* is the absolute

*ln Po a b T* – / = (1)

Air humidity is expressed by either absolute humidity, which is known by estimation of the amount of water vapor already existing in unit volumes of air, or relative humidity, which is estimated as a percentage of the amount water vapor already existing in unit volumes of air and the amount of water required for the steam to satisfy this volume of air at the same temperature. Generally, the water vapor percentage change from one place to another is less significant in desert areas due to the lack of water, as well as in the polar regions where it is much colder and there is less evaporation and less possibility of the air to bear the water vapor; while water vapor is higher in the air in warm, rainy, and tropical regions [7]. On the other hand, the water vapor density decreases with height greater than the density of the main constituent gases of the air, i.e., when rising from 1.5 to 2 km above sea level, water vapor density is less twice than that of atmospheric layer in contact with the surface of the earth, and vanish at altitudes of more than 10–15 km [8]. In general, at all times and at different temper‐ atures a part of water vapor remains in a gaseous phase even with predominance of conden‐ sation in the air. Therefore, water vapor is considered as one of the air gases component, and has a significant pressure like the rest of the gases in the atmosphere. This pressure (P) is linked to the quantity water vapor (Q) by the relationship [6]:

$$Q = \frac{1.06P}{\left(1 + \alpha \ T\right)}\tag{2}$$

where α represents volumetric expansion coefficient of air (α = 0.004), and T is air temperature. From the relationship, it is clear that Q = P when the temperature rises to 15o C, and thus relative humidity can be expressed in terms water vapor pressure rather than mass (quantity), i.e, relative humidity = actual pressure (P)/pressure saturated (P0).The difference between saturated vapor pressure and actual vapor pressure is represented in the lack of air humidity, which is known as lack of saturation (or saturation deficit). The lack of saturation is equal to zero at the dew point, which means that the air could not carry other amounts of water vapor. The dew point can be obtained when the temperature is reduced to the degree at which the condensation of water vapor begins, and then the saturation pressure is reached. Thus, relative humidity can be expressed as a percentage of the saturated water vapor pressure at the dew point (i.e., at the temperature of condensation) to the saturated water vapor pressure at normal temperature. Thus, it is clear that the saturation of the air with water vapor is directly influ‐ enced by air temperature degree.

#### **4. Water vapor and soil humidity**

Water vapor either reaches the soil from the atmosphere or is formed in the soil by the evaporation of water. The migration of water vapor in soil depends not only on the difference of vapor pressure in different sites, but also on the capacity of soil particle surfaces to attract and absorb the molecules of vapor.

On the other hand, the relative humidity values in soil can be transformed to water potential values ψ(Pa) according to Equation (3) [7, 14]:

$$
\Psi = \frac{RT}{M} \ln \frac{P}{Po} \tag{3}
$$

where *R* is the gas constant (8.31 J mol-1 K-1), *T* is the temperature of the air (K), *M* is the molecular weight of water (0.018015 kg mol-1), and *P* and *P*o are the actual and saturated vapor pressures (Pa), respectively. The term (*P*/*P*o) x100 is equal to relative humidity (H).

However, soil water contains solutes—mainly electrolytic salts—in highly variable concen‐ trations. Since the vapor pressure of electrolytic solutions is lower than that of pure water, accordingly, soil water also has a lower vapor pressure even when the soil is saturated. In an unsaturated soil, the capillary and adsorptive effects further lower the potential and the vapor pressure.

**Adsorption** is an interfacial phenomenon resulting from the differential forces of attraction or repulsion occurring among molecules or ions of different phases at their exposed contact surfaces. Consequently, various types of adsorption can occur according to the different phases, such as the adsorption of gasses upon solids, gasses upon liquid surfaces, or liquids upon solids.

A distinction should be made between **adsorption**, being a surface attachment or repulsion, and its complementary term **absorption**, which refers to cases in which one phase penetrates or permeates another. For instance, some of the molecules in the gaseous phase (water vapor) may strike the surface of the liquid (soil moisture) and be absorbed in it. Actually, it is often difficult to separate the phenomenon of adsorption from that of absorption, particularly in the case of highly porous systems, and hence the non-committal term sorption is frequently employed.

On contact of soil particles with water vapor, electro-molecular force of interactions are formed that strongly attract dipoles of water to the surface of mineral particles; and the greater the unit surface area of the particles, the larger the number of water molecules in a bonded state.

#### **5. Soil moisture films and adsorption capacity**

The electro-molecular force is very strong, as much as several hundreds of mega-Pascal (MPa) for the first layer of bonded (adsorbed) molecules of water at the surface of particles. In the layers of water, the 1–3 rows of molecules that are closest to the mineral particle surface are firmly immobile adsorbed water or the so-called **adsorbed films**. Beyond these layers, the interaction forces attenuate rapidly and reach zero at a distance of approximately 0.5 mm from the surface of the mineral particles; and hence, more moisture layers will envelope the particles and form the loosely bonded water or **wetting films**.

Amer [8] studied the molecules layers of the adsorbed films and proved that the three layers of adsorbed water can be expressed in term of soil moisture adsorption capacity (Wa) in the following form:

$$\text{Wa} = \text{Wm} + \text{2Wme} \tag{4}$$

where *Wm* is the moisture content of the soil when water vapor is adsorbed in the monolayer, and *Wme* is the external mono-adsorbed layer of soil moisture content.

The *Wm* and *Wme* are used also to determine total, external, and internal specific surface areas (*S*, *Se*, and *Si*) by applying the BET method (Brunauer et al. [10]) as modified and described by Farrar [12] and Globus [13].

The property of moisture adsorption capacity (*Wa*) can be introduced as the critical limit between adsorbed and absorbed wetting films (pellicles) of soil moisture content, as well as correspond to capillary condensation [7]. However, the *Wa* values can be also derived from the soil moisture tension curve by applying the corresponding values of log (*ψc*) where *ψc* is the capillary condensation attitude [9].

The moisture adsorption capacity (*Wa*), maximum hygroscopic water (*MH*), specific surface area (*S*), and particle size composition are the most important indices characterizing the hygrophysical, physicochemical, and heat properties of soil. Moreover, these parameters are interrelated to each other; therefore, the value of a parameter of them can be obtained from the data of the other parameters.

### **6. Adsorption isotherms and BET theory**

of vapor pressure in different sites, but also on the capacity of soil particle surfaces to attract

On the other hand, the relative humidity values in soil can be transformed to water potential

*RT P M Po*

where *R* is the gas constant (8.31 J mol-1 K-1), *T* is the temperature of the air (K), *M* is the molecular weight of water (0.018015 kg mol-1), and *P* and *P*o are the actual and saturated vapor

However, soil water contains solutes—mainly electrolytic salts—in highly variable concen‐ trations. Since the vapor pressure of electrolytic solutions is lower than that of pure water, accordingly, soil water also has a lower vapor pressure even when the soil is saturated. In an unsaturated soil, the capillary and adsorptive effects further lower the potential and the vapor

**Adsorption** is an interfacial phenomenon resulting from the differential forces of attraction or repulsion occurring among molecules or ions of different phases at their exposed contact surfaces. Consequently, various types of adsorption can occur according to the different phases, such as the adsorption of gasses upon solids, gasses upon liquid surfaces, or liquids

A distinction should be made between **adsorption**, being a surface attachment or repulsion, and its complementary term **absorption**, which refers to cases in which one phase penetrates or permeates another. For instance, some of the molecules in the gaseous phase (water vapor) may strike the surface of the liquid (soil moisture) and be absorbed in it. Actually, it is often difficult to separate the phenomenon of adsorption from that of absorption, particularly in the case of highly porous systems, and hence the non-committal term sorption is frequently

On contact of soil particles with water vapor, electro-molecular force of interactions are formed that strongly attract dipoles of water to the surface of mineral particles; and the greater the unit surface area of the particles, the larger the number of water molecules in a bonded state.

The electro-molecular force is very strong, as much as several hundreds of mega-Pascal (MPa) for the first layer of bonded (adsorbed) molecules of water at the surface of particles. In the layers of water, the 1–3 rows of molecules that are closest to the mineral particle surface are firmly immobile adsorbed water or the so-called **adsorbed films**. Beyond these layers, the interaction forces attenuate rapidly and reach zero at a distance of approximately 0.5 mm from

**5. Soil moisture films and adsorption capacity**

pressures (Pa), respectively. The term (*P*/*P*o) x100 is equal to relative humidity (H).

Y = ln (3)

and absorb the molecules of vapor.

4 Wetting and Wettability

pressure.

upon solids.

employed.

values ψ(Pa) according to Equation (3) [7, 14]:

The relationship between vapor pressure and moisture content is difficult to be deduced by means of thermodynamics but can be obtained experimentally or from theories of soil moisture involving the molecular structure of the water films, whereas, soil sample is maintained in equilibrium with an atmosphere of water vapor, a thin film of moisture is adsorbed on the external surface of the soil particles. So the water vapor adsorption isotherms (at 25o C) on dried soil particles can be determined gravimetrically using different saturated salt solutions that have specific relative water vapour pressure (P/Po) value for each solution. Table 1 shows the values of P/Po for some saturated solutions of salts and also the corresponded chemical potential or its equivalent pressure at 25o C [7].

The vapor adsorption isotherms, specific surface area, moisture adsorption capacity, and hygroscopic parameters of soil have been found to be correlated with soil physical properties such as texture, cohesion, clay percentage, clay minerals, cation exchange capacity, water retention, and permeability. Figure 1 shows the water vapor adsorption isotherms for sandy soils, located at Mláky II near Sekule Bratislava (southwest Slovakia).

**Table 1.** Values of chemical potential *(ψ*) of some saturated solutions of salts and its equivalent pressures to relative vapor pressure at 20 o C.

**Figure 1.** Unpublished data of the relationship between gravimetric adsorbed water (W%) and vapor pressure P/Po in sandy soils (94% sand in average) with plant cover.

On the other hand, Figure 2 shows the adsorption isotherms for the clay minerals. However, a number of theories have been proposed to explain the observed relation between the vapor pressure and moisture content of a soil. The most widely used theory is from Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller [11], whereas they derived what has come to be known as the BET equation based on multilayer adsorption theory. In the BET theory, the explanation proposed for sigmoid type isotherm (Figure 1) is that the adsorption is in multi-molecular layers on the surface rather than a mono-molecular one. Farrar [12] and Amer [9, 8] used the water vapor adsorption isotherm method by applying BET theory based on the assumption that the isotherm is made up of monolayer physical adsorption combined with capillary condensation as follows:

**Salt P/Po**

6 Wetting and Wettability

vapor pressure at 20 o

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

**% GRAVIMETRIC**

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

C.

sandy soils (94% sand in average) with plant cover.

*ψ* **Atm. pF KPa Joule/gm**

K2Cr2O7 0.98 27 4.44 2780 2.78 K2SO4 0.97 43 4.62 4370 4.37 KNO3 0.92 107 5.06 10830 10.83 ZnSO4.7H2O 0.87 188 5.28 19010 19.01 KCl 0.84 233 5.38 23580 23.58 KBr 0.81 292 5.46 29550 29.55 NH4Cl 0.77 348 5.56 35820 35.82 NaCl 0.75 386 5.60 39120 39.12 NaNO3 0.74 413 5.62 41840 41.84 NH4NO3 0.62 653 5.82 66200 66.20 Ca(NO3)2.4H2O 0.50 942 5.98 95530 95.53 K2CO3.2H2O 0.43 1155 6.07 117000 117.00 KCH3COO.1.5H2O 0.22 2031 6.32 205780 205.78 LiCl.H2O 0.12 2781 6.47 292000 292.00

**Table 1.** Values of chemical potential *(ψ*) of some saturated solutions of salts and its equivalent pressures to relative

+ 0.8053x + 0.0045

+ 0.43072x + 0.00023

y = 0.9059x3

y = 0.5976x3

fOREST GLADE MEADOW PURE SAND Poly. (MEADOW) Poly. (GLADE) Poly. (fOREST) Poly. (PURE SAND)

R2 = 0.9941

R2 = 0.9911

+ 0.4986x + 0.0020

+ 0.3681x + 0.0022

y = 1.3566x3

y = 0.64203x3

R2 = 0.9932

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 **P/P0**

**Figure 1.** Unpublished data of the relationship between gravimetric adsorbed water (W%) and vapor pressure P/Po in

R2 = 0.99994

**Figure 2.** Adsorption isotherms for water on different clay minerals (reprinted from Verhoefe, et al., 2006 [20] upon Orchiston, 1954 [19]), P */*Po denote the soil relative humidity.

$$\frac{P}{V\left(1-\frac{P}{Po}\right)} = \frac{1}{Vm\mathcal{C}} + \frac{\mathcal{C}-1}{Vm\mathcal{C}} \cdot \frac{P}{Po} \tag{5}$$

where *V* is the volume of gas adsorbed at pressure *P*, *Vm* is the volume of a single layer of adsorbed molecules over the entire surface of the adsorbent (soil particles), *Po* is the gas pressure required for monolayer saturation at the temperature of the experiment, and C is a constant for the particular gas, adsorbent, and temperature;

$$C = \exp\frac{E1 - El}{RT} \tag{6}$$

whereas, *E1* is adsorption heat of the water adsorbed layer, *EL* is condensation adsorption heat.

At values of *P* that are far from *Ps* and C > 1, adsorption leads to the formation of a monomolecular layer. As *P* approaches *Ps*, the number of free active centers that are always present on the adsorbent surface decreases and the multiplicity of complexes increases. At *P* = *Ps*, the condensation of vapor occurs.

#### **7. Prediction of adsorbed layers (Wm & Wme) and adsorption capacity (Wa)**

In order to estimate *Wm* and *Wme*, and then calculate the soil moisture adsorption capacity (*Wa*), the relation between relative vapor pressure (*P*/*Po*) and moisture content (*W%)* should be experimental, obtained by maintaining a soil sample in isothermal equilibrium with an atmosphere of water vapour.

The following linear form of the BET equation can be applied using the gravimetric of a single layer of adsorbed molecules over the entire surface of the soil particles:

$$\frac{P}{W(Po-P)} = \frac{1}{WmC} + \frac{C-1}{WmC} \cdot \frac{P}{Po} \tag{7}$$

where *W*m is the moisture content when the soil surface is completely covered by a monomo‐ lecular layer of water. *C* is a function of the state of the first adsorbed uni-molecular layer of water and soil particles surface. *W* is adsorbed soil moisture content (%) equilibrated with *P/Po*, whereas P and *P*o are the actual and saturated water vapor pressures. By plotting *P*/*W* (*P*o*−P*) as ordinate versus *P/Po* at the segment 0–0.42 of the adsorption isotherm as abscissa, a straight line would be obtained. The intercept on the y-axis is then 1/*W*m*C* and the slope is *C −* 1*/W*m*C*. Hence *W*m and C can be determined.

To determine *Wme* the BET Equation (7) can be developed with some assumptions to the next form:

$$W = \frac{Wme}{\left(1 - Ke\frac{P}{Po}\right)} \cdot \frac{Ce}{\left(Ce + \frac{Po}{P} - Ke\right)} + Wi \tag{8}$$

At high relative water vapor pressures, it can be assumed that the amount *Ce* (*Ce* <sup>+</sup> *Po <sup>P</sup>* <sup>−</sup> *Ke*) is equal unit, and then Equation (8) becomes:

#### Water Vapor Adsorption and Soil Wetting http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60953 9

$$\mathcal{W} = \frac{\mathcal{W}\_{\text{vac}}}{\left(1 - \mathcal{K}\_{\epsilon}\frac{P}{P\_0}\right)} + \mathcal{W}\_i \tag{9}$$

where the suffixes (e) and (i) refer to the external and internal surfaces, respectively. The values of *Ke* in the indicated P/*P*o range were stated by Farrar [12] as 0.9 *±*0.01; but practically, it seems that *Ke* is an arbitrary coefficient ranged from 0.70 to 0.90 [4].

Equation (9) can be represented in the linear equation y = mx + c, where y = *W*, m = *Wme*, x = 1 / 1 *− K*e*P/P*o, and c = *W*i, so *Wme* can be obtained graphically as the intercept on the y – axis.

From *Wm and Wme* the soil water adsorption capacity (Wa) can be calculated (Equation 4).

#### **8. Soil specific surface area**

retention, and water adsorption capacity (Wa) (Figure 3).

**9. Absorption water in relation to P/Po and pF scale**

� �� ���� � ���

� �

� �

Equation 3 in the following form (pF equation):

��� �� � �

��� � ���� �

where, A = 1/WmC, and B = C-1/WmC

From Equations 7 and 10;

Then at Wa:

(0.50 *<* P/*P*o *>* 1.0):

*E El C exp RT*

condensation of vapor occurs.

8 Wetting and Wettability

atmosphere of water vapour.

1*/W*m*C*. Hence *W*m and C can be determined.

unit, and then Equation (8) becomes:

form:

whereas, *E1* is adsorption heat of the water adsorbed layer, *EL* is condensation adsorption heat.

At values of *P* that are far from *Ps* and C > 1, adsorption leads to the formation of a monomolecular layer. As *P* approaches *Ps*, the number of free active centers that are always present on the adsorbent surface decreases and the multiplicity of complexes increases. At *P* = *Ps*, the

**7. Prediction of adsorbed layers (Wm & Wme) and adsorption capacity (Wa)**

In order to estimate *Wm* and *Wme*, and then calculate the soil moisture adsorption capacity (*Wa*), the relation between relative vapor pressure (*P*/*Po*) and moisture content (*W%)* should be experimental, obtained by maintaining a soil sample in isothermal equilibrium with an

The following linear form of the BET equation can be applied using the gravimetric of a single

*P CP W Po P WmC WmC Po*

where *W*m is the moisture content when the soil surface is completely covered by a monomo‐ lecular layer of water. *C* is a function of the state of the first adsorbed uni-molecular layer of water and soil particles surface. *W* is adsorbed soil moisture content (%) equilibrated with *P/Po*, whereas P and *P*o are the actual and saturated water vapor pressures. By plotting *P*/*W* (*P*o*−P*) as ordinate versus *P/Po* at the segment 0–0.42 of the adsorption isotherm as abscissa, a straight line would be obtained. The intercept on the y-axis is then 1/*W*m*C* and the slope is *C −*

To determine *Wme* the BET Equation (7) can be developed with some assumptions to the next

*Wme Ce <sup>W</sup> Wi P Po Ke Ce Ke Po P*

= + æ öæ <sup>ö</sup> ç ÷ç - +- <sup>÷</sup> è øè <sup>ø</sup>

At high relative water vapor pressures, it can be assumed that the amount *Ce*

layer of adsorbed molecules over the entire surface of the soil particles:

( )

 . 1

<sup>1</sup> - <sup>=</sup> (6)

1 1 . - = + - (7)

(8)

*<sup>P</sup>* <sup>−</sup> *Ke*) is equal

(*Ce* <sup>+</sup> *Po*

The specific surface of the adsorbent (soil) can be calculated by determining the number of molecules (volumetrically or gravimetrically) and multiplying this by the cross-sectional area of the molecules. Assuming that a single water molecule occupies some constant area on the sorbent surface (usually taken as 10.8˚A<sup>2</sup> ), the total specific surface area (*S*) of the soil is then calculated as *S* = 36.16 *Wm* m2 /g, and accordingly, the external specific surface is estimated as *Se* = 36.16 *Wm*e m2 /g.

However, the internal specific surface area (*Si*) may be calculated by the difference between *S* and *Se*.

In general, high clay content in soil means increasing the specific surface areas, hygroscopic water, soil moisture content and retention, and water adsorption capacity (Wa) (Figure 3).

In general, high clay content in soil means increasing the specific surface areas, hygroscopic water, soil moisture content and

**Figure 3.** Clay soil samples were taken at depth ˃ 90 cm from the INIAP research station, Pichilingue, Ecuador ~containing ferrous and ferric minerals with the high values of specific surface area and water adsorption capacity (Final Report by Amer, 2014 [2] - SENESCYT, Prometeo Project, Ecuador). Hygroscopic water exists as a very thin film at the solid-liquid interfaces of the soil particles. At the maximum hygroscopic **Figure 3.** Clay soil samples were taken at depth >90 cm from the INIAP research station, Pichilingue, Ecuador ~con‐ taining ferrous and ferric minerals with the high values of specific surface area and water adsorption capacity (Final Report by Amer, 2014 [2] - SENESCYT, Prometeo Project, Ecuador).

�� (10)

(11)

� and � � �� ��� � ������ � ��� (12)

(13)

water (*MH*), the surface of soil particles is almost completely covered with individual molecules of water. However, it is

� �� � � � � ��

Relative vapor pressure [P/Po]wa at *Wa* is ranged between 0.42 to 0.51, indicating that at this range the soil moisture reach water *adsorption* capacity. Above this range (P/Po ˃ 0.51) the *absorption* process is prevailing. Hence, to predict the soil absorbed water, Equation (7) can be rearranged to be available for application along the range of high relative vapor pressure

On the other hand, soil water potential (ѱ) values corresponded to the total range (0.0 *<* P/*P*o *>* 1.0) can be calculated using

�� � �.��� � ��� �� � ��� �� (14)

Equation (7) can be developed to predict the vapor pressure (*P/Po*) at water adsorption capacity (*Wa*) as follows:

 ���� �� �� � �

known that the maximum hygroscopic water (*MH*) is determined practically at P/Po = 0.98.

���� �

��������� � �

� ��

By applying the intercept (1/Wm) and the slope (C-1/Wm), we can obtain W% at P/Po values.

���� ��� ���. � ��� Hygroscopic water exists as a very thin film at the solid-liquid interfaces of the soil particles. At the maximum hygroscopic water (*MH*), the surface of soil particles is almost completely covered with individual molecules of water. However, it is known that the maximum hygro‐ scopic water (*MH*) is determined practically at P/Po = 0.98.

#### **9. Absorption water in relation to P/Po and pF scale**

Equation (7) can be developed to predict the vapor pressure (*P/Po*) at water adsorption capacity (*Wa*) as follows:

$$\frac{P}{P o} = A + \mathbf{B} \frac{P}{P o} \tag{10}$$

where, A = 1/WmC, and B = C-1/WmC

From Equations 7 and 10;

$$W\left(\frac{Po-P}{Po}\right) = \frac{\frac{P}{Po}}{A + B\frac{P}{Po}}\tag{11}$$

Then at Wa:

$$\text{V}\left(\frac{P}{Po}\right)wa = \frac{P}{Wa\left(Po - P\right)B} - \frac{A}{B} \text{and } P = Ma\left(Po - P\right)\left(APo + BP\right) \tag{12}$$

Relative vapor pressure [P/Po]wa at *Wa* is ranged between 0.42 to 0.51, indicating that at this range the soil moisture reach water *adsorption* capacity. Above this range (P/Po > 0.51) the *absorption* process is prevailing. Hence, to predict the soil absorbed water, Equation (7) can be rearranged to be available for application along the range of high relative vapor pressure (0.50 *<* P/*P*o *>* 1.0):

$$w = \frac{\frac{P}{Po}}{\left[1 - \frac{P}{Po}\right] \left[\frac{1}{\mathcal{W}m\mathcal{C}} + \frac{\mathcal{C} - 1}{\mathcal{W}m\mathcal{C}} \cdot \frac{P}{Po}\right]}\tag{13}$$

By applying the intercept (1/Wm) and the slope (C-1/Wm), we can obtain W% at P/Po values.

On the other hand, soil water potential (ψ) values corresponded to the total range (0.0 *<* P/*P*o *>* 1.0) can be calculated using Equation 3 in the following form (pF equation):

$$pF = 6.502 + \log\left[2 - \log H\right]$$

where pF = soil moisture potential, expressed as the common logarithm of the suction (ψ) in cm of water; H is the relative humidity (H= *P*/*Po* x 100); and *P*/*Po* is the relative water vapor pressure [*P* being the actual water vapor pressure on the soil particles and *Po* being the saturation vapor pressure of water at 20<sup>o</sup> C]. These parameters can be obtained by applying different appropriate salt solutions, whereas, the soil moisture potential (ψ) values which resulting from equilibrating soil samples with salt solutions that have different relative humidity (H). The ψ values expressed in pF at adsorption and absorption processes are in the range pF = 4.5–7.0.

#### **10. Application of Wa for prediction of soil wetting**

The increase in soil water suction is associated with a decreasing thickness of the hydration envelopes covering the soil particle surfaces and vice versa. The following equation was advanced by Nerpin & Chudnovski [17] to describe soil wetness (h) within limited suction ranges:

$$
\varphi = \mathcal{B} / \mathcal{W}^{\wedge} \mathfrak{n} \tag{14}
$$

where *ψ* is matric or capillary-sorption potential, *B* and *n* are constants.

Taking moisture adsorption capacity (*W*a) in consideration, the concept of the last relation (14) can be developed to predict the soil wetting expressed in moisture potential or matric suction (ψ) at pF < 4.5 as follows:

$$\psi = \frac{\psi \text{a}}{\left(\text{Wi} - \frac{\text{Wc}}{\text{Wm} \text{e}}\right)^{n}} \tag{15}$$

or in log form;

Hygroscopic water exists as a very thin film at the solid-liquid interfaces of the soil particles. At the maximum hygroscopic water (*MH*), the surface of soil particles is almost completely covered with individual molecules of water. However, it is known that the maximum hygro‐

Equation (7) can be developed to predict the vapor pressure (*P/Po*) at water adsorption capacity

*Po <sup>P</sup> <sup>A</sup> P Po*

B

*P*

*Po*

è ø - (12)

(10)

(11)

(13)

scopic water (*MH*) is determined practically at P/Po = 0.98.

(*Wa*) as follows:

10 Wetting and Wettability

where, A = 1/WmC, and B = C-1/WmC

From Equations 7 and 10;

Then at Wa:

*<* P/*P*o *>* 1.0):

**9. Absorption water in relation to P/Po and pF scale**

*P*

*Po*

*<sup>W</sup> Po P Po*

æ ö - ç ÷ <sup>=</sup> è ø <sup>+</sup>

*Po <sup>P</sup> A B*

( ) ( )( ) *P PA wa P Wa Po P APo BP*

Relative vapor pressure [P/Po]wa at *Wa* is ranged between 0.42 to 0.51, indicating that at this range the soil moisture reach water *adsorption* capacity. Above this range (P/Po > 0.51) the *absorption* process is prevailing. Hence, to predict the soil absorbed water, Equation (7) can be rearranged to be available for application along the range of high relative vapor pressure (0.50

*P*

*P CP Po WmC WmC Po* 1 1 1 . <sup>=</sup> é ùé - <sup>ù</sup> - + ê úê <sup>ú</sup> ë ûë <sup>û</sup>

*Po w*

ç ÷ = - =- +

= + æ ö ç ÷ - è ø

*w*

*Po Wa Po P B B* and æ ö

1

$$\log \mathfrak{g}\nu = \log \mathfrak{w}\_a - n \log \left(\mathsf{Wi} - \frac{\mathsf{Wc}}{\mathsf{Wm}me}\right) \tag{16}$$

where *ψ*i and *ψ*a are capillary-sorption potentials at soil water content (*W*i) and moisture adsorption capacity (*W*a), respectively. The *Wc* is called boundary moisture films.

By plotting log *ψ*i against log (*W*i *− W*c*/W*me), we obtain log *ψ*a as intercept and *n* as the slope.

Substituting the coefficients parameters log *ψ*a and *n* in the equation 16, the log *ψ*i then could be obtained at arbitrary soil water content (*Wi*). From the relationship between log *ψ*i and *Wi* we obtain the integrated soil moisture (retention) curve (Figure 4) or *ψ*(W) function.

**Figure 4.** Moisture retention curves for three depths (cm) in Nubaria calcareous sandy loam soil (west Nile Delta, Egypt).

The moisture potential (ψi) can be expressed in log h (= pF), and called soil matric suction or pressure head (h), which is expressed as potential per weight (m) in SI units. In this case, the pF term is useful to apply as pF = log h, when h is expressed in cm (Figure 4).

#### **Author details**

Abdelmonem Mohamed Ahmed Amer

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom, Egypt

#### **References**

where *ψ*i and *ψ*a are capillary-sorption potentials at soil water content (*W*i) and moisture

By plotting log *ψ*i against log (*W*i *− W*c*/W*me), we obtain log *ψ*a as intercept and *n* as the slope. Substituting the coefficients parameters log *ψ*a and *n* in the equation 16, the log *ψ*i then could be obtained at arbitrary soil water content (*Wi*). From the relationship between log *ψ*i and *Wi*

**Figure 4.** Moisture retention curves for three depths (cm) in Nubaria calcareous sandy loam soil (west Nile Delta,

The moisture potential (ψi) can be expressed in log h (= pF), and called soil matric suction or pressure head (h), which is expressed as potential per weight (m) in SI units. In this case, the

Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom,

pF term is useful to apply as pF = log h, when h is expressed in cm (Figure 4).

Egypt).

12 Wetting and Wettability

Egypt

**Author details**

Abdelmonem Mohamed Ahmed Amer

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adsorption capacity (*W*a), respectively. The *Wc* is called boundary moisture films.

we obtain the integrated soil moisture (retention) curve (Figure 4) or *ψ*(W) function.

#### **Chapter 2**