**3.1 The 1993 Hokkaido Nansei-Oki tsunami**

In 1993, a tsunami accompanied by a M7.8 earthquake off the south–west coast of Hokkaido, Japan, struck Okushiri Island, which is 30 kilometers west of Hokkaido, within 5 minutes after the quake, causing more than 200 casualties. In particular, the Aonae district in the southernmost area of Okushiri Island suffered devastating damage due to an approximately 11-m tsunami that struck from the west coast of the island as well as fire caused during and after the tsunami attack (Murosaki, 1994). Visual damage inspection was conducted using pre- and post–tsunami aerial photographs acquired on 29 October 1990 and 14 July 1993 (one day after the event occurred), as shown in Fig. 8. Because the Aonae district suffered from extensive fire during and after the tsunami attack, it is not possible to discriminate between tsunami and fire damage by the aerial photographs alone. Thus, focusing on the existence of house roofs, the structural damage was categorised into five classes according to the damage area, whether flooded or burned, reported by Shuto (2007). The number of inspected houses and structures was 769, and the result of the structural damage interpretation in Aonae district is shown in Table 1 (Koshimura et al., 2009a). The method to detect the damaged area using SAR image analysis was applied to the tsunami-affected area in Okushri Island. Using a set of pre- and post–tsunami SAR images acquired by JERS (Japanese Earth Resources Satellite), Matsuoka & Yamazaki (2002) calculated the correlation and difference in the backscattering coefficient to represent the changes in the tsunamiaffected area. To detect the impacted area, the discriminant score, Equation (2), was

Application of Remote Sensing for Tsunami Disaster 151

The 2004 Indian Ocean megathrust earthquake occurred on 26 December 2004, creating a gigantic tsunami striking coastal communities over a large area. The earthquake, with a magnitude of 9.3 was the second largest ever recorded and caused the deadliest tsunami disaster in history. The tsunami devastated 11 Asian and African countries, and at least 282,517 people lost their lives. There were two locations to which satellite images were

Banda Aceh, a city in northern Sumatra, Indonesia, suffered more than 70,000 casualties and 12,000 house damage incidents during the 2004 event. We acquired the post–tsunami survey data from JICA (2005), which was based on a visual interpretation of the pre- and post– tsunami satellite imageries (IKONOS) with some random field checks, focusing on the existence of the individual structures' roofs. Figure 16 indicates the post–tsunami survey result in terms of structural damage in the city by JICA (2005). As shown in the right panels of the figure, the use of high–resolution optical satellite images has the capability to detect individual damages and be utilised as a promising technology for post–disaster damage investigation. Throughout the visual inspection of the two satellite images, the remaining roofs were interpreted as "Survived" and the roofs that disappeared as "Destroyed". The total number of inspected buildings in the tsunami-inundated area was 48,910, of which 16,474 were interpreted as destroyed and 32,436 as survived, as shown in Fig. 9 (Koshimura et al., 2009c).

**3.2 The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami**

**3.2.1 Banda Aceh, Indonesia**

applied for tsunami damage detection, Indonesia and Thailand.

Fig. 9. Visual damage inspection results in Banda Aceh, Indonesia

Table 1. Results of structural damage interpretation in Aonae district, Okushiri Island

incorporated, and the values of parameters A and B were modified to 1.277 and 2.729, respectively. Fig. 8 shows a comparison among the results of the visual damage interpretation of the aerial photographs, the post–tsunami JERS/SAR image (Fig. 8(b)) and the discriminant score Z*R1* (or *ZRj*). It is found that Z*R1* represents relatively larger values in severely impacted areas and that Z*R1* (Fig. 8(c)) is likely to be fairly consistent with the results of the visual interpretation (Fig. 8(a)). To increase the capability of the SAR image analysis to detect the tsunami impacted area, further discussion is required to explore the relationships between Z*R1* and the structural damage probability by correlating both with regard to the JERS/SAR resolution.

Fig. 8. Comparison among (a) the result of the visual damage interpretation of the aerial photographs, (b) the post–tsunami JERS/SAR image and (c) the discriminant score *ZR1*

#### **3.2 The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami**

150 Remote Sensing of Planet Earth

Destroyed or Major damage Flooded by tsunami 417

Burned or Major damage Burned by fire 75 Destroyed Unknown 11

damage) — 143

Table 1. Results of structural damage interpretation in Aonae district, Okushiri Island

Fig. 8. Comparison among (a) the result of the visual damage interpretation of the aerial photographs, (b) the post–tsunami JERS/SAR image and (c) the discriminant score *ZR1*

incorporated, and the values of parameters A and B were modified to 1.277 and 2.729, respectively. Fig. 8 shows a comparison among the results of the visual damage interpretation of the aerial photographs, the post–tsunami JERS/SAR image (Fig. 8(b)) and the discriminant score Z*R1* (or *ZRj*). It is found that Z*R1* represents relatively larger values in severely impacted areas and that Z*R1* (Fig. 8(c)) is likely to be fairly consistent with the results of the visual interpretation (Fig. 8(a)). To increase the capability of the SAR image analysis to detect the tsunami impacted area, further discussion is required to explore the relationships between Z*R1* and the structural damage probability by correlating both with

Destroyed, Burned or Major damage Flooded by tsunami and

Survived (Moderate, slight or no

regard to the JERS/SAR resolution.

Damage category Cause Number of

houses

burned by fire 123

The 2004 Indian Ocean megathrust earthquake occurred on 26 December 2004, creating a gigantic tsunami striking coastal communities over a large area. The earthquake, with a magnitude of 9.3 was the second largest ever recorded and caused the deadliest tsunami disaster in history. The tsunami devastated 11 Asian and African countries, and at least 282,517 people lost their lives. There were two locations to which satellite images were applied for tsunami damage detection, Indonesia and Thailand.

#### **3.2.1 Banda Aceh, Indonesia**

Banda Aceh, a city in northern Sumatra, Indonesia, suffered more than 70,000 casualties and 12,000 house damage incidents during the 2004 event. We acquired the post–tsunami survey data from JICA (2005), which was based on a visual interpretation of the pre- and post– tsunami satellite imageries (IKONOS) with some random field checks, focusing on the existence of the individual structures' roofs. Figure 16 indicates the post–tsunami survey result in terms of structural damage in the city by JICA (2005). As shown in the right panels of the figure, the use of high–resolution optical satellite images has the capability to detect individual damages and be utilised as a promising technology for post–disaster damage investigation. Throughout the visual inspection of the two satellite images, the remaining roofs were interpreted as "Survived" and the roofs that disappeared as "Destroyed". The total number of inspected buildings in the tsunami-inundated area was 48,910, of which 16,474 were interpreted as destroyed and 32,436 as survived, as shown in Fig. 9 (Koshimura et al., 2009c).

Fig. 9. Visual damage inspection results in Banda Aceh, Indonesia

Application of Remote Sensing for Tsunami Disaster 153

The 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake took place on 1 April 2007 near the provincial capital of Ghizo on Ghizo Island, in the Solomon Islands. The magnitude of this earthquake was calculated by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) as 8.1 on the moment magnitude scale. The tsunami that followed the earthquake killed 52 people. The structural/house damage was focused on Ghizo Island and was caused by the tsunami. First, the QuickBird pan-sharpened composite images of Ghizo Island were acquired pre- and post-tsunami (23 September 2003 and 5 April 2007) to build house inventories for visual damage inspection, as shown in Fig. 11 (Koshimura et al., 2010). The extent of the tsunami inundation zone is determined by the supervised classification based on the NDVI of the post-tsunami satellite

Fig. 11. The structural damage interpretation is divided into four classes: slight/no damage,

Fig. 12. Visual damage inspection results for Ghizo Island, Solomon Islands

**3.3 The 2007 Solomon Islands tsunami**

imagery (Fig. 12), as already shown in section 2.1.

substantial damage, collapsed and washed away

#### **3.2.2 Phang Nga and Phuket, Thailand**

Phang Nga and Phuket were two of six southern Andaman coast provinces that were damaged by the tsunami. They provinces are famous for sightseeing areas such as Khao Lak and Patong. Therefore, reinforced concrete (RC) buildings are common in this area. Regarding structural damage, 4,806 houses were affected by the tsunami, of which 3,302 houses were destroyed completely, and as many as 1,504 were partly damaged. The maximum water level of approximately 15 m reported at Khao Lak in the Phang Nga province and of 7 m at Kamala and Patong Beach in Phuket gave these areas their respective distinction as the worst and second-worst areas, with structural damage to 2,508 and 1,033 houses, respectively. High-resolution satellite images (IKONOS) taken before and after the tsunami event were used for visual damage interpretation. The pre-event images were acquired on 13 January 2003 and 24 January 2004 for Phang Nga and Phuket; the post-event images were both acquired on 15 January 2005. In a recent study (Gokon et al., 2011), four damage levels were classified "Not collapsed" (moderate, slight or no damage), "Major damage", "Collapsed" and "Washed away," using a QuickBird satellite image with a 0.6×0.6 m2 resolution. However, the 1.0×1.0 m2 resolution of the IKONOS satellite image is not fine enough for a visual interpretation to differentiate the damage levels of buildings. Therefore, the classification of the building damage in this study was limited to "Not destroyed" and "Destroyed" (Koshimura et al., 2009c). The remaining roof buildings were interpreted as "Not destroyed" and those that had disappeared were classified as "Destroyed". Note that the buildings classified as "Not destroyed" may have had some sort of Damage that could be identified by the satellite images. The results of the building damage inspection in residential areas are presented in Fig. 10 (Suppasri et al., 2011a), which shows damaged buildings in residential areas in Khao Lak, Phang Nga province (1,722 destroyed and 1,285 not destroyed) and the populated residential areas in Kamala and Patong, Phuket province (233 destroyed and 1,356 not destroyed). The visual interpretation data resulted in an accuracy of more than 90 per cent after being checked with the investigation data.

Fig. 10. Visual damage inspection results in Phang Nga and Phuket, Thailand


**3. Repurposing in Zikv virus and other Flaviviruses infection**

It was a mosquito-borne flavivirus, associated with several birth defects which are associated with infant neurological disorder (Gullain-Barre syndrome and other) and severe congenital defects in Newbern (microcephaly and ophthalmological alteration) such infection occurs during pregnancy. These viruses are capable of spreading both vertical (transplacental) and sexual, this infection is prime concerned for globule and public health, neither specific antiviral treatment nor a vaccine to counteract ZIKV diffusion is available to date. Henceforth FDA-approved drug repurposing camping started by WHO.

The library of 774 FDA-approved immunosuppressant drugs candidates were tested on HuH-7 hepatocytes cell-cultured strains isolated from ZIKV, among which 24 candidates showed potent anti-ZIKV activity which inhibits the ZIKV replication,

#### **Drugs:**

#### **3.1 Repurposing in Ebola virus infection**

EBOV was discovered in the late 1970s but the outbreak was in 2014-2016 was an alarming period due to its size and spread, the cases were reported internationally in


**4.2.3 Maintenance of use**

486 Pharmacology

Diadema as adults, and some had migrated through different regions of Brazil, accumulating knowledge on natural resources from human and biological sources. In Diadema, they acquired knowledge from neighbours, books, media (radio, television,

The migrants described their knowledge of 85 plant specimens. As can be seen in Table 1, 78 of them were available in Diadema and were collected, resulting in 65 plant species, the remaining 13 could only be identified to the generic level. The plants belong to 37 taxonomic families, with Asteraceae (16 species), Lamiaceae (8) and Euphorbiaceae (7) as the most common. Previous studies have shown that Asteraceae species are the group most commonly reported to have potential pharmacological properties, not only in the Atlantic Forest (Almeida & Albuquerque, 2002; Begossi et al., 1993; Di Stasi et al., 2002) but also in other Brazilian biomes such as the Amazon Forest (Rodrigues, 2006) the pantanal wetlands (Rodrigues & Carlini, 2004) and the cerrado savannahs (Rodrigues & Carlini, 2005). In a review focusing on plants with possible action/ effects on the central nervous system that were indicated by 26 Brazilian indigenous peoples occupying different Brazilian biomes (Rodrigues et al., 2005), Asteraceae was the second most commonly cited family. The same

Fig. 2. Location of the Municipality of Diadema, in São Paulo state, southeastern Brazil (black square). Interviewees' migration from their cities of origin to Diadema, being PE (Pernambuco state), SE (Sergipe), MG (Minas Gerais) and SP (São Paulo), and the distance of

the displacement (in Km) in each case (adapted of Garcia et al., 2010).

magazines), and personal experiences.

**4.2.2 Plants: Dynamics of use**

According to the interviewees, 68 of the 78 specimens cited in the present study, were used in their homelands (highlighted with □ in Table 1). The maintenance of their uses was possible since most of them were available in Diadema, though some were brought from their homelands. SE1 brought four plants from Aquidabã - Sergipe state, for pain relief because they are not available or are more potent than the ones found in Diadema: "bálsamo" (*Sedum* sp.), "anador" (*Alternanthera* sp.), "eucalipto/vick" (*Eucalyptus globulus* Labill.) and "novalgina" (*Achillea millefolium* L.).

#### **4.2.4 Incorporation of use**

Fourteen of the 78 specimens listed in Table 1 came to be used by migrants when they arrived in Diadema (highlighted with Δ in Table 1). These incorporations occurred in several ways: through information given by neighbours; through local media, e.g., television, radio, magazines; or through personal efforts, guided by plant organoleptic properties or even by the theory of signatures. This theory, formulated by Paracelsus (XVI century), assumes that characteristics and virtues of herbs can be recognised by their external appearance or "signature" (picture, shape, colour). Finally, observing the relationship between animals and plants can be a valuable guide. PE1 noted that dogs consume "sete-sangria" (*Cuphea carthagenensis* (Jacq.) J. F. Macbr.) when they have diarrhoea; and because it seemed to alleviate their symptoms, he started to use this plant for the same purpose. The migrants incorporated several plants after their arrival in Diadema to treat typical diseases of larger cities: "cipó-cruz" (*Serjania* sp.) to combat high cholesterol; and "guanxuma" (*Sida rhombifolia* L.) and "guiné" (*Petiveria alliaceae* L.) for anxiety. Also included in this category was knowledge concerning local toxic plants, e. g., alamanda-amarela (*Allamanda cathartica* L.) and azaléia (*Rhododendron simsii* Planch.), detailing the risks associated with their consumption. Retracted

Similar results were recorded by Volpato et al. (2009), where the use of some plants have been incorporated in Cuban pharmacopoeia by the Haitians. This occurred, according to the authors, as a result of factors such as cultural contact and exchange of information between migrants and host, and personal experimentation or imitation of local practices by migrants. The same authors conclude that Haitians contributed to what is today considered as traditional Cuban medicine by introducing into the dominant Cuban community practices and uses of plants.

The Influence of Displacement by Human Groups Among Regions in the

*Cajanus cajan* (L.)

Medicinal Use of Natural Resource: A Case Study in Diadema, São Paulo - Brazil 489

The Influence of Displacement by Human Groups Among Regions in the Medicinal Use of Natural Resource: A Case Study in Diadema, São Paulo - Brazil 489

488 Pharmacology

The Influence of Displacement by Human Groups Among Regions in the

Medicinal Use of Natural Resource: A Case Study in Diadema, São Paulo - Brazil 491

The Influence of Displacement by Human Groups Among Regions in the Medicinal Use of Natural Resource: A Case Study in Diadema, São Paulo - Brazil 491

490 Pharmacology

The Influence of Displacement by Human Groups Among Regions in the

Medicinal Use of Natural Resource: A Case Study in Diadema, São Paulo - Brazil 493

*Sonchus oleraceus* L.

*Stachytarpheta cayennensis* (Rich.) Vahl

*Petiveria alliaceae* L.

*Psidium guajava* L.

The Influence of Displacement by Human Groups Among Regions in the

medicines and active ingredients, e.g., Novalgina

adapted with plants exchanged(Pieroni & Vandebroek, 2007).

since they could not be collected and identified as well.

(*Eucalyptus globulus*) for sinusitis, and Anador

**4.2.5 Replacement of use**

seemed to have a stronger effect.

(2009).

**4.2.6 Discontinued use**

Medicinal Use of Natural Resource: A Case Study in Diadema, São Paulo - Brazil 495

Three plants used by migrants in their cities of origin were replaced because they were not

1). Most of these replacements were made according to the criteria listed in the previous section. The interviewee MG1 explained that in his homelands, he used "quebra-pedra"\* (*Phyllanthus* cf. *caroliniensis* Walter - Euphorbiaceae) for kidney stone disturbance, but when he arrived in Diadema, he found another plant, "sofre-do-rim-quem-qué" (*Cissus* sp.), that

Another interviewee, PE1, reported that the bark and seeds of "amburana-de-cheiro"\* (*Amburana* cf. *cearensis* (Allemão) A.C. Sm. - Fabaceae s.l.) were widely used for anti-

inflammatory therapy in Pernambuco state but had to be replaced by "mentruz" (*Chenopodium ambrosioides* L.) because the former was not found in Diadema. In addition, SE1 had to replace "pau-de-sapo"\* (*Pouteria* cf. *melinoniana* Boehni - Sapotaceae), whose leaves were used for chronic wounds, with "carrapicho" (*Acanthospermum australe* (Loefl.) Kuntze). The vernacular names of some plants are registered trademarks of allopathic

sedative and for general pain. Contact between migrants and allopathic medicine thus led to the 'baptisms' of these plants, following the observation that both, the commercially available products and herbal source have similar effects, as reported by Pires et al.,

Biocultural adaptation, negotiation and cultural identity are key-issues for issues anthropological in the displacement of human groups between regions (Belliard & Ramírez-Johnson, 2005; Janes & Pawson, 1986). Research in culturally homogeneous places and/or non-urban has shown that to follow the pattern of changes in traditional knowledge and use of plant among migrants must involve the degree the process of acculturation (Bodeker et al., 2005; Nesheim et al., 2006 as cited in Pieroni & Vandebroek, 2007). This dynamic interaction between migrants and host societies may result in changes pharmacopeial

According to MG1, the following plants used in his homeland fell into disuse because they were not found in Diadema, although he tried to acquire them from local commercial sources: "quina"\* (*Strychnos* cf. *pseudoquina* A. St. Hil - Loganiaceae), whose root is used to combat pain in the stomach and intestine; bark oil of "jatobá"\* (*Hymenaea* cf. *courbaril* L. - Fabaceae s.l.), used for combat wounds; "batata-de-purga"\* (*Operculina* cf. *macrocarpa* (L.) Urb - Convolvulaceae), whose tuber is ingested as a purgative and to clean the blood; bark and leaf of "jalapa"\* (*Mirabilis* cf *jalapa* L. - Nyctaginaceae), used to clean the blood; tea of "junco"\* (*Cyperus* cf. *esculentus* L. - Cyperaceae), whose root is used for inflammation; bark or seed of "emburana"\* (*Amburana* cf. *cearensis* - Fabaceae s.l.), used for migraine and sleeping; and bark of "angico"\* (*Anadenanthera* cf. *colubrine* (Vell.) Brenan - Fabaceae s.l.), prepared as a tea for pain in the body and fever. These plants were not described in Table 1,


**6. Applications**

Unique properties of HTS make them very attractive from an application point of view due to continuous enhancement in their properties (**Figure 8**). Semiconductor sciences have been consistently depriving of novel applications of superconducting materials for quite a time now. Owing to their large persistent current, ever since their discovery, SC coils have always been envisioned to be used for sturdy magnetic field production. However, a major challenge faced by Type-I (first generation) HTSs was the suppression of superconductivity by magnetic fields induced within the materials by injected current. This ceased Type-I SC's application in fields involving high current and high fields. To overcome this problem, a new class of SC materials naming Type-II (second generation) HTSs having longer magnetic penetration as compared to coherence length were fabricated. Longer penetration depths favor the presence of superconductivity even in magnetic fields presence up to a critical value (Hc2) of induced field. Another modification in HTSs was the control of power dissipation caused by Lorentz force, by properly engineered "pinning centers" that modulate the magnetic flux generated in the system [71].

#### **6.1 Transmission of commercial power**

Extremely low resistance values make HTSs an ideal candidate for transmitting commercial power to the cities. However, high cost and practically impossible implication of cryogenic temperatures to such lengthy cables limit their

**69**

*High Temperature Superconductors*

**6.2 Bio-magnetism**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96419*

**6.3 High magnetic field in Tokamaks**

the help of Alcator devices [99].

sized devices based on B3

high power density.

application for very short distances. One example of above-mentioned application was the transmission of electricity using HTSs to 150,000 citizens of Copenhagen, Denmark back in May 2001. The transmission cable was only 30 m in length which proved to be sufficient for testing. This was the first-ever commercial power transmission using superconducting cables in history. Later, USA and Japan successfully fabricated superconducting transformers using HTSC windings. Fault currents produced can be limited by Super-Foam which is produced from YBa2Cu3Oz [13, 98].

Another important application of HTSs is in the medical field for diagnostic purposes. Non-penetrating procedures are required in the field of bio-medicine to retrieve internal information of living body. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has been frequently used for this purpose where a strong magnetic field has impinged into the body which imposes precessional motion of H2 atoms present in the body. After removal of an external magnetic field, exciting H2 atoms release energy which is detected and graphically presented by computer. Use of SC's can enhance MRI performance owing to high magnetic field induced in them due to large current flow. Before superconductor technology, it almost took 5 hours to produce single-image initially when MRI was discovered (July 3, 1977) [71].

Developments in fusion energy department have been made after the introduction of high-temperature superconductor (HTS) based technologies that imply high magnetic field induction (>18 T) for compact experiments in fusion power plants. Operation in high magnetic fields, large current densities, higher value of cryogenic temperature, and ability to withhold extreme tensile stress make HTS a suitable candidate as compared to LTS (Low-Temperature Superconductors). A large

operating magnetic field range opens new opportunities to fabricate novel magnetic designs and improved magnetic confinement can be achieved for higher magnetic fields (> 16 T) with the help of HTS [99]. A maximum achievable induced field that depends upon current density present in HTSs has been a primary factor in fabrication of magnetic devices for fusion reactors as explained in basic tokamak design, in-depth studies, system codes, and tokamak magnet designs [100]. HTS offers a significant increase (~7.5 to 10–12 T) in on-axis BT in tokamak reactor which allows a significant increase in an applicable field in coil from 16 T to >20 T) as compared to LTS. Other advantages of HTS technology in fusion energy department include:

1.Small Burning Plasma: In mid-1980s, U.S. planted burning plasma-based fusion reactor based on the implication of SC's ability to induce large magnetic fields at a small size. The phenomenon has been successfully explained with

2.A lot of research work proposed that such small sized high field devices for burning plasma can be fabricated using copper-based magnets. Even smaller sizes can be achieved for such high field copper-based devices with the help of

3.Performance: High power density and energy gain can be attained in small-

fusion reactors. However, heat exhaust and diverter limit reduction in size and

dependence for commercial realization of such

HTS reducing their heating and structural issues as well [101].

**Figure 8.** *Schematic overview of possible applications of HTSs. Reproduced from Ref. [59].*

#### *High Temperature Superconductors DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96419*

application for very short distances. One example of above-mentioned application was the transmission of electricity using HTSs to 150,000 citizens of Copenhagen, Denmark back in May 2001. The transmission cable was only 30 m in length which proved to be sufficient for testing. This was the first-ever commercial power transmission using superconducting cables in history. Later, USA and Japan successfully fabricated superconducting transformers using HTSC windings. Fault currents produced can be limited by Super-Foam which is produced from YBa2Cu3Oz [13, 98].


**6. Thermodynamic Uncertainty Relation**

We now turn to the investigation of the TUR, cf. Equation (14), which provides a combined performance quantifier accounting for power output, efficiency and power fluctuations. We first consider the TUR-coefficient *Q*TUR in the linear-response regime. Together with Equation (14), we therefore use the relations for power, power fluctuations, entropy and efficiencies, given in Equations (8)–(13). The linear-response expressions for the charge and heat currents occurring in these relations are given in Equation (16) and we furthermore use *SI* = 2*k*B*T*0*G*. With this, we find

$$Q\_{\rm TUR} = \frac{(GV + L\Delta T)^2}{\Delta T(LT\_0V + K\Delta T) + VT\_0(GV + L\Delta T)} \cdot \frac{T\_0}{2G} \,. \tag{32}$$

Maximizing this expression with respect to voltage we find *V*max → ±∞, resulting in *Q*TUR = 1/2, and hence, the inequality becoming an equality. However, this voltage is within a voltage regime where power is dissipated (*P* < 0) and not produced; power production (*P* ≥ 0) would instead require *V*s ≤ *V* ≤ 0. Thus, this is not of practical relevance for the engine performance. Adding the extra condition that *P* ≥ 0 we instead find *V*max → 0. The corresponding value of *Q*TUR on the left-hand

side of Equation (32) then becomes *L*2*T*0/(2*GK*). Expressing this in terms of the figure of merit *ZT*, given in Equation (19), we can write the bound on the operationally meaningful TUR-coefficient in the linear-response regime as

$$Q\_{\rm TUR} \le \frac{1}{2} \cdot \frac{ZT}{1 + ZT}.\tag{33}$$

This shows that in the linear response, the parameters of the steady-state thermoelectric heat engine are actually subjected to a tighter bound than given by Equation (32). Please note that this bound is saturated in the limit *V* = 0, where the power production, the power fluctuations, as well as the efficiency all vanish. Also, only for ideal thermoelectrics, with *ZT* → ∞, does the bound become 1/2. As seen in Figure 9d, this maximal bound is actually reached for large step energies *E*0.

**Figure 9.** Coefficient *Q*TUR as a function of voltage for sharp barrier (**a**–**d**) and for smooth barrier (**e**–**h**), for selected gradients Δ*T* (see different lines) and step energies *E*0 (see different columns). We note that we set the *Q*TUR to zero outside the parameter regime where power is produced. The black-dashed line in all panels corresponds to the bound that is given by Equation (33).

The full TUR-coefficient beyond linear response is illustrated in Figures 9 and 10. We find that the inequality *Q*TUR ≤ 1/2 is always respected, even though this is not guaranteed by scattering theory [45]. Interestingly, we find the tighter bound in Equation (33) to be respected for most parameters, even though the inequality is only proven to hold in the linear-response regime and the bound is expressed in terms of linear-response quantities (given by Equation (17)), only. Violations of the bound given in Equation (33) beyond linear response are observed for sufficiently low *E*0 and when the temperature difference is of the order of the magnitude of *E*0 (cf. Figure 9a for a sharp barrier). The regimes where a violation can occur are extended when the barrier is smooth (cf. Figure 9e,f). These violations agree with the general notion that dissipation increases when moving away from the linear response [39]. Furthermore, from Figure 9, we find that in the linear response, as well as for small and negative *E*0, *Q*TUR decreases monotonically as the (negative) voltage is increased. This reflects the behavior of the inverse Fano factor in Figure 7. Importantly, for sharp step energies *E*0, and beyond the linear response, *Q*TUR is a non-monotonic function of the voltage and takes on its maximum at a point where power production is finite. This non-monotonicity is a consequence of the interplay between the monotonically decreasing inverse Fano factor and the strongly increasing efficiency and power (cf. Figures 2 and 4), as the voltage is changed to more negative values.

Figure 10 shows the TUR-coefficient maximized over voltage, *Q*VTUR,max, as a function of the thermal gradient Δ*T* and the step energy *E*0. As for the inverse Fano factor, the maximization only includes the voltage window where power is non-negative. For all values of the barrier smoothness, we find that *QV*TUR,max generally decreases as a function of Δ*T*, and a closer inspection reveals small non-monotonic features related to the small violations of Equation (33). This contrasts with the maximized inverse Fano factor, which shows the opposite behavior, cf. Figure 8. The decrease of the fluctuations with Δ*T* is thus overcompensated by an increase in dissipation which results in the highest values for *Q*VTUR,max being reached in the linear-response regime. This shows that *QV*TUR,max is maximal in regimes, where the *ηV*max is large. Note however that the maximal *Q*TUR is reached at zero voltage, the maximized efficiency *η* is reached close to the stopping voltage *V*S = 0. Furthermore, no features of the line of optimal power production close to *P*W can be identified in the panels of Figure 10.

**Figure 10.** TUR-coefficient maximized over the bias *V*, *Q*VTUR,max, as a function of temperature difference Δ*T* and step energy *E*0, for three different values of barrier smoothness, *γ*/*k*B*T*0 = 0, 1, 3 (**a**–**c**).


2.2.9. Milling

The milling process is effective in reducing mycotoxins in feeds and foods [68,109]. The weakness of this method lies in the redistribution of mycotoxins in the resulting fractions of milling and their concentration in the products intended for animal feed [67].

Scarpino et al., showed that cleaning maize grains may cause a reduction in the fungal metabolites by 1.2 to 2 times. In this study, the milling process of maize kernel caused an unequal redistribution of the mycotoxins in the different maize fractions and concentrated most mycotoxins in the germ. The highest mycotoxin contents were found in animal feed products, and the healthier products are large flaking grits [93]. A study was conducted using this principle by implementing dry and wet de-germination to maize and showed that the latter was more efficient for decreasing fumonisins in the milled products. Cleaning the kernels reduced FBs by 42%. Furthermore, the tempering degermination process of the uncleaned kernels achieved high reduction rates as compared to the dry degermination, reaching 94% for the largest-sized flaking grits. This process was able to facilitate the separation of the horny endosperm from the fine milling fractions. [94].

By evaluating the results of the different chemical treatments in Table 1 and the results of the different physical treatments in Table 2, we can conclude that chemical treatments are able to achieve the highest degradation rates of different mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds. In contrast, the physical treatments achieve lower degradation rates, but their effects on the quality of treated materials are smaller.

The shadowing or shielding effect is the principal limitation related to the use of photocatalysis and UV-C irradiation in the reduction protocols of mycotoxins in solid food materials. Many studies (Table 2) tried to overcome this limitation by rotating the irradiated peanuts to ensure UV uniformity, but no significant increase in the reduction rates occurred. Photocatalysis achieved higher reduction rates of DON, reaching a total elimination of DON in wheat [76]. CAP is a superficial treatment with low penetration depth. It showed good efficiency in reducing AFT and AFB1 without deterioration in the quality of the treated product. Furthermore, SBD plasma was more effective than DBD plasma since it achieved the complete elimination of AFB1 [77,79]. As working gas, nitrogen achieved the highest reduction rates as compared to oxygen and air when using the DBD system [78]. The pulsed light effectiveness was superficial and showed greater AF reduction rates when applied to rice bran than to rough rice. The AFB reduction rates are defined by the PL intensity and the initial concentration of mycotoxins in the food to be treated [83]. Gamma irradiation showed good effectiveness in reducing mycotoxins in food containing a high amount of water and reducing the fungal load in solid food. Low gamma irradiation doses were able to eliminate fungi and reduce mycotoxin formation in maize, but higher doses were required to reduce the already produced OTA in this material. Mycotoxins were not

completely eliminated in any of the mentioned studies (Table 2) [86–88]. The electron beam showed its efficiency as a disinfectant by the reduction of different microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds, but it was not effective in the reduction of OTA in red pepper powder [92]. The milling process resulted in the reduction of mycotoxins in many edible fractions of maize but caused the concentration of these fungal metabolites in the germ, especially in the fractions used as animal feeds [93].


**Meet the editor**

Dr. Wenbin Cao, Professor in Materials Science, University of Science and Technology Beijing, China, works intensively in two research fields supported by China national research projects. First, he is interested in developing practical, cheap and environmentally friendly methods to synthesize ceramic powders at low cost, including the preparation of SiC powders and whiskers

by microwave heating, through which the synthesis temperature and reaction time have been decreased significantly. Secondly, he is focused on the preparation and application of semiconductor photocatalyst. Large scale production of visible light active nanocrystalline photocatalyst under mild conditions has been worked out and some of the developed techniques have been transferred to the industry successfully.


**5.2 Relevant facts about the MNC and involved personnel(s)**

The agreed statement of facts regarding the case Her Majesty the Queen v. Niko Resources Ltd. gives the following information on the company [39]:

*Bribery Practices of Three MNCs in the Host Countries: An Examination of the Issue from HRM… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104810*

Canada on the board of Niko Bangladesh. Most transactions and even smaller ones were monitored from Canada. The subsidiary could not ask for any money from Canada without properly stating the reasons.

• Niko Bangladesh involved itself in a joint venture with Bangladesh Petroleum Exploration and Production Company Limited (BAPEX), a local company wholly owned by the government of Bangladesh.

The main person involved in the bribery case was Mr. Qasim Sharif. The agreed statement of facts regarding the case Her Majesty the Queen v. Niko Resources Ltd. gives the following information on him [39]:

### **5.3 Relevant information about the case**

The agreed statement of facts regarding the case Her Majesty the Queen v. Niko Resources Ltd. gives the following information on the case [39]: