Syndemic takes place in the future where a genetically-engineered microbe has been designed to aid the immune system in killing bacterial infections, metastasizing cancer cells, chronic allergies, and other health-related antigens. The characterization of this microbe as a useful aid helping the body promotes the idea that not all microorganisms are harmful to human health and that many are actually helpful. Moreover, this format encourages players to practice building the skills of imagination and intentional creation of a desired future. Although the game is not set in the present reality, the graphics are scientifcally realistic and accurate. Cell biologist and Syndemic creator, Alex May, set the game within a stylized version of the real microbial/immunological world that is hidden from the naked eye in order to allow the learning to come from gameplay itself. This approach is in direct response to May's growing frustration that, "Many educational games simply ask questions and expect answers as if they were written exams with good graphics" (personal interview, 2017).

In our mission to meet the needs most current and relevant to the educational community, Syndemic directly builds on the following learning objectives outlined in the New York City Department of Education's Science Scope and Sequence for grades 6–12:

Some of the game's visuals were closely based on images from the Synthetic Biological Systems Laboratory at Columbia University in order to make the world of Syndemic as scientifcally realistic as possible (see Fig. 12.2).

In each game-play session, players choose to enter either a resistance mode or a transmission mode. In resistance mode, the objective is to maximize high scores by harvesting nucleic acids from the environment and defeating infectious pathogens. The player can also upgrade their character by converting nucleic acids into new genes, which aids in their survival, energy, speed, and weaponry. In transmission mode, players can enter a more story-focused atmosphere, which involves curing various human hosts of their diseases. The player jumps from person to person, fghting bacterial infections, destroying cancer cells, and preventing tissue damage caused by allergies. In this mode, players can collect weapons from the environment, including new experimental antibiotics and plasmids. In order to help players understand the relationship of the game to real-world applications, there are various "reality checks." These include factual statements such as:

**Fig. 12.2** Screenshots from Syndemic. (Courtesy of Alex May)

• The presence of pathogens in the bloodstream is a serious and potentially fatal condition called Septicemia. If untreated, it can lead to septic shock and organ failure.

Syndemic uses a variety of game design techniques to maximize player engagement. Instead of relying wholly on statistics and numbers (such as weapon power) to determine the player's "success," the player's refexes and scenario anticipation skills are rewarded. Unlike the typical action shooter game, where pressing the fre button kills the target, Syndemic pushes its user to adapt to the host environment by requiring them to use specifc tools against each antigen.

### **12.4 Testing Syndemic Across New York City**

In the fall of 2016, a demo of Syndemic was ready for testing. As an undergraduate Biology major at Barnard, I had the opportunity to implement the beta testing phase of Syndemic**.** I started by contacting schools that pride themselves on their use of technology since I thought that computer availability for each student to play the game individually would be my biggest hurdle to testing Syndemic. However, I soon found that the more "technologically advanced" schools were also the most hesitant to allow any sort of research into the classroom, even though I had obtained approval from the Barnard College Institutional Review Board. I was surprised to fnd that getting administrators to allow research in their schools would be a minor hurdle compared to getting teachers on board. I showed Syndemic to numerous educators and consistently heard negative responses. In trying to understand their reaction, I met with a team of middle school science teachers at a college prep K-12 school on the Upper East Side. After watching a walk-through of the game, most of the teachers understood why kids would enjoy playing it, but did not see the game's educational value. After the meeting, one teacher wrote in an email, "I don't see how we could use it [Syndemic] – a lot of shooting – I really don't see how they will learn about the immune system from that." I understood their concern. Educators did not develop syndemic, and it was not a didactically instructive game. For example, names of bacteria would appear when the user scrolled over them, but the game did not make names or defnitions an integral part of the experience. Instead, the game immersed its users in a world that represented scientifc accuracy, whereas most "educational" games of this type often employ cartoonish unrealistic imagery. The responses from teachers made me question the game's value. Does Syndemic's departure from traditional educational tactics lessen its pedagogical value? Does Syndemic's use of shooting enemies engage users in the game or make it less appropriate for classroom use? Past research helped provide some answers. A growing body of academic work supports the value of games like Syndemic in educational contexts. This research has produced a pedagogical movement called Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL).

### *12.4.1 Digital Game-Based Learning in STEM Education*

DGBL directly responds to mounting concern that our educational system is failing to provide adequate STEM education to the greatest numbers and diversity of young people (Snow & Dibner, 2016). DGBL defned as, "a type of gameplay with defned learning outcomes" has been identifed as a successful educational tool that can help improve student attitudes towards science (Plass et al., 2015). Researchers have evaluated variables in game-based learning such as gender (Papastergiou, 2009), level of collaboration (Chen et al., 2015), and contextual integration (Miller et al., 2011) while measuring knowledge gained through pre-and post-game tests. These studies have shown that DGBL can signifcantly enhance overall learning and knowledge acquisition under testing conditions (i.e., Chen et al., 2015). Despite this breadth of work, a meta-analysis of DGBL studies concluded that a gap exists between the possible benefts of game-based learning and the outcomes being assessed. Li and Tsai (2013) found that only a few studies measured student engagement and motivation, even though what makes digital games most appealing is their ability to create an enjoyable and engaging user experience. Since Syndemic is not a didactic game, I focused on assessing student experience and changes in learning motivation. This research attempts to fll the gap identifed by Li and Tsai (2013) between the potential benefts of using digital games and the outcomes being measured.

### *12.4.2 Designing and Implementing the Study*

After my lack of success with classroom teachers, I tried another approach: afterschool programs. If teachers didn't feel that Syndemic belonged in the classroom, perhaps it would be easier to integrate the game into after-school hours. This approach proved to be a far more effective approach. Between December and April of 2016, I conducted workshops with a total of 94 students at four afterschool programs affliated with New York City Department of Education public schools. The groups included a STEM and arts (STEAM) program, a Kids Who Code program, and a general afterschool program in Jamaica, Queens. Of those 94 students, 63 attended both workshops and fully completed both the pre-and post-surveys. Data from these 63 students were analyzed during our study of Syndemic.

The overall goal of the study, to assess students before and after their gameplay, was accomplished in two sessions at each afterschool location. Each student flled out an anonymous pre-survey with questions regarding demographic information and computer experience, including their frequency of computer use, liking of computer games, and computer gaming experience. Questions were adapted from the Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ-II) developed by Shawn M Glynn (2011) to assess a baseline for the student's level of motivation to learn science. Students were prompted with the statement: "In order to better understand what you think and how you feel about your science courses, please respond to each of the following statements from the perspective of 'When I am in a science course…'" The questionnaire used a Likert scale to measure: intrinsic motivation, self-effcacy, self-determination, and career motivation.

After completion of the pre-survey, students played Syndemic individually for 30 min. A week later, students played Syndemic for the same amount of time and took a post-survey directly after their second session. The post-survey contained the same measures of science motivation but excluded the background information on demographics and computer usage. In addition, the pos-survey measured the students' game playing experience. In past studies, Csikszentmihalyi's (1975) fow theory has been adapted to assess gameplay experience quantitatively. Flow is a psychological state that is intrinsically motivating, enjoyable, and challenging. Bressler and Bodzin (2013) use a qualitative analysis to show that the common features of fow experiences are: a feeling of discovery, a desire for improved performance, and fashes of intensity. The fow state can be assessed quantitatively by a short questionnaire developed by Csikszentmihalyi (Lester et al., 2014). This questionnaire was adapted for the post-survey used in the study of Syndemic. Theoretical underpinnings, such as fow theory, have increased the legitimacy of DGBL research and allowed studies to distinguish between games that are unable to engage users versus games that simply fail to deliver educational content. Therefore, in studying Syndemic, we attempted to add to the existing literature by using previously tested methods and questionnaires. Figure 12.3 shows an overview of the study design and protocols.

### *12.4.3 Results*

The majority of the students surveyed were male (59%) and many of them were Hispanic (49%). Although there were signifcant demographic differences between the students in the four afterschool program groups surveyed, the Science Motivation Questionnaire results indicated no statistically signifcant differences among groups, motivating us to present combined data (Fig. 12.4). Students responding on the post-survey more frequently agreed with all statements, including questions like "Learning science is interesting" to evaluate intrinsic motivation, "I believe I can master science knowledge and skills" to evaluate self-effcacy, or "I study hard to learn science" to evaluate self-determination. For survey items in all three of these categories, post-surveys documented statistically signifcant increases (p ≤ 0.005), but items assessing career motivation were not signifcantly increased in postworkshop surveys (p = 0.105). Despite these varying signifcance levels, all four measures of motivation showed increases from pre- to post-survey of a similar magnitude. The mean differences (post-score minus pre-score) across all categories of motivation were between 0.15 and 0.26,suggesting 15–26% of all students responded with answers at least one integer higher on the Likert scale (0–4) after playing the Syndemic game (see Fig. 12.4).

**Fig. 12.3** Study design for syndemic evaluation

**Fig. 12.4** Pre-and post-survey responses for all groups on the Science Motivation Questionnaire

**Fig. 12.5** Correlation between fow and student belief that online games can teach science (R2 = 0.303, p = 0.0360)

When looking at student engagement, investigated using an additional seven items on the post-survey, 67.5% of students reported "strongly agree" or "agree" across the full set of questions, with even larger proportions reporting agreement about two questions: "When I was using the game, I wanted to do as well as possible" (80.4% selected "strongly agree" or "agree") and "I was able to make the game do what I wanted it to" (70.1% of students selected "strongly agree" or "agree"). Variation in fow scores was not explained by gender, race, gaming experience, computer usage, or any of the variables measured on the Science Motivation Questionnaire. However, as shown in Fig. 12.5, there was a signifcant positive correlation between the way students answered the question, "Do you think you can learn science from online games?" and how they scored on measures of fow experienced while playing Syndemic (R2 = 0.303, p = 0.0360)

### *12.4.4 Analysis*

Signifcant increases in survey scores from pre- to post-assessment indicate that Syndemic can increase students' intrinsic motivation, self-effcacy, and selfdetermination to learn science. However, career motivation did not signifcantly improve from pre- to post-survey. Career motivation was assessed using statements such as "my career will involve science" and "learning science will help me get a good job." This category aims to determine the level of relevance students feel science has to their career paths (Glynn et al., 2011). It is not surprising that this study, with its limited timeframe, could not create such a fundamental shift and signifcantly impact student responses to questions in this category. Responses to career-related questions may be inherently higher in variability among middleschool students, or even in an individual student's response from day to day. Further investigation, in which students have increased exposure to Syndemic over a more sustained period of time, could help to reveal such variability while also discerning whether Syndemic can potentially impact students' career motivations. If Syndemic still has no impact on student career motivation after increased gameplay, additions to the game itself would likely be needed. Some of these changes are already in progress. Alex May is currently completing an updated version of Syndemic to address the issue of career motivation. Possible additions include pop-ups explaining the jobs of the scientists who discovered each type of bacteria and more fundamental adjustments such as features allowing students to design their own microbes and experiments.

Although the majority (67.5%) of students experienced maximal amounts of fow, the fow scores reported by students in this study are over 10% lower than those found using a forensic science game called SSI (Bressler & Bodzin, 2013). The lower rates could be due to many factors, including differing subject matter and implementation settings; however, it is worth noting that, unlike Syndemic, SSI utilizes a collaborative game design. SSI allows students to play and problem-solve in small groups, while a single student can control the microbe while playing Syndemic. Students clearly noticed the limitations of this format, as requests for a multiplayer version were the most frequent suggestion written in the free-response portion of the post-survey. The request to create a more collaborative gaming environment, like SSI, refects students' desire to maximize their own fow experience. Both Meluso et al. (2012) and Chen et al. (2015) explicitly tested the role of collaboration during gaming. The studies employed similar experimental procedures in which the control group played a game independently, and the experimental group played the same game in small groups. Both studies did not fnd a signifcant difference in learning outcomes or motivation between the independent and collaborative groups. However, Chen et al. (2015) acknowledge the need for further research on games specifcally designed for cooperative play. Our goal is to make a multiplayer version of Syndemic, allowing for the results of this study to be directly compared to a collaborative game design. Testing a multiplayer version of the game would add to the existing literature as past studies have only tested the same game under different scenarios.

We tested both the Science Motivation Questionnaire and fow assessment results for correlations to the demographic information gathered from the pre-survey. There was a strong precedent that gender would predict the variance in science motivation or fow experience because Syndemic is a science game. Females have typically been less responsive than male peers to many STEM education initiatives (Tsai et al., 2012). However, gender did not signifcantly correlate with either fow or science motivation. These results are supported by numerous studies in DGBL, which have not found differences in how genders engage with games that create a narrativedriven virtual environment (i.e., Papastergiou, 2009). Therefore, DGBL provides a uniquely inclusive approach to engaging boys and girls. However, not all games have been able to create equal engagement. Inal and Cagiltay (2007) found that a game's narrative is critical to allowing females to achieve fow, while the rules and features of a game are more signifcant to males' fow experience. Therefore, Syndemic's ability to create equal engagement in this study is likely a direct refection of its narrative-driven design.

The only signifcant correlation identifed was between fow state and students' belief that online games have the ability to teach science. The more a student believed that games possess educational value, the more engaged the student was while playing Syndemic. Although Syndemic had a demonstrable impact on their motivation to learn science, students most often responded that games are only "sometimes" useful for teaching science. This hesitancy to acknowledge the potential of games as learning aids mirrors data reported by Anderson and Barnett (2013) on the ability of an online game to teach middle school students abstract concepts in physics. Anderson and Barnett (2013) found that although the game signifcantly improved learning outcomes, students did not consider playing the game to be a learning experience. This disconnect between the game's potential benefts and its perceived value is not limited to students. I saw it frsthand in teachers' responses when we asked them to consider using Syndemic with their students. Shaffer et al. (2005) comment specifcally on this trend and explain, "there is a lot being learned in these games. But for some educators, it is hard to see the educational potential of the games because these virtual worlds aren't about memorizing words or defnitions or facts. But video games are about a whole lot more."

Our society has deeply ingrained perceptions of video games as a "waste of time," notions that are undoubtedly true of some games but that must shift to address the proven educational value of others. Shaffer et al. (2005) argue that our education system must catch up with technology and stop perpetuating the harmful perspective claiming that games are only "entertainment." These pervasive societal beliefs mean that it is not enough to present middle school students with games and expect them to be accepted, without bias, as new learning tools. Instead, schools, parents, and teachers must integrate DGBL effectively by helping students recognize the power of games as a new facet of their educational experience. Over a decade ago, Shaffer et al. published their piece and predicted that the next challenges to DGBL would be helping learning environments acknowledge the power of games and integrate them effectively. The results of testing Syndemic illustrate that the challenges Shaffer et al. identifed a decade ago are still relevant to the current climate and future success of DGBL.

### **12.5 Expanded Testing: Syndemic Goes to Nicaragua (Emma Ruskin)**

### *12.5.1 Why Nicaragua?*

*I remember the cries of disgust that continued each time a new group was given the mouthwash. I tried to explain that microscopic bacteria live in our mouths and that mouthwash is a way to prevent the harmful ones from causing problems. This idea*  *was met almost universally with blank faces. On the count of three, the children tipped the little cups into their mouths, ridden with skepticism, and gurgled. After encouraging some vigorous swishing, we instructed the children to spit out the foreign liquid. Sometimes, the volunteers also handed out toothbrushes. These were met with fewer complaints, but the children's sentiments towards them were made plain by the litter of toothbrushes left behind in the dirt after dismissal.*

After my sophomore year at Barnard College, I volunteered with a small NGO in Nicaragua for the summer. I focused on executing the tasks given to me as part of their effort to improve hygiene among students in some of the poorest neighborhoods outside of Granada. The volunteers treated any complaints like typical children's shenanigans and tried to hand out as much mouthwash and as many toothbrushes as possible. I did not refect on this aspect of my experience in Nicaragua for months afterward until I found myself testing Syndemic in afterschool programs across New York City. As I began to work with kids using Syndemic, I started to think more and more about the children's repulsion towards the mouthwash and toothbrushes donated by La Esperanza. I realized that the children's "shenanigans" in response to the toothbrushes and mouthwash were not a nuisance to be ignored but a key for understanding why a game like Syndemic might be an invaluable teaching tool. The explanation I had attempted to give when the children asked me why they needed to use this gross-tasting mouthwash was accurate but wholly inadequate. Without having any conception of the microscopic world, talking about the role of bacteria in their bodies and environment was meaningless and confusing to the children, just like handing out cups of mouthwash and toothbrushes. How can children be expected to participate in these critical acts of hygiene if they have no idea why these actions are important? How can children comprehend the need for these behaviors when the microorganisms responsible remain unseen, allowing them no conception of the microbiome?

As I began to wrap up my work with Syndemic in New York, I reached out to La Esperanza to see if they would be interested in my coming back again to test Syndemic and expand on the data gathered from after school programs in New York. The organization was excited to participate in the initiative, mainly because they had recently opened their frst learning center, equipped with donated computers. I received funding from the Barnard Biology Department, which allowed me to include research on Syndemic in a larger biology education project I was conducting through Davis Projects for Peace. The game's creator, Alex May, set to work devising a way to input translated text into the game, and I printed translated copies of the pre- and post-surveys I had used during the workshops in New York. The computers at the center were offine, which allowed me to download Syndemic but not to use SurveyMonkey to collect data, as I had done in New York. Besides these technological limitations, I did not foresee too many other hurdles.

### *12.5.2 Syndemic Workshops at the Learning Center*

Although the organization supported the idea of my work at the learning center, the reality of the project was met with skepticism similar to when I was handing out mouthwash 2 years before. I was expecting the local staff to be excited when I showed them Syndemic and the other materials I had brought to use with the kids. Instead, I met with hesitation and confusion. Unlike many of the classroom teachers I encountered in New York, who were hesitant because they did not see Syndemic's educational value, these educators were wary because I was treading in unfamiliar territory. I soon learned that children and local staff at the learning center had never been taught science as an academic subject. To get them on board, I needed to introduce the concept of microbiology and then place Syndemic within this framework so that they could understand its relevance. As a novice researcher, I was learning on the ground that making this learning tool accessible to a new geographic setting would require thoughtful changes in study design to meet the needs of this cultural context.

As much as I wanted to gather data on Syndemic that would allow me to draw fruitful comparisons to the data from after-school programs in New York, I was illequipped to make the major modifcations needed to translate the study to this environment. One hurdle was that the entire basis of the survey at the after-school programs in New York included statements like "I put enough effort into learning science" and "I study hard to learn science." These pre/post surveys proved utterly irrelevant to the students at the learning center, who had not learned science as a separate classroom subject. In Nicaragua, Syndemic would need to introduce students to biology for the frst time rather than help increase engagement in science so that students would be more receptive to the science taught in their classrooms. Based on anecdotal evidence, it was apparent that Syndemic was far less effective at engaging children with such limited exposure to science. The kids tended to be noticeably less interested in the game, and the ones who did get into it made comments indicating that they viewed it as a shooting game without grasping its intended purpose.

Moreover, written surveys proved to be an unusable form of data collection. Even after making substantial changes to the surveys to make the statements more relevant to the students' lack of science exposure, we found that their literacy levels were too low to allow them to complete many of the questions. As an alternative, we tried recording children's answers to questions about their experiences with the project using a video camera, but this approach raised a whole different set of concerns. The children strictly defer to the teachers at the center. As a result, we rarely felt as though the children were responding honestly in their answers. It often seemed as though they were hoping to guess the right thing to say that would please the interviewer. For instance, when asking a child what they thought of the activity, such as playing Syndemic, the typical response was "*Si* (Yes)," or "Bien (Good)," even if their behavior during the workshop indicated that they were not engaged or enjoying it. Perhaps we would have found the same answers on written surveys, but the issue seemed compounded when the children were giving their answers looking straight at the teacher holding a video camera. Upon review of the video footage, the only responses that differed from the above phrases involved comments about the game's look. The children seemed particularly impressed by the graphics and often exclaimed, *"Que lindo!* (How pretty!)" Based on this footage, it is hard to reach many data-driven conclusions about the effcacy of Syndemic at the learning center.

I had never attempted to perform research outside the U.S as an undergraduate. Although formal data collection was compromised due to my inexperience, this was a critical stepping-stone in my growth as a scientist. Completing feldwork in Nicaragua, I often noticed the line between volunteer and researcher becoming blurry. It felt impossible to be present with the children, implement a biology education project, and observe or record useful data. When using Syndemic in workshops in New York, there were always other adults in the room helping to supervise and work individually with the kids. At the learning center, we were often alone with large groups of kids, making the task of assisting children in engaging in an activity and collecting data on that activity feel impossible.

### **12.6 Concluding Thoughts**

Although the conclusions that can accurately be made about the children's learning gains from Syndemic are less than I had hoped, I can see my own learning gains as an undergraduate student. Implementing Syndemic in New York taught me many skills, allowing me to practice the scientifc method step by step as I learned how to design and implement a small study. Although working in Nicaragua allowed less practice of the traditional scientifc method, the experience gave me invaluable insight into the approach of a researcher trying to adapt their work to diverse settings. I thought that to be consistent, I would need to make as few adaptations to the study of Syndemic as possible. I look back now with embarrassment that I boarded the plane to Nicaragua with 100 copies of the same exact survey I had used in New York, only translated into Spanish, ready to hand to the kids at the learning center. I now know that adapting research to a particular culture and context is not a shortcoming or limitation to my work. It is an integral part of developing research that is accessible and relevant to a diverse range of communities

Future study of Syndemic is critical to completing a more accurate picture of the game's potential. Alex May is currently utilizing the data collected so far to create an updated version of Syndemic that addresses the feedback from students. Changes will include new levels of varying diffculty and opportunities for collaborative play. Long term, May explains,

My dream version of Syndemic would involve pathogens that digitally 'evolve' alongside your player, so that you must constantly mix up your strategies in order to defeat them. Ideally, there would be no limit to the types of enemies you could encounter, as they would continually adapt to your weapons and tactics. I can also envision a more 3D or perhaps even virtual reality version, where it would be possible to physically explore the human body from the perspective of a microbe. You could examine frsthand how the body gets infected and help the immune system fght it off at the 'ground foor'!

In addition to testing the effcacy of these changes, variations in the study design will also play an important role in future work. A big limitation of the past research conducted with Syndemic has been the short length of each gaming session. Our next step is to assess Syndemic after students have played it for longer intervals over a greater period of time to see if that produces a more signifcant effect. The impact of doubling the number of game-playing sessions from two to four or six will be compared with the current results to determine the number of times students need to play Syndemic for optimal beneft. Digital games can support science instruction by increasing student engagement and motivation when the games are appropriately designed and tested.

### **References**

**Emma Ruskin** graduated summa cum laude in 2018 from Barnard College with a degree in Cellular and Molecular Biology. In 2022, she began her frst year as a Geffen Merit Scholar at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) David Geffen School of Medicine. Emma's collaboration with the Danino Laboratory is founded on their shared interest in utilizing art and technology to visually communicate complex scientifc concepts.

**Tal Danino's** research explores the emerging feld of microbes and synthetic biology. He primarily focuses on programming bacteria as a cancer therapy. Tal brings this science outside the laboratory as a TED Fellow and through bio-art works. He is currently an Associate Professor of Biomedical Engineering at Columbia University.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

### **Part III Sustainability and Environmental Justice Perspectives in Undergraduate Science Education**

### **Chapter 13 Teaching Chemistry in Context: Environmental Lead Exposure: Quantifcation and Interpretation**

**Rachel Narehood Austin, Ann McDermott, Katrina Korfmacher, Laura Arbelaez, Jamie Bousleiman, Arminda Downey-Mavromatis, Rahma Elsiesy, Sohee Ki, Meena Rao, and Shoshana Williams**

### **13.1 Framing the Issues**

The literature on chemistry education over the last few decades suggests two broad themes. First, learning should engage students. Second, students learn more when they care about what they are learning. We begin by explaining our pedagogical goals to improve student engagement and interest. We then briefy describe the science of lead toxicity and its repercussions for environmental justice. This is

L. Arbelaez Barnard College, New York, NY, USA

S. Ki Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

S. Williams Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

© The Author(s) 2023 227 M. S. Rivera Maulucci et al. (eds.), *Transforming Education for Sustainability*, Environmental Discourses in Science Education 7, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13536-1\_13

R. N. Austin (\*) · M. Rao Department of Chemistry, Barnard College, New York, NY, USA e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>A. McDermott

Chemistry, Biological Sciences, and Chemical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

K. Korfmacher Environmental Medicine, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

J. Bousleiman Jacobs School of Medicine University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA

A. Downey-Mavromatis Chemical & Engineering News, Washington, DC, USA

R. Elsiesy California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

followed by the presentation of several detailed examples of teaching lead-chemistry with hands-on activities. We consider the ethical and legal implications of these activities. Finally, we curate a list of similar efforts to help instructors interested in using lead to teach chemistry to fnd appropriate references.

In providing this overview, we will address one of the book's primary themes: "how to create learning experiences that foster democratic practices in which students are not just following protocols, but have a stake in creative decision-making, collecting and analyzing data, and posing authentic questions." Along the way, we will try to extract from the examples "student perspectives on what it means to engage in environmental research and learning," to provide some guidance on how to create empowering learning experiences. John Dewey (1994, p. 10) describes the importance of placing learners in situations that "give the pupils something to do, not something to learn; and the doing is of such a nature as to demand thinking, or the intentional noting of connections." Under these circumstances "learning naturally results."

Science is intensely creative, but some kinds of science training do little to stimulate creativity and foster thinking "connected with increase of effciency in action" (Dewey, 1994, p. 9). Science students often blindly follow instructions without asking questions, which may make for an easy-to-teach afternoon in the lab, but can have poor consequences for lab reports when it becomes clear that students had no idea why they took the steps they did. More signifcantly, it runs the risk of providing "information severed from thoughtful action… [that] simulates knowledge and thereby develops the poison of conceit" (Dewey, 1994, p. 9). Asking students to tackle a question where answers are unknown reinforces the notion that we are all learning. This encourages humility and it reminds us that speedy mastery of alreadyknown chemistry does not necessarily correlate with a signifcant impact on developing new chemistry.

Knowledge is empowering, and we hope that our annotated bibliography of published examples will provide interested faculty members with the necessary tools to incorporate these ideas into their teaching. We hope to prevent faculty members from "rediscovering the wheel" and free them to learn from our examples. We offer creative ways to empower students to do authentic work: asking and answering questions that people outside of the classroom want answered.

Over the past several decades, scholarship on teaching and learning in the sciences has made it increasingly clear that students learn better when engaged in learning; the more actively, the better. Some students can sit through lectures and still deeply engage in problem-solving outside of class. Many others never manage to switch into a more active mode outside of the classroom; instead, they try to learn chemistry by highlighting sections of book chapters and cramming before each exam.

Many felds of human endeavor rely on authentic experiences in which trainees work alongside skilled tutors. Dancers and musicians learn to dance and play music, respectively, through lessons in which they dance or make music and receive feedback and corrections—and then dance or make music again in an iterative process through which they become better dancers or musicians. Similarly, plumbers and electricians learn via the apprentice model. They connect pipes and wires as they learn. Medical professionals receive extensive clinical training. Active learning strategies in science similarly provide an iterative process in which science students do science and solve problems in the presence of an expert who can coach and guide them. Our efforts in teaching lead chemistry aim to provide an active approach to early college chemistry education. Our approach is designed to improve student engagement and understanding and foster a more inclusive learning environment.

The literature on collaborative learning v. competitive learning is vast and complex and defes simple categorization. In our experience, creating a classroom that fosters democratic practices by encouraging students to work together, discuss problems, and share strengths to solve them creates a more just and inclusive community.

A recent book, *Teaching across cultural strengths: A guide to balancing integrated and individuated cultural frameworks in college teaching* (Chávez & Longerbeam, 2016, p. xx), was designed to serve as "an incremental and pragmatic guide for faculty to transform teaching practices for the purpose of inclusively drawing from a balance of cultural strengths to enhance student learning over time." In it, Chávez and Longerbeam (2016) state:

What matters most to student learning, success, and increased retention and graduation rates is for faculty to teach from a strengths-based approach. Strengths-based approaches begin with recognizing cultural and other strengths that students bring to higher education and to their own learning. These approaches cultivate and draw on student strengths to engage and facilitate inclusive learning and are derived from positive psychology and social work. (p. xiii)

Asking students to use their burgeoning knowledge of chemistry to think about the stocks and fows of lead in the environment and how lead exposure impacts human health provides opportunities for many different strengths to be validated in the classroom, including problem-solving skills, practical knowledge about how things work, and social justice issues inherent in the historical and current development of urban landscapes.

### **13.2 The Chemistry of Lead Toxicity and Environmental Justice**

Lead has no known benefcial role in humans. Lead substitutes for zinc or calcium in the body, disrupting a host of essential functions. Lead, zinc, and calcium most commonly are found as the +2 ion. All three elements have full electron shells or subshells in their ionic forms and have similar chemistries. Their ionic radii are also similar (Godwin, 2001). Lead can be found in most parts of our environment, including soil, water, air, and homes. Lead enters the environment through industrial emissions, deposition from leaded gasoline, contaminated former lead smelters, paint in older homes, and soils where older homes have been destroyed. Lead exposure also comes from drinking water contaminated by lead corrosion in plumbing.

Lead can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, or exposure through the skin. Once lead enters the body, it is distributed through the bloodstream and can harm numerous organs. Lead's effects on individuals vary based on amount, duration, and timing of exposure. Lead poisoning can damage the brain and nervous system, impairing learning and memory. Lead exposure is especially harmful to the brains of developing children. Early childhood exposure to lead has been linked to decreased IQ, learning diffculties, behavioral problems, and growth delays. Children and infants experience deleterious effects following lead exposure levels well below those at which adults show effects. However, lead can also damage the cognitive abilities of adults. In extreme cases, lead poisoning can cause seizures or even death. Childhood lead exposure has profound development and learning effects. However, the mechanism(s) by which it exerts these effects on the brain are yet to be fully understood (See Ordemann and Austin (2016) for a discussion of potential mechanisms by which lead can be linked to neurological impacts). There is no known safe level of lead: the current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reference level for blood lead in children is unsafe at 3.5 micrograms per deciliter (ug/dL).

Historically, lead exposure was widespread. In 1970, more than 2000 children in New York City were found to have blood lead levels of 60 ug/dL or higher—severe enough for hospitalization. Advocacy by parents, community organizers, and health care providers led to a wide range of local, state, and federal policies, including banning lead from gasoline (in 1976) and paint (frst locally in New York City, then nationally in 1978) and reducing allowable levels of lead in plumbing over time. As a result of these and other changes, including reductions in industrial emissions and controls on consumer products, the proportion of children with elevated blood lead levels declined dramatically. Although these policies are perceived as a public health success, they may also be viewed as an environmental justice failure. Today, low-income and children of color living in pre-1978 housing are most likely to have elevated blood lead levels.

Although most children with signifcantly elevated blood lead levels are exposed to lead in paint, dust, or soil around their homes, lead in water remains a concern, particularly in historically disadvantaged communities. Flint, Michigan, has been dealing with lead levels above the EPA's action levels since the decision was made in 2014 to switch to a less expensive source of public drinking water. Average blood lead levels there reached about fve ug/dL in children younger than 5 years old. In Flint, a city of 98,310, 41.2% of the people live below the poverty line. The median household income is \$24,862. 56.6% of the residents are African American. Newark, NJ faces similar problems and again represents a less white and less wealthy demographic than nearby areas in the state where lead levels are much lower.

Childhood lead exposure provides many opportunities to explore the causes and consequences of environmental injustice. Academic institutions increasingly emphasize helping students understand and address social inequities. For example, Barnard College's Diversity Mission Statement recognizes that the success of the institution's mission, which is to "rigorously educate and empower women, providing them with the ability to think, discern, and move effectively in the world … depends on the extent to which our community is diverse, inclusive and equitable (Barnard College, 2017)." In addition, "[o]ur defnition of diversity encompasses structural and social differences that form the basis of inequality in our society, including race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, socioeconomic class, disability, religion, citizenship status and country of origin" (Barnard College, 2017). Teaching chemistry students why and how environmental toxins disproportionately affect historically disadvantaged communities connects science students to our institutional mission, which we hope resonates with many readers.

Just as the brunt of lead poisoning falls on low-income communities in the US (Mielke et al., 1983), in the global context, lead poisoning is most severe in the middle- and low-income countries. In countries with improper waste disposal, such as Senegal, people are at risk of lead poisoning from battery recycling. Artisanal mining activities may expose workers and their families to dangerous lead levels. The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (2019) puts the number of annual deaths worldwide from lead exposure at more than 900,000. Integrating information on the causes and consequences of lead poisoning into a chemistry course allows students to understand the real-world impacts of what they are studying. Not all students report more interest in a scientifc topic when they see its applications, but many do, and those that do often value inclusivity. In any case, connecting abstract and concrete topics is a skill all scientists need.

### **13.3 Detailed Teaching Examples**

The most widely-disseminated model for active learning using lead chemistry and the consequences of human lead exposure was funded by the HHMI professorship program and carried out by HHMI professor Hilary Godwin when she was on the chemistry faculty at Northwestern University. Godwin developed a summer course for Northwestern students from groups underrepresented in the sciences. These students worked with her and a postdoctoral fellow to measure lead in Chicago's soil. Her Undergraduate Success in Science (USS) students sampled soils in the Chicago area and did outreach in local communities to inform people about the dangers of lead exposure. Godwin was, at the time, one of the foremost researchers in lead biochemistry, and the close intellectual connection between her research and this project infused it with vitality. (Her work on this project is briefy mentioned in Godwin & Davis, 2005).

### *13.3.1 Small Project-Based Course for Incoming Students: A Bridge Course*

Several years after Godwin's work, Austin emulated it with a similar course at Bates College, working with a small group of students who hailed from groups or backgrounds underrepresented in the sciences (e.g., frst-generation college). Students in the course were participants in a bridge program, initially funded by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) to facilitate the transition of students with backgrounds not well-represented in the sciences, into the intellectual and cultural life of the college in the summer before they matriculated. Bates College students in this summer course measured lead levels in the soils in Lewiston, Maine, an old Franco-American mill town with the highest levels of lead poisoning in the state. Austin was inspired by Godwin's work and similar work by the environmental soil scientist, Samantha Langley-Turnbaugh, then at the University of Southern Maine (USM; see annotated bibliography for more information on her work), both of whom had demonstrated the power of this topic to broadly engage students.

Several aspects of the Bates College course were very successful. The students learned how to use ArcGIS and hand-held GIS devices to record locations where they took soil samples. Later, they plotted lead levels on a map of the city and overlaid that with data from the Maine CDC documenting the number of reported cases of elevated blood lead levels by census block. The students learned how to make calibration curves and convert the amount of lead in ppm as measured by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and the percentage of lead by weight in soil. They set up and ran the ICP-OES, gaining exposure to a sophisticated instrument that illustrates basic principles of atomic structure that can be diffcult for students to grasp.

A colleague (Holly Ewing) created an excellent exercise for the students on sampling. She described a hypothetical environment—a lot with a house on it—and asked them to develop a sampling strategy to determine the concentration of lead in the soils on the property. Students typically had no prior experience designing sampling strategies. They had to develop a sampling strategy relying only on their intuition and prior experiences about how something like lead might be distributed in the world. After developing a sampling strategy, students were taken into an empty classroom where Ewing had laid out the scenario she described, using loose sand to represent the lead in the soil. It was immediately apparent to the students that the lead was distributed very heterogeneously. Chance would determine whether their sampling strategy would detect the existing lead. This emphasis on uncertainty—an idea undergraduate chemistry students often do not get to think about—ran through the whole class. Students also tested their methodology against an authentic standard, working through the calculations that would enable them to assess how representative their sampling protocol would have been.

The students in the class created a map with approximately 40 soil lead measurements. The map also contained data on soil lead levels from local community gardens previously collected by a Bates student and publicly available data on lead-poisoned children. Students got to appreciate the complexity of policy efforts to mitigate lead. Some students associated with the class volunteered to be part of a neighborhood notifcation program, warning residents about the dangers of lead exposure during demolitions of old buildings. The city was demolishing abandoned buildings in a revitalization effort but did not have the resources to warn nearby residents of the potential risks that dust from these demolitions might pose. Class members also met with a local landlord, who permitted the class to sample some of his properties. There were no clear patterns in the data. In general, almost all of the samples had lead levels below the EPA action level and lower than those in the more industrial city to our south, Portland, Maine.

At the end of the semester, the class hosted a community discussion about the data. It was not framed as a presentation, because the class members did not feel that they had the answers; rather, community members were invited and shown what had been learned. Among the people who came was a local congressperson who was unfamiliar with the lead problem. She later co-sponsored a bill dealing with lead poisoning and pointed to our discussion as formative.

### *13.3.2 Large, General Chemistry Courses*

Another example provides a contrast to the small, immersion-type courses described above. Recently, Ann McDermott and her teaching assistants implemented an initiative in which all 197 students in a general chemistry lecture course were invited but not required to participate in measuring the lead content in playground soil in the vicinity of Columbia University's Morningside campus. As a class, they would construct a collective dataset and create a larger picture of the lead situation. Students were invited to write one-page proposals about lead in the environment, including health implications, sources, remediation, or detection, including primary references. The topic was introduced in lectures and used to illustrate course material through in-class and homework problems.

The analytical chemistry of lead has strong connections to the content of standard introductory chemistry courses and provides an excellent vehicle for illustrating many of the general principles of a frst-year chemistry course. Analyzing the presence of lead in the environment illustrates the atomistic and chemical view of the material world**.** It makes extensive use of atomic symbols and refers to isotopes in a practical sense because the various isotopes of lead have distinct origins and can be used to trace lead's source. The approaches used to uniquely identify the presence of lead make practical use of line spectra. Atomic absorption spectroscopy can be used for a quantitative determination of the amount of lead. These techniques make a practical connection to more abstract aspects of the general chemistry curriculum, specifcally spectroscopy and quantum mechanics. They also reinforce concepts related to the periodic table and periodicity in terms of characteristic properties, such as ionic radii, and preferred charge or oxidation state. When bioavailability of lead is assessed in terms of solubility in acidic buffers, these studies can additionally illustrate kinetics, equilibria, pH, and redox chemistry. Biological aspects of lead can be wonderful vehicles for illustrating coordination chemistry. It also provides numerous opportunities to solve multi-step, quantitative problems.

These activities have the potential to expose students to resources and learning opportunities that exceed those typically offered in the general chemistry curriculum**.** For example, students are exposed to literature search strategies and structured critical reading of the primary literature. They participate in the creative selection of a problem and its justifcation in terms of fundamental discovery, planning research, exploring practical impacts, deepening their current understanding, developing testable hypotheses, selecting experimental techniques, implementing a sampling strategy, and using estimates and prior data to select experimental conditions. Students also gain experience with specifc research skills and bench techniques and learn more about reproducibility and the importance of controls. They participate in data and error analysis and have an opportunity to consider over-interpretation and inference from data. They learn about strategies for sharing data, scientifc writing, and presenting.

McDermott and other members of her teaching team compared their perceptions and intentions with student feedback and student choices. The project goals, as elaborated above, were that these active learning assignments would require student initiative and provide students with the opportunity to select a topic of personal passion and current societal relevance—thus creating a context that was authentic for each student. McDermott hoped that this segment of the course would be goaloriented and topically focused, in the way that the practice of scientifc research is, and provide students an opportunity to see operational applications of and connections among the wide breadth of topics presented in a survey-style introductory chemistry course.

Student response was assessed through participation rates. Both the research paper and the experimental research on environmental lead were optional. They were among several mechanisms for obtaining participation points in the course (a small increment of their total grade). In the context of their academic schedules, these choices competed with other more exam-pertinent activities. Nevertheless, 43% participated by writing a paper regarding lead or collecting data on lead in the local environment. (Dropout of the class overall was less than 5%.)

How did students perceive this activity? What aspects interested the students in this activity? Over 90% of the class participated in a feedback survey about these choices. Were their reasons for participating similar to McDermott's intentions in presenting the option? Most students who participated in the lead research project expressed a passion for the topic, civic commitment, or cited the importance of hands-on learning. Several students explained that they were motivated by the possibility of additional face-to-face contact with the professor. Many who participated in the lead research paper stated an interest in the intellectual challenge of writing about science and using library materials. Many also cited engagement with the specifc topic, civic engagement, or connecting the class material to the real world.

The students' experiences and comments echo some of McDermott's original intentions that the experiments and the research would allow students to pursue a passionate interest. Students also saw the research paper as an opportunity to strengthen a broader set of discipline-relevant skills. In addition, student feedback highlighted that these "crowd-sourced" data studies could be socially engaging cooperative endeavors. This fnding provides an exciting opportunity for follow-up pedagogical interventions.

What concerns did students have? Those who did not participate in either the research paper or the experiments cited time management as their top reason for avoiding the selections (some commented that they would have been interested in principle). Some cited a perception that the topic would be too advanced, and a handful stated that they had little interest in this specifc topic. Indeed, the practical challenges regarding time management and student perceptions of the challenge are essential considerations for course planning and communication. Other vital questions will be valuable to address in future efforts. Is there a correlation between high educational gains and classroom integration of societally relevant chemical studies?

Austin reinforced the notion that it is possible to do project-based activities in large introductory chemistry lecture classes. She taught a semester-long projectbased lab developed by her colleague, Tom Wenzel. The lab was part of a twosemester introductory chemistry sequence with an environmental focus that they co-developed. In this class, students planned, carried out, and analyzed the results from an experiment to answer the question: "Does acid rain mobilize lead from soils and lead to its uptake in plants?" Wenzel (2006) describes this project. Introductory chemistry students worked in small groups throughout the semester to do this project. Lab hours were somewhat fexible. Students came to the greenhouse to water their plants when needed, and they spent time planting and harvesting. These were not typical introductory chemistry lab activities but were required to determine if acid rain mobilizes lead from soils and leads to the uptake of lead in plants. The end-of-semester results were often inconclusive and not statistically signifcant. Wrestling with uncertainty is one of the most fundamental aspects of the practice of science and yet we often try to shield young chemistry students from encountering it. However, by shielding students from uncertainty, we reinforce the notion of an omnipotent perspective and, perhaps unintentionally, make science seem less inclusive than it is.

### *13.3.3 Non-majors Course Without a Laboratory Component*

"Jazz of Chemistry" is a chemistry course offered at Barnard College targeting frstyear students. It surveys chemistry in everyday life, from forensics to poisons to food chemistry. This course also satisfes a science requirement in the core curriculum, "Foundations." The course does not include a lab and does not serve as a prerequisite for other science classes, nor does it fulfll requirements for medical or other health professional schools.

Students' background in this course varied from a post-baccalaureate biochemistry major to a general studies student with a minimal chemistry background. The majority of the students in the class were frst-year students fulflling one of the science requirements. Students were assigned a project on the Flint Water Crisis during the semester. Students could choose which type of project they wanted to do: a video presentation, a play with the topic as the theme, or a small group presentation. Students chose to do small group presentations, focusing on different aspects of the crisis: background information about lead, the Flint Water Crisis, and remediation steps. Each student also submitted a written report with references.

Students researched a wide range of subjects, including government involvement, how the event affected the population of Flint, and the possibility of cures for lead poisoning. Students also researched information about the age of water pipes in other cities and how to avoid this type of crisis in cities with older infrastructures. This project was ideal for frst-year students to develop a bigger picture of what goes on in situations like the Flint water crisis. The project also enabled students to be creative. One of the students presented their report on background information with all the characters involved using a Playbill.

The students learned precautions to prevent consuming tap water contaminated with lead, when the water coming from the tap would contain the highest lead levels, and how drinking water is treated before distribution. In summary, this project successfully fulflled the objectives of a course like Jazz of Chemistry, where the emphasis is helping students see a global picture that links chemistry to signifcant social issues. The course also emphasized cooperative learning, professional presentation, and scientifc research and writing.

### **13.4 Responding to the Legal and Ethical Implications of Lead Assessment**

Because of health, legal, and economic issues associated with lead contamination, students need to be respectful of uncertainty and understand the ethical complexity of the issue. Program designs also need to comply with pertinent laws. Partnering with local community groups, health care providers, and government agencies can help contextualize student fndings.

There are a number of particular ethical and legal issues to consider when students engage in assessments of people's homes and community environments. This applies to all assessments—visual, survey, or sampling—particularly when testing for lead. First, students need to appreciate the residents' tenure (renters/owners), as well as their economic, cultural, and political circumstances. Renters are often rightly concerned that any information or action related to housing quality could lead to confict with their landlord and possible eviction. Although there may be legal protections against retaliatory eviction, in reality, these protections may not hold. The Hippocratic Oath of "frst, do no harm" is an important reminder to students and faculty to take every precaution that their involvement with someone's housing situation does not cause unintended adverse effects. Precautions include providing referrals to free legal resources, sharing information in ways residents can understand, supporting follow-up actions or questions, and being clear with residents about potential outcomes of having additional information about their housing quality—before testing. Although these issues are most clear for renters, lowincome owner-occupants may have concerns that identifying hazards will obligate them to make repairs they cannot afford. Information about lead hazards may also lower their home's value, cause conficts with neighbors, or create confict within families about appropriate courses of action. It is also essential to recognize that lead may come from many sources in addition to paint, dust, and soil around pre-1978 housing. Children may be exposed to lead in water, from their parents' jobs, consumer products, traditional medicines, legacy industrial contamination, or other sources. Any housing assessment or intervention is an opportunity to raise awareness of all these potential sources of exposure.

Second, it is essential to recognize that lead is a highly regulated hazard with unique legal and health implications. For example, the federal disclosure law requires owners who have "knowledge" of lead to disclose or report this information to any future renters or buyers (EPA, n.d.). It has not been clearly established by law whether this applies to a positive reading for lead using a home test kit, but the argument could be made that any evidence of lead triggers the disclosure law, potentially affecting the resale value of the property. Finding lead in a home may encourage residents to test their children for lead; if they are found to have elevated lead, this may empower the family to prevent further exposure. It may also trigger intervention by the local health department. Renters may pursue legal action against the property owner. Finding a potential lead hazard may cause the property owner to do renovation work to address the hazard (e.g., fxing peeling paint), which can reduce future exposures. However, if such work is not done carefully using leadsafe work practices, it is easy to generate lead dust, creating an even more severe hazard. The EPA requires people who are paid to disturb paint in pre-1978 housing (including DIY landlords) to have Renovation, Repair and Painting Program (RRP) and EPA certifcation precisely to avoid creating lead hazards during renovation (EPA, n.d.).

Third, and perhaps most concerning, is the potential for false negatives. Any test may yield a false positive (indicating lead when there is no lead) or a false negative (indicating there is no lead when lead is present). In the latter case, residents may be falsely reassured that their house is lead-safe, and fail to take precautions such as lead-safe cleaning and work practices during renovation, keeping children from chewing on walls or window sills, covering bare soil, and using walk-off (dust) mats at entrances (See Korfmacher and Dixon (2007) for more information on the reliability of spot tests for lead; also see Waggett et al., n.d.). A false negative for lead may increase the potential for poisoning a child. Clear and thoughtful communication about the many uncertainties involved in lead testing is critical, particularly when community residents or groups are involved.

Fourth, students tend to overreach in the conclusions they draw as they begin to study lead chemistry. They may assume that any child with elevated levels of lead in their blood will have a lower IQ than they would have otherwise and may not recognize the impacts this implication could have on affected families. Instructors must remind students that a statistical association between two variables does not mean we know precisely how lead exposure will affect a given individual. Sharing information about the potential lifelong health and behavioral impacts of lead on children can deeply upset parents and community members. Partnering with local health departments, health care providers, or housing agencies to provide appropriate context, information about uncertainty, and follow-up action can be helpful.

Finally, talking about social justice issues in the classroom requires a skilled facilitator. College science teachers may not be trained or experienced in moderating such diffcult conversations. It can be helpful to lay out some guidelines for talking about racism, equity, and justice at the beginning of the class, particularly since their colleagues and community members may have very different life experiences and perspectives. It is important to remind students to remain humble and acknowledge how much they do not know about diverse communities' experiences and multidisciplinary perspectives. It can be challenging to balance this message while encouraging students to become as confdent of their basic scientifc skills as quickly as possible.

These are just some of the ethical, legal, and economic factors to consider before embarking on environmental assessments, particularly those that involve testing housing or other community environments for lead. Each of these issues may be fodder for rich discussions about how to prevent, mitigate, or address such realworld complexities and how these principles may apply to other kinds of citizen science. Colleagues in social sciences, humanities, or student services can assist in fostering constructive and respectful discussions of such diffcult issues.

### **13.5 Conclusions**

Teaching chemistry through the lens of urban lead hazards and children's environmental health provides an opportunity to connect fundamental concepts in chemistry to social and environmental justice issues. This problem-based approach creates multiple opportunities for real-world and community-engaged learning experiences for chemistry students. We hope that the examples provided in this chapter and included in the annotated bibliography will provide foundational information on which interested science educators can build authentic classroom and laboratory experiences that respond to the strengths and needs of their students, as well as their local community contexts and partnerships.

#### **Annotated Bibliography**

The annotated bibliography primarily contains examples of published cases that use lead chemistry to engage students. It also includes some valuable readings to help create ethical and authentic classroom and laboratory learning experiences.

Bachofer, S J. (2008). Sampling the soils around a residence containing lead-based paints: an X-ray fuorescence experiment, *Journal of Chemical Education*, *85*(7), pp. 980–982, https://doi.org/10.1021/ed085p980

The goal of Bachofer's experiment on soil was student exposure to sampling and X-ray fuorescence. The students collected samples from the soil around a residence with known exterior lead paint. The students determined exact sampling locations based on the EPA's Lead-Safe Yards information. Lead content was determined by X-ray Fluorescence. They analyzed their samples by averaging four generated spectra. The average lead values from the soil were then juxtaposed with the EPA's standards (preliminary remediation goals) and a background sample. To connect back with the community, students drafted letters to the homeowner. The layout of the experiment allowed for the practical application of environmental chemistry, community engagement, student problem solving, and decision making.

Breslin, V. T. & Sañudo-Wilhelmy, S. A. (2001). The lead project: An environmental instrumental analysis case study. *Journal of Chemistry Education, 78*(12), 1647–1651. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed078p1647

Breslin and Sañudo-Wilhelmy describe a course in environmental instrumental analysis focused on teaching techniques and engaging students in original community work. Students were given preliminary articles on lead and the environment. From this point, students engaged in problem defnition, sampling design and statistics, analytical and instrumental principles, sampling protocols and feld sampling, sample preparation and analysis, data analysis and interpretation, and fnal report and presentation. Each step included a lecture and/or active learning portion, in which students were given the tools for the work ahead. The students did feldwork in a suburban area, testing the lead levels in the soil and lead content in house paint. Analysis revealed comparable lead levels in the soil surrounding older homes in the New York suburbs (Suffolk County, in particular) and in large cities. Finally, students worked one-on-one with professors to write and revise a lab report in manuscript form, exposing them to the realities of the publication process and providing students with a fuller understanding of the research process. Students presented their work to the public, and homeowners who came to the presentation were given information on lead levels and harm prevention. After completing the project, some students credited their enrollment in the course and engagement in the project as a catalyst for being hired for environmental analysis and consulting work.

Cancilla, D.A., (2001). Integration of environmental analytical chemistry with environmental law: the development of a problem-based laboratory, *Journal of Chemical Education, 78*(12), pp. 1652–1660, https://doi.org/10.1021/ ed078p1652

Cancilla outlines the creation of a "problem-based environmental analytical chemistry laboratory and its integration with an undergraduate environmental law course." This combination of environmental law and environmental chemistry posited some unique discussions, like the differences between scientifc uncertainty and legal uncertainty. It gave students the vocabulary necessary to integrate the scientifc and the legal. The course organized a group of environmental law students and one environmental chemistry student into simulated governmental entities, such as the EPA or the Department of Health. The environmental chemistry students and environmental law students were given the same basic information about a fctional city to introduce them to real-life guidelines for quality control and contextual circumstances. The chemistry students ran studies on water samples (generated by instructors) and gave their results to the law students for their argument. The students then presented their cases to a board. Chemistry students gained exposure to various tests of toxicity, including microtox experiments, immunoassay experiments, solid-phase extraction, microextraction, and atomic absorption spectroscopy. Due to the fctional legal matter, chemistry students were exposed to the chain of custody forms, and law students could use mishandled chain of custody forms in their arguments. The quality of the data generated was also used in arguments before the board, which encouraged chemistry students to be conscientious of the data generated, as poor or unusable data would impact their group's arguments. Each student was assessed based on a consulting report, modeled on given real-life examples of consulting reports. Similar to students in the Breslin and Sañudo-Wilhelmy (2001) course, the environmental law and the environmental chemistry students found this course benefcial in securing jobs in related felds.

Fillman, K. L. & Palkendo J. A. (2014). Collection, extraction, and analysis of lead in atmospheric particles, *Journal of Chemical Education, 91*(4), pp. 590–592. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed400589r

Environmental science students sampled ambient air to fnd whether or not lead levels in Berks County, Pennsylvania were compliant with National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Through this experiment, students were introduced to atomic spectroscopy techniques necessary for metal analysis, learning the importance of the proper technique selection. Students were familiarized with air sampling, quality control parameters, and percent recovery in a similar context to government use. Samples were collected in a glass fber flter.  The sample was centrifuged, and the supernatant was collected in two aliquots. A known amount of a lead standard was added to one of the two samples. A blank flter was also prepared to determine an unused flter's lead content for comparison. The samples were then run in a Varian GTA 100 and a Varian 220 FS atomic absorption spectrometer. The paper notes that this analysis could also have been done with inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy or mass spectrometry. More advanced students analyzed the samples with anodic stripping voltammetry. The majority of students involved stated that they found the experiment interesting. There was no noted community engagement, and the students followed a pre-existing procedure.

Goldcamp, M. J., Underwood, M. N., Cloud, J. L., Harshman, S. & Ashley, K. (2008). An environmentally friendly, cost-effective determination of lead in environmental samples using anodic stripping voltammetry, *Journal of Chemical Education, 85*(7), 976–979, https://doi.org/10.1021/ed085p976

Anodic stripping voltammetry can be used to teach students about lead in the environment in a lab-friendly, feldwork-oriented way. This article is concerned with introducing the technique to students in a cost-effective and timeeffective manner. The authors used pencil graphite as electrodes instead of more expensive glassy carbon electrodes. The students collected samples

from waterbeds in Ohio. They sifted, dried, and extracted the samples for voltammetric analysis. This experiment taught electrochemistry and environmental chemistry, emphasizing the standard addition method while allowing students to do feldwork. After the collection of the samples, students worked from an established protocol. The procedure was time-consuming, though the authors provide ways to run the experiment under time constraints (such as preparing solutions and samples in advance). The four students who participated noted that their feldwork at the waterbeds increased their interest in the experiment.

Langley-Turnbaugh, S. J. & Belanger, L. G. (2010). Phytoremediation of lead in urban residential soils of Portland, Maine, *Soil Survey Horizons*, *51*(4)

This article examined whether phytoremediation could be used to successfully remove lead from urban soil. While planting spinach in lead-contaminated soils decreased lead levels in soils, the decrease was not statistically signifcant and more alarmingly, the levels of lead in spinach were troubling, pointing to concerns about lead levels in urban gardens. As phytoremediation might be an inexpensive strategy employed in urban settings, this article provides a cautionary note about engaging in this practice without monitoring lead levels in vegetables.

Weidenhamer, J. D. (2007). Circuit board analysis for lead by atomic absorption spectroscopy in a course for nonscience majors, *Journal of Chemical Education*, *84*(7), pp. 1165–1166, https://doi.org/10.1021/ed084p1165

A considerable amount of environmental lead contamination today comes from electronic waste. Since electronics, such as phones and laptops, are ubiquitous for many college students, it would be wise to include electronic waste in curricula when teaching environmental chemistry. Circuit boards from old laboratory instruments were tested for lead content using atomic absorption. The samples were digested and prepared for AA in the frst lab period. In the second lab period, absorbance readings were analyzed with Excel. The varying colors of the solutions made a point about qualitative variability. The third lab period was a wrap-up of the analysis done on the second day. This experiment was designed and carried out without decision-making on the part of the student, and while it engaged the student body, it did not go beyond the lab itself.

Wenzel, T. J. (2006). General Chemistry: expanding the learning outcomes and promoting interdisciplinary connections through the use of a semester-long project. *CBE Life Sciences Education*, *5*(1), pp. 76–84. https://doi.org/10.1187/ cbe.05-05-0077.

This article summarizes a semester-long project-based laboratory studying the mobility of lead ions through the soil and into plants as a function of the pH of rain. The lab was developed for a frst-semester introductory chemistry class and illustrated that problem solving and experimental design could be taught at the earliest stages of scientifc education.

**Acknowledgements** We would like to acknowledge all of the students we have taught in various courses over the years where lead chemistry and the injustices associated with lead poisoning have been featured, and the staff at our various institutions who have supported our efforts. Initial funding for CHEM 103 "Urban Lead Pollution", taught at Bates College, was provided by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI). RNA acknowledges the National Science Foundation (CHE-1151957) for support of her work in this area. Any opinions, fndings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily refect the views of the National Science Foundation. KSK is supported by National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences grant P30 ES001247and developed problem-based teaching resources on lead through the InTeGrate program https://serc.carleton.edu/integrate/index.html.

### **References**

**Rachel Narehood Austin** is the Diana T. and P. Roy Vagelos Professor of Chemistry at Barnard College, Columbia University. Work in her lab focuses on understanding the mechanisms of metalloproteins, especially those important in the global cycling of elements and neurochemistry, and developing and characterizing heterogeneous catalysts that can be used for green chemistry, biofuels upgrading, or environmental remediation.

**Ann McDermott** is the Esther and Ronald Breslow Professor of Biological Chemistry and Professor of Biological Sciences and Chemical Engineering at Columbia University. An expert in using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to study biomolecules, Professor McDermott's work has been recognized with numerous awards, including acceptance into the National Academy of Sciences.

**Katrina Korfmacher** is a Professor of Environmental Medicine at the University of Rochester. Dr. Korfmacher has worked with community partnerships related to lead, healthy homes, air quality, and land use for 20 years. She is the author of "Bridging Silos: Collaborating for Environmental Health and Justice in Urban Communities."

**Laura Arbelaez** was born in Pereira, Colombia and raised in Paterson, New Jersey. She received her BA in Biochemistry at Barnard College of Columbia University. She currently works in the Environmental and Occupational Health Industry in New York City and will be attending medical school in 2022.

**Jamie Bousleiman** graduated from Barnard College in 2019 with a major in biochemistry. She is frst generation Lebanese-American currently attending the Jacobs School of Medicine in Buffalo, class of 2025. At Barnard College, she discovered a passion for connecting science to real world issues, which led to her interest in this project.

**Arminda Downey-Mavromatis** graduated from Barnard College in 2020 with a degree in biochemistry. She is currently an Assistant Editor at Chemical & Engineering News.

**Rahma Elsiesy** is a bioengineering Ph.D. student based in California, interested in bioinformatics and medical device development. She is originally from Cairo, Egypt but grew up between NYC, the United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia. Rahma is passionate about global public health and making healthcare accessible.

**Sohee Ki** is currently a third-year medical student at the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California. She aspires to become a leading clinician committed to medical education and research. She graduated Bates College in 2016 with a double major in chemistry and music.

**Meena Rao** is the Director of Organic Chemistry Laboratories at Barnard College. She is passionate about teaching and has received prestigious awards for teaching from the university. Dr. Rao also has been at the forefront of developing new courses and is actively involved with Collegiate Science and Technology Entry (CSTEP) and Opportunity Programs.

**Shoshana Williams** earned her bachelor's in chemistry with a minor in religion at Barnard College, Columbia University. She is now pursuing her Ph.D. in chemistry at Stanford University in the laboratory of Professor Eric Appel. Her current work focuses on the development of novel polymeric materials for drug delivery applications.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

### **Chapter 14 Brownfeld Action: A Civic-Oriented, Web-Based, Active Learning Simulation**

**Peter Bower and Sedelia Rodriguez**

### **14.1 Brownfelds**

Brownfelds are a critical concern for environmental justice and sustainability. They are properties, often abandoned, where the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of the property may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of hazardous substances, pollutants, or contaminants. According to the EPA, there are presently over half a million brownfelds in the United States, but this number only includes sites for which an environmental site assessment (ESA) has been conducted. The actual number of brownfelds is certainly in the millions and brownfeld remediation and redevelopment constitutes one of the major environmental issues confronting communities today. This importance is magnifed by the disproportionate number of brownfelds in economically stressed communities where revitalization is critical for jobs and economic growth as well as environmental justice and sustainability. Brownfeld remediation and redevelopment have been identifed as a priority by federal and state governments and constitute an important job focus for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) workers (Fig. 14.1).

### **14.2 Brownfeld Action**

Introducing students to the basic concepts of environmental science and justice, groundwater, and environmental contamination, including the authentic methods used to study and inclusive approaches to address environmental contamination, is the main goal of Brownfeld Action (BA). Because brownfelds are often a source of

P. Bower (\*) · S. Rodriguez

Department of Environmental Science, Barnard College, New York, NY, USA e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
<sup>©</sup> The Author(s) 2023

M. S. Rivera Maulucci et al. (eds.), *Transforming Education for Sustainability*, Environmental Discourses in Science Education 7, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13536-1\_14

**Fig. 14.1** The Brownfeld Action Logo

environmental toxifcation, they are also a concern for the environmental health and safety of communities, therefore civic engagement and inclusion are important components of BA.

BA is a web-based, interactive, three-dimensional digital space and learning simulation in which students form geotechnical consulting companies and work collaboratively to explore and solve problems in environmental forensics as they engage in an organic, evolving, semester-long, laboratory exploration of a simulated brownfeld and its local community. BA marries a civic-minded, constructivist approach to learning about the environmental, economic, and civic importance of brownfelds and the toxifcation of the environment. Created at Barnard College in collaboration with the Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning, BA has been used for over 15 years at Barnard College for one semester of a two-semester Introduction to Environmental Science course that is taken by more than 100 female, undergraduate, non-science majors each year to satisfy their laboratory science requirement. BA was selected in 2003 as a "national model curriculum" by SENCER (Science Education for New Civic Engagements and Responsibilities), an NSF STEM education initiative. What makes the BA SENCER model curriculum unique is that it includes a signifcant component of engagement with the civic dimensions of environmental contamination interwoven with the technical investigations being conducted by the students (Bower et al., 2011).

A signature feature of BA is its companion website at (Bower, n.d.) featuring information about BA and a guided walkthrough of the simulation. In the Registered Instructors section, instructors maintain profles of their experiences with BA and add downloadable original curriculum materials for sharing with new BA users. Interested faculty can consult profles, fnd and contact faculty with similar courses and interests, re-use or create derivative materials from the posted documents, and also become part of the collaborative network. A library of documents, maps, and images related to the simulation and its use in the classroom can also be found in the Appendix.

### **14.3 Pedagogical Rationale**

The pedagogical methods and design of the BA model are grounded in substantial research literature focused on the design, use, and effectiveness of games and simulations in education. Benefts of a simulation approach to learning include increased engagement; adaptations for students with high or low prior knowledge; effective replacement for expensive/impractical feld trips; control over the pace and direction of learning; increase in student participation over large lecture hall formats; effectiveness in representing complex subject matter; application to realistic situations; and the packaging of complex ideas into a consistent narrative. Much of the literature on computer-based simulations cited below is built upon the legacy of researchers such as Greenblat (1981), Lederman (1984), and Petranek (1992, 1994), who showed how paper-based educational simulations could motivate learners to be active participants in their own learning through individualized activities and immediate feedback. Many researchers are actively engaged in the study of particular teaching and learning strategies that employ a custom-created computer-based simulation or game similar to BA (Barab et al., 2000; Barab & Plucker, 2002, 2005, 2010; Dede & Ketlehut, 2003; Rosenbaum et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2009; Jacobson et al., 2009). A number of researchers have explored the use of simulation technologies in creating virtual feld trips as a response to educational, logistical, and economic constraints (Arrowsmith et al., 2005; Whitelock & Jelfs, 2005; Ramasundaram et al., 2005).

Simulations allow the packaging of complex issues into consistent narratives, which can facilitate meaning-making (Bruner, 2002; Weinberger et al., 2005). Simulations have been found to be an effective way to represent complex systems and explore inclusive, multi-faceted socio-technical problems (Gee, unpublished; Squire & Jenkins, 2004; Barab et al., 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2007; Herrington et al., 2007). Learners are able to understand educational content by exploring it within realistic situations, consistent with the principles of situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Barsalou, 1999; Pedretti, 1999; Barab & Plucker, 2002; Rosenberg, 2006).

Mayer and Chandler (2001) found that students who had more control over the pace and direction of educational simulations showed better learning outcomes than those who had less, or what Betrancourt (2005) has called the interactivity principle. Accordingly, engaging students with the educational content at hand is key. BA accomplishes this through the gradual unveiling of additional components as students learn more concepts and discover more of the town and its underlying hydrogeologic features and civic infrastructure. Student teams control the pace and direction of their explorations to varying degrees depending on the course level in which BA is implemented (Bower et al., 2011).

Some suggest that using simulations and educational games can be an effective way to engage the "video game generation" (Katz, 2000; Prensky, 2006). Researchers in recent years have also found that the learning and engagement seen in young people's playing of video games, including simulation-based games, can be translated into meaningful educational gains in the classroom (Shaffer & Gee, 2005; Gee, 2007; Rieber, 2001; Rieber et al., 2004; Rieber & Noah, 2008; Prensky, 2006; Herrington et al., 2007; Van Eck, 2007; Chinn & Malhotra, 2002). Through its use of a complex narrative with interactive videos and maps as well as environmental testing tools and other game-based features, BA takes advantage of the motivational features of video games to engage students in the narrative of an environmental contamination scenario that weaves in a knowledge base of scientifc skills and concepts.

Simulations also allow educators to move away from large lecture halls, where students are typically passive and increase participation through inquiry-based learning. However, the role of teachers in scripting and facilitating simulation-based activities remains crucial (Barab et al., 2000; Weinberger et al., 2005). While measurable benefts of educational simulations have been shown to vary according to prior knowledge, the medium has been shown to positively impact comprehension, cognitive load, and learning effciency (Park et al., 2009). BA is inclusive and is adaptable to students with both high and low prior knowledge by modifying the amount of prior information and kinds of assignments given to the students and by tailoring contextual help provided by instructors to the appropriate level of the intended audience. While simulations have many positive aspects, negatives in general include the cost and expertise required for development, maintenance and updating., the time required for students to learn how to use the simulations and "buy into" its virtual reality, the inability of many simulations to deal with the ambiguity of dynamic, real-life situations, and the potential for some loss of control and fexibility on the part of the instructor.

BA is one of a small but growing number of computer simulation-based teaching tools that have been developed to facilitate student learning through interaction and decision-making in a virtual environment. In STEM felds, other examples include CLAIM (Bauchau et al., 1993) for mineral exploration; DRILLBIT (Johnson & Guth, 1997) and MacOil, (Burger, 1989) for oil exploration; BEST SiteSim (Santi & Petrikovitsch, 2001) for hazardous waste and geotechnical investigations; Virtual Volcano (Parham et al., 2009) to investigate volcanic eruptions and associated hazards; and eGEO (Slator et al., 2011) for environmental science education. These virtual simulations give students access to environments and experiences that are too dangerous, cost-prohibitive, or otherwise impractical to explore (Saini-Eidukat

et al., 1998). Through directed role-play, they also provide opportunities for social interaction and student inquiry into the human element of technical analysis and decision making (Aide, 2008).

### **14.4 Simulation Overview**

The heart of the BA simulation is a virtual world containing over 2 million hydrogeologic data points in a three-dimensional grid representing roughly 150 acres of land in a virtual town. The grid points contain many different types of natural data including surface elevation, depth to water table and bedrock, soil or sediment type, and vegetation. The town has a fully-realized human infrastructure (buildings, roads, wells, water towers, homes, and businesses) as well as a municipal government. There is a compelling storyline of economic development in the town involving individual people and their particular civic roles and life histories. The story (embedded and to be discovered in the simulation) is one of groundwater contamination caused by underground contaminant plumes stemming from the failure of underground infrastructure (pipes and tanks). As students become familiar with the simulated town and the history of its abandoned plant, the students gradually reconstruct the details of an all-too-familiar narrative. The "Self-Lume, Inc." factory, which until recently manufactured radioluminescent signs, has been badly mismanaged and factory employees have dumped radioactive materials into a septic feld. A gas station is also discovered to have a leaking underground storage tank. Both have contaminated the local aquifer and the town well.

At Barnard College, students in the BA laboratory form their own environmental consulting companies and work in teams of two. Each team views a video that sets up the background narrative, in which a developer ("Malls-R-Us") plans to bring back an abandoned industrial brownfeld in the town into commercial use. Each company signs a detailed contract with a development corporation to perform testing needed for a Phase I Environmental Site Assessment (ESA) of the abandoned factory and surrounding properties and prepares a report for the developer on the advisability of proceeding with mall construction. The contract summarizes the budget and obligations for each company as well as the goals for the semester-long investigation. Everything the student companies do in BA costs money and each company competes with the other companies to successfully complete its investigation and maximize its proft. While BA is a collaborative project, each student at Barnard must write and produce her own Phase I ESA report using the information acquired by the team. After the Phase I ESA, all student companies are hired by the EPA and work together in the Phase II Environmental Site Investigation, with each student preparing a Phase II report delineating the nature and extent of the contamination. Student companies work together as detectives to develop an understanding of the specifc roles of individuals at the abandoned factory site. They assist local prosecutors with forensic evidence to help build both civil and criminal lawsuits against the responsible parties.

The digital space and supporting materials draw the students into a "real" integrated world with several mysteries to be solved. The tools required to solve these mysteries come from an interdisciplinary array spanning geology, environmental science, history, economics, civics, physics, biology, chemistry, and law. Each company must strive to obtain the maximum amount of information at the lowest cost, information that will help them make more important and expensive decisions later in the semester in order to fulfll their contractual obligations. Students may obtain historical and qualitative information by visiting the municipal complex or interviewing community members within the simulation. They can choose from an array of technical tools enabling them to determine surface elevations and construct a topographic map, fnd underground tanks or pipes using ground-penetrating radar, collect seismic data to fnd depth to bedrock, or drill to determine the depth to the water table and to take groundwater samples. As an example of authenticity, all tools, for example, ground-penetrating radar, can only be used after passing certifcation tests. As with any real-world professional investigation, students must keep in mind their budget, integrate a variety of information coming from multiple sources, and think strategically about the best way to run their investigation. As they learn critical concepts of geology, hydrology, and chemistry in lectures, students are required to apply this new knowledge to successfully pursue their investigation and to make sound scientifc and budgetary choices. Finally, students research and prepare a Phase III ESA that presents a plan for the remediation of the site. Figure 14.2 shows a screenshot from the Brownfeld Action software.

**Fig. 14.2** Screenshot of Brownfeld Action software in Site History mode

The main learning goals for the use of the BA simulation at BC are:

### **14.5 Assessment**

Formative assessment strategies for the use of the BA simulation and curriculum at Barnard College were employed using a modifed model of Design Research (Bereiter, 2002; Collins, 1992; Edelson, 2002), culminating in a qualitative ethnographic approach using monthly interviews to determine the impact of Brownfeld Action on the learning process. Results of these ethnographies (see Kelsey, 2003) showed at a high confdence level that the simulation allowed students to apply content knowledge from lectures in a lab setting and to effectively connect disparate topics with both lecture and lab components. Furthermore, it was shown that BA improved student retention and that students made linkages in their reports not likely to be made in a traditional teaching framework. It was also found that, in comparison with their predecessors before the program's adoption, students attained markedly higher levels of precision, depth, sophistication, and authenticity in their analysis of the contamination problem, learning more content and in greater depth. This study also showed that BA supports the growth of each student's relationship to environmental issues and promotes transfer into the student's real-life decisionmaking and approach to careers, life goals, and science (Bower et al., 2011). A recent Barnard graduate wrote:

*Brownfelds* was one of the most benefcial and realistic courses I took at Barnard/Columbia. The course is an online simulation that takes students through the thinking, writing, interviewing, and sampling processes of Phase 1, 2, and 3 Environmental Site Assessments (ESA). *Brownfelds* had a major impact on my job search and, ultimately, my career path. Brownfelds gave me the confdence and the necessary terminology and skills to tackle environmental consulting interviews I had along the way. I am now a Field Hydrogeologist/ Environmental Scientist for an environmental consulting frm. Brownfeld Action prepared me for the interview process, many of the sampling techniques, and the creative mindset needed for tackling large-scale environmental and hazardous waste projects. Specifcally, the interview process at many environmental consulting frms consists of questions regarding relevant courses. Of course, for me, *Brownfelds* was the most relevant! During many of my interviews, I was asked to explain how I would go about analyzing water, air, or soil quality, how to balance data or information from multiple sources (i.e. interviews, lab results, documents, etc.), and how to conduct an ESA from beginning to end. Finally, I was asked to provide writing samples. I chose to submit my Phase 1, 2, and 3 ESA Reports written during my *Brownfelds* course. I really think these set me apart from other candidates for the position I obtained because I know MANY qualifed people that were being interviewed. Being paired up with a lab partner with whom I formed an environmental consulting company and collaborating collectively with the rest of the class has given me the necessary communication and teamwork skills that are imperative in this line of work. Furthermore, the course was taught in a way that gave just enough direction to get us (the students) started but not enough to eliminate the ambiguity of how to approach an ESA at a specifc site, fnd contamination, groundwater contamination plumes and origins or the techniques necessary for analysis and removal of hazardous materials during remediation. It was up to the students to come up with a plan of action and discuss various strategies at each stage.

### **14.6 Collaborative Network of Users**

The BA simulation is also unique in that it has been disseminated to twelve colleges, universities, and high schools where it is currently being used in the classroom and through the development of a collaborative community of users. BA is the only SENCER national model curriculum with a network of faculty collaborating in a community of practice. Moreover, this network has adapted the original simulation and its related products for use with a widening diversity of students, in a variety of classroom settings, and toward an expanding list of pedagogical goals (see Bower et al., 2014).

The collaborative network of users described in Bower et al. (2014) includes educators using the BA simulation to enhance environmental instruction at the high school level, to teach the fundamentals of hydrology and environmental site assessments at an introductory to intermediate undergraduate level, and to train both undergraduate and graduate students in advanced courses in hydrology and environmental remediation. Although many of the applications reported here apply to courses in STEM curricula, BA is not restricted in its utility to teaching students with advanced STEM skills. Rather, BA has proven to be equally effective whether it is used to introduce non-science literate students to basic concepts of environmental science and basic civic issues of environmental contamination (Bower et al., 2011) or to provide advanced training in environmental site assessments and modeling groundwater contamination to future environmental professionals.

BA has increased exposure to STEM education innovations and environmental science to historically underrepresented groups. BA emphasizes brownfelds in environmental justice communities, as well as increasing participation of women and underrepresented minorities in STEM. Schools that join the growing BA network also commit to racial and gender diversity for this project. The 112 students who use BA at Barnard College as part of the Introduction to Environmental Science course refect the overall composition of the college. Except for a few male Columbia students, all are women, 18% are African-American, Latina, or Native American, and 24% are Asian. Over 90% of these students are non-science majors taking the course to fulfll their science requirement. For most of these non-science majors, BA is their last academic contact with science. Several of the collaborators are inner-city institutions with signifcant minority populations. These include Wayne State in Detroit (nearly 30% Black with a signifcant Arab minority), California State University East Bay (61% female, 26% Hispanic, 11% Black, 26% Asian/ Pacifc, and 16% other and international), and City College of New York (with 38% Hispanic, 25% Asian and 15% Black). Other partner institutions include Kansas State University (25% Black, Hispanic, and Asian, including a small native American population, and 50% women), Connecticut College (60% women and 19% Black, Hispanic and Asian), Hofstra University (38% Black, Hispanic, and Asian and 53% women) and Lafayette College (47% women and 15% Black, Hispanic, and Asian).

### **14.7 Conclusions**

Environmental science education plays a vital role in preparing a highly-qualifed STEM workforce. Effective environmental science education requires students to collaboratively work together to solve complex problems. BA contributes to the transformation of environmental science education by the use of an adaptive and authentic, technology-rich collaborative learning environment that can enable tailored team-based problem-solving experiences that improve learning and collaborative engagement. As such Brownfeld Action successfully incorporates authenticity, active collaborative learning, and justice in its pedagogy, as well as its user network of institutions and students.

### **Appendix: Brownfeld Simulation Materials**

The following materials are available in these shared folders:

### **References**

Bruner, J. (2002). *Making stories: Law, literature, life*. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

**Peter Bower,** creator of Brownfeld Action, is a retired Research Scholar in the Department of Environmental Science (DES) at Barnard College, Columbia University. As its frst full-time employee, he built the DES from its beginnings 35 years ago, teaching and mentoring student research until his recent retirement.

**Sedelia Rodriguez** is a Senior Lecturer in Environmental Science at Barnard College. She is also the Assistant Director/ Academic Coordinator for Barnard's Science Pathways Scholars Program. Her research focuses on the environmental impacts of voluminous lava fows. As a former environmental site assessment professional, she has used Brownfeld Action in her classes for over a decade.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

### **Chapter 15 Learning from the Many, Teaching to the Many: Applying Ecojustice Principles to Undergraduate Pedagogy in Environmental Science, Ecology, and Sustainability Classrooms**

**Mary A. Heskel and Jennings G. A. Mergenthal**

### **15.1 Perspectives in and on Undergraduate Classrooms**

This is at least the second rewrite of this chapter – at least. It is nearly unrecognizable from the frst. I (Mary) am letting you in on this because, as an educator and a scientist, I view adjusting ideas and practices, welcoming change and diverse perspectives, and seeking out new ideas as part of the job. It is essential to remind ourselves to be adaptive, as the syllabi of our classes, curricula of our departments, and more broadly, our ideas on how students learn and apply knowledge often stagnate and age while we work vigorously to push the research of our labs forward.

Committing your teaching – through practices and content selection – to include authentic connections to Environmental Justice and EcoJustice can broaden the impact of your STEM (i.e., − science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) courses. While we often recognize the importance of human systems and their effects on ecological and environmental processes when teaching – most notably the impacts of climate change – it is less common for professors to expand into the structural inequalities of human systems and how they shape the science we practice and the content we deliver. This chapter encourages scientists, educators, and students to broaden their perspectives, critique historical biases and inequities in ecology and environmental science, and embrace the broad plurality of information available to us, with particular attention to the integration of Indigenous knowledge.

M. A. Heskel (\*) · J. G. A. Mergenthal

Department of Biology, Macalester College, Saint Paul, MN, USA e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
### **15.2 Perspectives Matter – Here Are Ours**

You are about to read the outcomes of our research and discussions as a writing team and our individual experiences in different roles in science education and practice. I (Mary) am currently an Assistant Professor of Ecology at a small liberal arts college. My background as an undergraduate and graduate student at large research institutions where innovative teaching was not highly prioritized; as a biology teacher at an under-resourced urban public high school where nurturing connections with students, clear expectations, and active learning were valued and promoted; and as a research scientist learning and navigating explicit and unwritten rules that dictate success, informs my perspectives on teaching and mentoring undergraduate students. However, in my current role, I fnd my perspective on teaching most informed by the students I teach – what are their goals for the course and for after college as emerging adults faced with challenges that include student debt, climate change, and anxiety over an uncertain future? I aim to develop courses that teach content and transferable skills and provide a space where students feel they are supported to grow and succeed. So, I have been doing a lot of listening and learning (Dewsbury & Brame, 2019), adjusting and adapting, and reading to create inclusive learning environments (Canning et al., 2019). As an ecologist, Environmental and EcoJustice can help with building inclusive learning environments through enacting their principles, informing content, and connecting students to broader impacts.

I (Jennings) have never been comfortable in science classrooms, not in my secondary education or college education. Make no mistake. I am fascinated by science and observing the natural world and always have been. However, the historical lineage of scientists that I have learned about in school does not include anyone who even remotely looks like me. I am also studying history, and while I would say that I enjoy *doing* science more, I am unquestionably more comfortable *being* in history. As a disabled and Indigenous person, I would traditionally be a subject of (or perhaps an inconvenience to) science rather than an active practitioner. Many of the science classrooms I have been in stressed that we (the students) were all fundamentally the same, all equals before the eyes of science. While this rather literal approach does serve to push back against historical 'race science,' it does not consider the different backgrounds of students and what traumas and experiences they bring into the classroom. This one-size-fts-all can alienate marginalized students, especially if the instructor does not share similar marginalized identities. I want to help change this approach and help create a framework for equity in science education.

### **15.3 A Role for Environmental Justice and EcoJustice in Undergraduate Science Classes**

Environmental Justice and EcoJustice (hereafter, EJ) serve as frameworks to assess environmental laws, regulations and their implementation, decision-making, and natural resource use and distribution, with the guiding principle that there be 'fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income' (Environmental Justice Learning Center, 2019). Broader defnitions include the identities of gender, sexuality, citizenship, and Indigeneity (Pellow, 2018). Tenets of EJ as listed by delegates to the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit in 1991 (Bullard, 1999) emphasize the rights of all individuals to clean, protected, and accessible natural resources; the political, economic, cultural and environmental self-determination of all people; and sustainable practices to preserve resources for future generations and others. Also amongst the guiding principles of EJ are (1) equity in decision-making, (2) transparency of and access to information, and (3) education based on diverse cultural perspectives (Bullard, 1999). Those values can inform ways to teach EJ and incorporate it into undergraduate science classrooms through shifts in both pedagogy and content. As undergraduate classrooms and campuses embrace sustainability initiatives, they must be reconciled with an EJ perspective. Sustainability on its own does not always explicitly address the need to repair past and current harms of inequity. However, many sustainability tactics borrow (recognized or not) from marginalized cultures and populations to improve resource use.

Exemplary case studies and 'textbook' examples of EJ are challenging to fnd, if existent, in practice. What gets more often observed, reported on, and studied, are the multitude of environmental and ecological *injustices* that marginalized communities have historically and continue to experience globally. While these injustices are widespread and deeply rooted in structural inequity (Pellow, 2018; Bullard, 2001), they do not often emerge as a focus in undergraduate environmental science, ecology, and sustainability classes. In environmental science, ecology, and sustainability classrooms, case studies, such as those on point source pollution in watersheds or deforestation of tropical forests, may not integrate discussions of the demographics of urban and rural areas where pollution is more common or how titling of land to Indigenous Peoples can serve to protect and conserve tropical rainforest biodiversity (Blackman et al., 2017). Rethinking case studies to include and apply EJ principles can serve as pedagogical innovation and as a guiding topic within environmental science and ecology courses.

One trove of resources that may help professors readily explore EJ principles is the InTeGrate community, hosted and supported by the Science Education Resource Center at Carleton College (SERC, 2021). This sustainability-focused community of educators creates and shares lessons, modules, discussion topics, and other resources that seek to engage undergraduate students in ecology, environmental science, and sustainability classrooms. The goals of this interdisciplinary and crossinstitutional network emphasize the need for undergraduates to connect social sciences and natural sciences through a sustainability lens, promote systems thinking, and approach current and future environmental issues with a problem-solving mindset. Resources about InTeGrate can be found online via the SERC website and are all open access.

Science classrooms often espouse the importance of innovation and collaboration to identify new information and concepts within disciplines. As teachers, we also aim to incorporate best practices based on data to push our pedagogy from passive lecture halls to more interactive active learning and inclusive teaching approaches to make content more accessible and center students in their learning (Handelsman et al., 2004). This approach can transcend to activities such as practice reading journal articles (Hoskins et al., 2011) and interpreting graphs in small groups in classes, though recent evidence shows a reluctance amongst students to engage in this format of learning (Deslauriers et al., 2019). Principles of EJ mentioned above – equity, transparency, and inclusion of diverse cultural perspectives – can reinforce many objectives of an authentic, inclusive undergraduate STEM classroom. Equity, as practiced in the classroom, may translate into more student voice on the weight of assignments; democratizing student-led discussions by the random assignment of roles; soliciting anonymous student feedback regularly to identify areas in need of improvement. Even small teaching gestures, such as waiting a few minutes for students to collect their thoughts before calling for answers, enable instructors to be more inclusive and intentional about who contributes to discussions can lead to a more equitable learning environment (Handelsman et al., 2007).

The principles of transparency and diversity of cultural perspectives can broaden whole disciplines when we think about who is historically represented as the practitioners of science and which voices have emerged as dominant in their representation in texts and readings in science classrooms. Discussions on how science is practiced, documented, and taught can lead to new explorations of under-represented voices and perspectives and address implicit and explicit biases that continue to infuence the environmental sciences (Ou & Romero-Olivares, 2019). Recently, in the spring of 2019, an essay published in the preeminent, globally-read weekly journal, *Science*, described how natural historians from Europe increased their specimen collections in the Americas and Africa due to their travels on ships transporting enslaved people (Kean, 2019). The stance and tone of the article made assumptions about who could be viewed as scientists, documentors, and keepers of natural history knowledge in the past (Kean, 2019). They strangely posed 'discoveries' as a potential side-beneft to the centuries-long traffcking and suffering of enslaved Africans. A response to the essay (also published in *Science*) by Dr. Rae Wynn-Grant, a carnivore ecologist, detailed the many oversights and biased perspectives of the essay, clarifying how the historical framing of science as for and by a single group of people was and continues to be damaging (Wynn-Grant, 2019). The editorial staff at *Science* would beneft from including and empowering writers, scientists, and editors of diverse backgrounds to question, critique, and confront historical and current biases in the practice of and documentation of science, as well as bring light to and elevate the understudied science and legacies of marginalized people. Democratizing science to refect the principles of EJ requires action from

professors and students and from gatekeepers that include journal editors, conference organizers, funding program offcers, and reviewers of grant proposals.

In the undergraduate classroom, confronting historical biases can be discussed and addressed through student-led projects, such as the ongoing initiative to add and edit Wikipedia to include more women scientists (Wade & Zaringhalam, 2018). In this project, students choose or are assigned scientists who do not have a Wikipedia entry; through readings of their work and examinations of their training and background, students create new entries accessible to all with access to the internet. This exercise emphasizes the individuals and teams driving the research. It centers the work, progress, and growth, not just the outcome. Expanding on this existing Wikipedia project to include individual scientists from under-represented identities and groups and annotating Wikipedia entries on environmental science, ecological, and sustainability concepts to include Traditional Ecological Knowledge perspectives, are some ways to uphold and practice EJ principles through innovative student-focused teaching while simultaneously broadening the representation of who scientists are and what is considered science.

Undergraduate environmental science, ecology, and sustainability classrooms will also beneft from integrating topical and recent EJ case studies as a 'hook' for further examination into discipline-based concepts. Once you are attuned to climate justice and EJ issues, it is challenging to get through a day's worth of news without identifying how intersections of race, ethnicity, immigration status, religion, gender, sexuality, class, and other identities play a role in how individuals and communities are differentially impacted by environmental decisions. As I taught an introductory Ecology course during Spring 2019, there were too many current event topics to cover thoroughly in a class that met three times a week! Two major monsoons hit Mozambique, a country that does not contribute any substantial fossil fuel emissions and is increasingly threatened by more extensive and more frequent storms as ocean waters warm due to climate change (Fitchett, 2018). Fires rage in the Brazilian Amazon to clear land for ranching (Fearnside, 2015), soy farms, and mining (Sonter et al., 2017) that in many cases illegally and violently broach Indigenous land reserves (Blackman et al., 2017). Air pollution in the United States is more likely to impact low-income and marginalized populations, despite these groups contributing less demand to the production of fossil-fuel emitting industries (Tessum et al., 2019). Using EJ topics and case studies can engage students motivated by social justice and science, broaden classroom participation, and enrich the perspectives of all students introduced to environmental science, ecology, and sustainability at the undergraduate level.

A major tenet of EJ frameworks is to uphold equity in access, protection, and decision-making across all groups and stakeholders, especially those marginalized by historical and current practices (Bullard, 2001). In this chapter, we encourage the integration of EJ ideals to inform and restructure the undergraduate classroom to promote equity, authenticity, and inclusion amongst students and faculty. We detail the benefts of broadening science pedagogy and pivoting from a practice that emphasizes *single* actors and sources of knowledge to a more authentic, diverse, and democratic representation of science. We focus on the strengths of including multiple perspectives in terms of pedagogy and sources of knowledge.

### **15.4 Strengthening Teaching and Learning by Including Multiple Perspectives**

### *15.4.1 Courses, Pedagogy, and Classroom Practice*

Undergraduate coursework is often predominantly focused on content, not skills. In a world where surges of information fow from every screen in sight (Pennycook & Rand, 2019), it is more important than ever for students to practice one of the most fundamental skills offered by science – evidence-based critical thinking. This skill – basic information literacy – may be the most widely transferable amongst all practiced in undergraduate classrooms and one whose impact is felt everywhere, from elections to vaccination schedules (Scheufele & Krause, 2019). Instructors prioritize and present terms, defnitions, processes, case studies, and systems, often at the expense of teaching process skills transferable and applicable to other courses. This content then is packaged into semester-long topics that become increasingly more specifc in a hierarchical manner: *Biology* leads to *Ecology,* which leads to *Ecosystem Ecology,* or *Aquatic Ecology*. As a junior or senior undergraduate, students may have access to more interdisciplinary courses within the major – an *Urban Environmental Science* course may weave in sociology, urban planning, and climate science. A *Sustainable Agriculture* course may integrate political science, geography, economics, and plant biology. Placing these integrative courses at the end of a potentially grueling, years-long major sequence seems alienating and disheartening to frst-year undergraduates who enter college enthused to learn about the syntheses and integration of ideas. For this reason, many institutions of higher education are re-thinking this building-block approach to better retain and expand the number of students entering STEM majors (Haak et al., 2011). Especially for students motivated by topics in EJ issues, integrating interests in social justice, applied and synthetic topics early in the course sequence may lead to higher retention in STEM majors.