**3. Results**

A total number of 65 PSMA-positive tumor lesions were found in 23 patients (range 1 to 12 lesions), see Table 1 for patient characteristics. In addition, in 7 patients no lesions were found, and therefore, these were excluded. In theory, a perfect test–retest will result in identical values for the test and the retest. In daily practice, however, measurements of a lesions SUVmax in repeated acquisitions will yield results normally distributed around the true value. In tumor lesions showing an increased SUVmax from test to retest, the average increase was 16.8% ± 10.6% (SD) on standard OSEM reconstructions (33 lesions) and 22.1% ± 18.6% (SD) on BPL reconstructions (30 lesions). In tumor lesions showing a decreased SUVmax from test to retest, these values were −21.0% ± 15.2% (SD) on standard OSEM reconstructions (32 lesions) and −23.2% ± 19.7% (SD) on BPL reconstructions (35 lesions), respectively. Overall repeatability in 65 lesions was −1.5% ± 22.7% (SD) on

standard OSEM

small difference between both

 and −2.1%

reconstructions

± 29.1% (SD) on BPL

 was not

statistically

 significant.

reconstructions.

 The

reconstructions

AS = active surveillance, BT = brachytherapy, EBRT = external beam radiotherapy, ELND = extended lymph node dissection, HT = hormonal therapy, LND = lymph node dissection, RP = radical prostatectomy (open procedure), RALP = robot assisted radical prostatectomy.

> As shown in Figure 1A, overall repeatability of SUVmax had upper and lower limits of agreement of +42.9% and −45.9% for standard OSEM reconstructions and +55.0% and −59.1% for BPL reconstructions, respectively. For suspected local recurrence, SUVmax had a repeatability of −5.0% ± 14.4%, with upper and lower limits of agreement of +23.2% and −33.1% for standard OSEM reconstructions. For BPL reconstructions, SUVmax repeatability was −9.5% ± 16.8%, with upper and lower limits at +23.5% and −42.5%. See Figure 1B. For suspected lymph node metastases, SUVmax repeatability was −4.5% ± 22.8% for standard OSEM reconstructions, with upper and lower limits of +40.1% and −49.1%. For BPL reconstructions, SUVmax repeatability was −3.3% ± 30.6%, with upper and lower limits at +56.6% and −63.2%. See Figure 1C. For suspected bone metastases, SUVmax had a repeatability of +4.4% ± 26.1%, with upper and lower limits of agreement of +55.7% and −46.8% for standard OSEM reconstructions. For BPL reconstructions, SUVmax repeatability was +2.7% ± 32.8%, with upper and lower limits at +67.0% and −61.6%. See

Figure 1D. None of the differences between standard OSEM and BPL reconstructions were statistically significant.

**Figure 1.** *Cont*.

**Figure 1.** Repeatability results of SUVmax for both reconstructions in all lesions (65 lesions, (**A**)), local recurrences (9 lesions, (**B**)), lymph node metastases (36 lesions, (**C**)) and bone metastases (20 lesions, (**D**)).

Tumor SUVmax repeatability was dependent on lesion area, with smaller lesions exhibiting poorer repeatability on both standard OSEM and BPL reconstructions (F-test, *p* < 0.0001). See Figure 2A,B.

(**B**)

**Figure 2.** Correlation between SUVmax repeatability and lesion size for standard OSEM (**A**) and BPL reconstruction (**B**).

> Tumor absolute SUVmax was higher in BPL reconstructions than in standard OSEM reconstructions for all lesions (data not shown). The relative increase in measured SUVmax in the BPL reconstructions (as compared to standard OSEM reconstruction) was dependent on lesion size. Smaller lesions (lesion area < 200 mm2) showed a significant larger increase of SUVmax as compared to larger lesions (lesion area > 200 mm2): 44.3% ± 4.6% versus 25.5% ± 42.2% for the test scans (*p* = 0.004) and 43.5% ± 3.9% versus 18.6% ± 3.1% for the retest scans (*p* < 0.001), respectively. See Table 2.

**Table 2.** BPL SUVmax increase (relative to standard reconstruction) for smaller and larger lesions.


**Fabio Sansivero \* and Giuseppe Vilardo**

Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Osservatorio Vesuviano, Via Diocleziano 328, 80124 Napoli, Italy<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
**\*** Correspondence<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Tel.: +39-081-6108217

Received: 29 January 2019; Accepted: 4 March 2019; Published: 6 March 2019

**Abstract:** In this technical paper, the state-of-art of automated procedures to process thermal infrared (TIR) scenes acquired by a permanent ground-based surveillance system, is discussed. TIR scenes regard diffuse degassing areas at Campi Flegrei and Vesuvio in the Neapolitan volcanic district (Italy). The processing system was developed in-house by using the flexible and fast processing Matlab© environment. The multi-step procedure, starting from raw infrared (IR) frames, generates a final product consisting mainly of de-seasoned temperatures and heat fluxes time-series as well as maps of yearly rates of temperature change of the IR frames. Accurate descriptions of all operational phases and of the procedures of analysis are illustrated; a Matlab© code (Natick, MA, USA) is provided as supplementary material. This product is ordinarily addressed to study volcanic dynamics and improve the forecasting of the volcanic activity. Nevertheless, it can be a useful tool to investigate the surface temperature field of any areas subjected to thermal anomalies, both of natural and anthropic origin.

**Keywords:** volcano monitoring; thermal imaging; time series; Seasonal-Trend Decomposition; heat flux

#### **1. Introduction**

Thermal infrared (TIR) ground-based observations are largely used in volcanology, both in research and in surveillance activities, to investigate volcanic plumes and gases, lava flows, lava lakes and fumarole fields [1–17]. Generally, the observations were made during a limited time span such as eruption phases or field campaigns with temporarily installed TIR stations or handheld cameras. In the last years the number of surveillance and research activities aimed to undertake TIR continuous observations of volcanic areas have increased [12–20]. Improvements in monitoring tools and analysis techniques of long TIR time-series of infrared (IR) scenes of volcanic areas are becoming matter of great interest since they give the opportunity to track changes of surface thermal anomalies that may reveal a renewal of eruptive activity. Several works identified thermal precursors before eruptions by using TIR observations [21–24] and these insightful results, also provided by field campaigns, have suggested planning permanent fixed installations of ground TIR stations at active volcanoes in the world.

At present time, few commercial software packages, based on general-purpose procedures, are available to process TIR time-series and they are not aimed for a near real-time automated analysis of large dataset. Generally, they involve manual processing steps and cannot be used in daily continuous automated volcano monitoring activity. Recently, [20] introduced automated analysis techniques of long TIR time-series of images acquired inside the Campi Flegrei volcanic area and previously [19] discussed about analysis techniques applied to TIR scenes inside the Vesuvius crater. The studied zones of these works are diffuse degassing areas of quiescent volcanoes characterized by low temperatures of released gas fluxes.

In this work, recent developments of processing methodologies of several-years long TIR time-series of volcanic areas from a permanent surveillance network are discussed in detail. Additionally, the automation of the processes is discussed. Step-by step descriptions of all operational phases and of the theoretical basis are reported in order to provide a clear explanation of the applied procedures. The main final results are trends of temperatures, heat fluxes and yearly rate of temperature change of the studied areas. In particular, a detailed study with a focus on seasonal component removal and on pixel alignment of IR frames (co-registration) was carried out. The code of fully-automated Matlab© application (ASIRA, Automated System of InfraRed Analysis) used to process the IR data is provided as Supplementary Materials.

#### **2. The Study Areas**

The TIR frames time-series, used to develop and test the methodologies described in this work, were acquired by stations of TIRNet (Thermel InfraRed Network), a surveillance network operated by the Osservatorio Vesuviano, section of National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV), consisting of six permanent ground stations installed at Campi Flegrei caldera and Vesuvius crater (Figure 1). Campi Flegrei (CF) is an active volcanic field including part of the city of Napoli (Italy). Nowadays, although quiescent and the last eruption occurred in 1538 (Monte Nuovo; [25]), the CF area is affected by significant ground deformation (Bradyseism), low to moderate seismic activity, hot fumaroles fields and diffuse degassing zones. The target areas acquired by TIR cameras in the Solfatara crater and its surroundings are shown in (Figure 1a). The monitored area represents the main surface expression of the CF caldera hydrothermal system with gases emissions originated by interaction between fluids of magmatic and meteoric origin [26–28]. The Somma–Vesuvius volcanic complex, located east of the city of Naples, is one of most dangerous volcanoes in the world and the latest eruption occurred on 1944 [29]. The recent dynamic of the Vesuvius is characterized by low-level shallow seismicity and by low temperature fumarolic activity mainly concentrated in the crater area [30–32]. TIR scenes are from low-temperatures surface thermal anomaly on the western inner slope of the Vesuvius crater (Figure 1b).

**Figure 1.** The Solfatara area (**a**) and Vesuvius crater (**b**) acquired by Thermel InfraRed Network (TIRnet) cameras. Red points are infrared (IR) stations locations and yellow regions represent the framed areas.


**Abstract**

Digitalization of the imaging in radiology is a reality in several healthcare institutions worldwide. The challenges of filing, confidentiality, and manipulation have been brilliantly solved in radiology. However, digitalization of hematoxylin- and eosinstained routine histological slides has shown slow movement. Although the application for external quality assurance is a reality for a pathologist with most of the continuing medical education programs utilizing virtual microscopy, the abandonment of traditional glass slides for routine diagnostics is far from the perspectives of many departments of laboratory medicine and pathology.  Since 1986, services using telepathology for the transfer of images of anatomic pathology between detached locations have benefited countless patients globally, including the University of Alberta. The purpose of specialist recertification or re-validation for the Royal College of Pathologists of Canada belonging to the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada and College of American Pathologists is a milestone in virtual reality. Challenges, such as high bandwidth requirement, electronic platforms, the stability of the operating systems, have been targeted and are improving enormously. The encryption of digital images may be a requirement for the accreditation of laboratory services—quantum computing results in quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement. Different from binary digital electronic computers based on transistors where data are encoded into binary digits (bits) with two different states (0 and 1), quantum computing uses quantum bits (qubits), which can be in superpositions of states. The use of quantum computing protocols on encrypted data is crucial for the permanent implementation of virtual pathology in hospitals and universities. Quantum computing may well represent the technological singularity to create new classifications and taxonomic rules in medicine.

**Keywords:** Digital pathology, Medicine, Singularity, Quantum, Artificial Intelligence, Bioinformatics

## **1. Introduction**

In the past two decades, we experienced some new inventions in technology with the development of quad-core processors (four independent units called cores able

to read and execute central processing unit instructions) and 5G networks. This environment in information technology (IT) allows us a more efficient, stable, and faster communication than ever. Currently, the 5G network is considered the milestone that will open the conversation to the next level. There is crescent popularity, widespread use and increasing dependency on wireless technologies in our societies, both Western and Eastern civilizations. This demand has produced an unimaginable industrial revolution that may show some spectra of Orwellian nature [1]. There is increasing public exposure to broader and higher frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum and data are transmitted as fast as never before [2]. The evolution from current 2G, 3G, and 4G to 5G wireless technologies is increasing worldwide. However, the promise of a convenient and comfortable lifestyle with a massive 5G interconnected telecommunications network has raised not only the expansion of broadband with shorter wavelength radiofrequency radiation but also highlighted the concern that health and safety issues may remain unknown [2]. Currently and in the future, the effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation are and will be challenging if not impossible to identify epidemiologically. This challenge relies on the lack of an unexposed control group. Nevertheless, it is inconceivable to carry out some steps in our daily life without using the telecommunication network. In this chapter, some of the new exciting aspects of the evolution of digital pathology in diagnostics and teaching are discussed.


**3. Discussion**

#### *3.1. Lipid Oxidation*

In the present study, the incorporation of OEO at levels of 0.2 and 0.3 g/kg DM or monensin in the lamb diet had a similar effect on the lipid oxidation of lamb. The control treatment was slightly higher in malonaldehyde formation in meat. However, this difference was not statistically different from the control treatment. Notwithstanding, the result is still promising as far as the application of OEO concerns, since replacing OEO for monensin in lamb diets shows to be a beneficial choice.

However, meat from male lambs fed with a high level of OEO had significantly higher malonaldehyde (MDA) formation when compared to the control treatment.

The effectiveness of essential oil in preventing oxidation in lamb meat has also been reported by Nieto et al. [33]. They tested distilled dietary rosemary leaf (DRL, 0%, 10% and 20%) to prevent lipid oxidation and the sensory deterioration of cooked lamb, under retail display conditions. Cooked lamb fillets were stored at 0, 2, or 4 d (4 ◦C) in a display cabinet and then reheated, simulating catering practices. The cooked lamb suffered rapid lipid oxidation and odour and flavour spoilage associated with slight rancidity and warmed-over flavour. DRL feeding delayed lipid oxidation (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, or TBARS) and volatile compounds more effectively in the first two d of storage. Percentages of 10% and 20% of DRL provided equal antioxidant capacity.

These positive effects of essential oil have also been found in bovine meat. Rivaroli et al. [34] fed crossbred young bulls with different doses of an essential oil blend (oregano, garlic, lemon, rosemary, thyme, eucalyptus, and sweet orange). They found that a dose of 3.5 g/animal/d decreases lipid oxidation. However, higher doses could have a pro-oxidant e ffect, and they are not recommended in feedlot animals.

Antioxidants that interact with reactive oxidant species (ROS) might become pro-oxidants, causing lipid and protein oxidation [35,36]. Low concentrations of essential oils might prevent this, and antioxidant activity is kept as observed in the present study, where low and medium oregano oil doses (0.2 and 0.3 g/kg DM diet) resulted in lower TBARS values, and the high doses produce an increase of lipid oxidation.

It is important to mention that in the present study, the lipid oxidation is considered still low (TBARS values lower than 2.0), which is in agreement with the report of Campo et al. [37]. They revealed that the TBARS value of 2.0 (2 mg MDA/kg meat) could be considered the threshold where the rancid flavour overpowers beef flavour. Therefore, it is considered as the maximum level for the positive sensory perception of beef. These authors indicated that from that point onwards, it can expected for beef to be rejected due to a strong sensory perception of lipid oxidation.

In physiological conditions, mammals constantly produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). Low concentrations of ROS are essential for several physiological processes, including protein phosphorylation, apoptosis, and cellular defence against microorganisms [38]. Oxidative stress refers to a lack of balance between the production of ROS and the level of antioxidants. Domestic animals are frequently exposed to oxidative stress, especially under intensive breeding systems [39]. Oxidative stress is responsible for numerous disease processes in animals. Many secondary metabolites formed by plants serve as defence agents against physiological and environmental stressors, and pathogenic microorganisms [40]. The main molecules responsible for the antioxidative properties of herbs and spices are phenolic substances. In particular, *Origanum vulgare* is an herb rich in phenolics [41].

Essential oils are rich sources of natural antioxidants, such as the phenolic compounds, and due to their high redox properties and chemical structure, they a ffect lipid metabolism in animal tissues by exerting beneficial e ffects on the antioxidant enzyme activity. Furthermore, phenolic compounds also prevent the production of reactive oxygen species and the o ff-flavors that are formed from the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids [42]. Dietary supplementation with EOs is a simple and convenient strategy to uniformly introduce natural antioxidants into phospholipid membranes, where they may e ffectively inhibit the oxidative reactions by preventing the formation of radicals, and it appears to be a more e ffective way of slowing down hte lipid oxidation of animal products compared to post-mortem addition [43–45].

Other benefits of OEO have been stated in the literature. OEO modifies ruminal microflora, which also modifies the concentration of ruminal volatile fatty acid. Fat deposition (mainly unsaturated fatty acids, UFAs) is promoted when the concentration of propionic acid decreases and the acetic acid increases. Under some circumstances, UFAs are more susceptible to oxidation [46–48], and they may promote the formation of MDA in absence of antioxidants, as observed in this study (Figure 1).

As it has been previously pointed out, the structure of some lipid components from the essential oils changes as they transit through the digestive tract, and if they are absorbed in the intestine, the lipid profile and the oxidative stability of the meat might be modified [46–49]. In the present study, monensin has a similar e ffect to that of OEO in terms of lipid oxidation. This indicates that OEO could safely replace monensin in lamb diets, with the advantage of being a natural additive that promotes other positive changes in lamb, such as colour and shelf life preservation. OEO supplementation demonstrated lipid antioxidant activity in fresh lamb meat. OEO improves the antioxidant activity, which has an influence on retarding the lipid meat oxidation during refrigerated and long-term frozen storage. This process could be explained by carvacrol and thymol action on the permeability of cell membranes, and by the transformation of lipid and hydroxyl radicals into stable products [29]. This effect was supported in the present study.

The antioxidant effect of dietary OEO supplementation has also been demonstrated in poultry [44,50,51]. Moreover, OEO has been studied as an ingredient in meat formulations. In lamb burgers, the addition of 24 mL/kg of oregano extract is recommended as a natural antioxidant in replacement of sodium erythorbate, and the product has good acceptability [52].

#### *3.2. Compression Strength*

The tenderness of meat has been associated with intramuscular fat (IMF) content [53], and the increase of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and PUFAs concentration in IMF could reduce the compression force of meat, thus producing more tender meat and, in this way, improving the quality.

Some of the intrinsec main factors that influence meat texture are the content and solubility of collagen, sarcomere diameter, intramuscular fat content, and proteolysis by calpains during ageing, among others [54]. The dietary inclusion of OEO decreases the concentration of acetic acid and increases propionic acid in rumen, which favours fat deposition [55] and improves meat tenderness. An increased quantity of subcutaneous fat and intramuscular fat decreases the rate of temperature decline, enhances the activity of autolytic enzymes in the muscle, lessens the myofibrillar shortening, and thereby increases the tenderness of cooked meat [56]. In the present study, it can be assumed that di fferences in tenderness between CON and MO are related to intramuscular fat deposition, since MUFA and PUFA are oilier in texture than saturated fatty acids. Apparently, the MO inclusion promoted a greater amount of MUFA and PUFA in the meat.

There are no other studies showing an improvement of lamb tenderness when animals were fed OEO. In the study of Simitzis et al. [57], the dietary oregano essential oil supplementation on lamb did not influence the tenderness of *Longissimus thoracis* muscle. Demirel et al. [58] reported that the e ffect of oregano oil was not significant on carcass and lamb meat quality attributes.

Contrasting e ffects of OEO on the tenderness and shear force of meat from other species are reported. Cheng et al. [59] observed that dietary OEO enhanced the tenderness and overall acceptance of pork. Forte et al. [60] showed that dietary oregano essential oil increased the meat tenderness, but it did not modify other pork quality traits, such as the pH, colour, drip loss, and cooking loss. However, OEO improved consumer perceptions of the meat quality, such as consistency and overall liking. In contrast, Ranucci et al. [61] evaluated a plant extract mix (chestnut and oregano essential oil) in a pig diet and evaluated the pig performance and meat quality. The fresh meat colour, pH, and WB shear force was not affected by OEO supplementation. Simitzis et al. [29] did not find any change in the meat shear force and sensory traits of meat from pigs supplemented OEO. As well, Rossi et al. [62] reported an enhancement of sensory attributes in meat from pigs supplemented plant extract (*Lippia* spp.) but did not find any tenderness improvement in the meat.

When adding essential oils to meat products, it has been pointed out that protein oxidation reduces meat tenderness, but the essential oils of oregano and rosemary can protect the thiols in pork patties and reduce the disulphide crosslinks of the myosin heavy chains, avoiding the tenderness reduction of meat [63].

Finally, Lei et al. [64] demonstrated that the addition of essential oil-cobalt had a significant e ffect on the meat quality of tested goats. Similarly, Velasco et al. [65] found that the incorporation of dietary dry oregano at 1% and 5% in the diet of Boer goats did not a ffect the meat quality characteristics.


*4.2.8 Efficacy of hypnosis in the treatment of headache and migraine*

Hypnosis fulfills the research criteria in clinical psychology for it to be considered a well-established efficacious treatment for headache and migraine [58, 59]. No risks of adverse reactions or side effects are produced by hypnosis; this decreases the cost of medication associated to conventional medical treatments [59].

#### *4.2.9 Use of hypnosis and acupuncture for pain relief*

There exists an inherent relationship between acupuncture as a form of traditional Chinese medicine and hypnotic rituals of awareness under conscious hypnosis. Besides its various competent applications in different fields, it is used in surgical operations as the sole anesthetic for pain relief, and also for patient care during pre-, post-, and intra-operative periods [60].

#### *4.2.10 Hypnoanalgesia*

Benefits of pain relief by hypnosis have been documented in numerous studies. Pin prick and laser heat pain stimulation studies, followed by direct suggestions in hypnosis, resulted in decreased pain measured by means of pain-related brain potentials both subjectively and objectively [61]. Hypnoanalgesia was reported for

**33**

**Author details**

**5. Conclusion**

Mikail Hudu Garba1

University of Abuja, Nigeria

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91619*

*4.2.11 Identification of human sexuality*

*4.3.1 Performance enhancement*

*Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy: The Role of Traditional Versus Alternative Approach*

orientation, preferences, and functioning difficulties [63–66].

**4.3 Application of hypnosis in performance enhancement**

repair of atrial septal defects in three patients and for mitral commissurotomy in four patients, using hypnosis as the sole method of anesthesia for one of the patients [62].

In practice, therapists are often confronted with patients seeking therapy for challenges they face owing to their deep-rooted economic, ethical, family, political, religious, and social backgrounds. Therapists find old and newer hypnotic techniques handy in managing the patients' gender ambivalence, identity, sexual

Sport hypnosis helps enhance performance and well-being of an athlete or a user. This form of hypnosis is based on three combined techniques of mental training procedures: self-hypnosis, eyes-open hypnosis, and traditional eye-closed hypnosis. It is a form of alert hypnosis. Post-hypnotic signals or triggers and rhythmic athletic activities can induce sport hypnotic state (SHS) [63]. An alternative state of consciousness is achieved; performance in sport hypnotic state happens in a flow sate, which increases results despite decreased effort, known otherwise as "relaxed effectiveness." Olympic Games champions' reports show that peak performance is achieved through sport hypnotic state training. In the quest for excellent

\* and Mohammed Mamman2

performance, sport hypnosis techniques can also be applied [67].

1 Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Despite the pejorative image display of hypnosis and misconceptions surrounding it, hypnosis still has numerous applications in contemporary medicine. Hypnotherapy conducted by a trained therapist is considered as a complementary or safe alternative to present day orthodox medication for numerous ailments.

2 Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91619 Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy: The Role of Traditional Versus Alternative Approach*

repair of atrial septal defects in three patients and for mitral commissurotomy in four patients, using hypnosis as the sole method of anesthesia for one of the patients [62].