**11.1 Turn-key programming model**

A turn-key program (TKP) is one that is developed according to specifications because the owner has specified all the functional requirements. A TKP has the primary advantage of enabling the user to establish a program budget, inputs, and *Enhancing Program Management with Predictive Analytics Algorithms (PAAs) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98758*

outputs in a scheduled manner. Turn-key programs do not provide easy flexibility in the management of changes and other features requested by the programmer.

### **11.2 In house programming model**

In in-house programming, a program is developed by the IT department of the company rather than an outside company [32]. An example of in-house programming is Google's software development, which is done using its machines that are located in various parts of the computer network system.

### **11.3 Outsourcing programming model**

Outsourcing programming is the process in which a computer program is written by a third party and generally external institutions on a consulting basis. It is a more advantageous method of programming because an organization reduces the cost of undertaking a particular project. It is also a means of ensuring time-saving in the development of computer programs because it tends to be less time-consuming when a number of experts are assigned to complete program development. The risks and challenges involved in outsourcing are confidentiality, limited supervision, possible tardiness and service-provider loyalty.


*3.1. Subjects*

In total, 122 participants were enrolled as the analysis set. After screening, 80 individuals were selected for the study. As three subjects withdrew during the trial, data for 77 subjects were analyzed (Figure 1).

Baseline data for subjects are shown in Table 1. There were no significant differences in parameters measured at baseline between the placebo and *Euglena* intake groups.

**Figure 1.** Flow chart for subject participation.


**1. Introduction**

420 Macro to Nano Spectroscopy

WHO (World Health Organization) (1999). WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants.

WHO (World Health Organization) (2001). Legal status of traditional medicine and

WHO (World Health Organization) (2002). WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants.

complementary alternative medicine: A world wide review.

Vol 1, Ginebra.

Vol 2, Ginebra.

WHO/EDM/TRM/2001.2, Geneva.

Determination of iron in analytical chemistry has become a routine procedure because of its importance in our life. Various chemical forms of iron can be found in natural waters depending on geological area and chemical components present in the environment. The main source of iron in natural waters is from the weathering and leaching of rocks and soils (Dojlido & Best, 1993). Also, metallic iron and its compounds are used in various industrial processes and may enter natural waters through the discharge of wastes. Iron(II) is normally less present in river water (Sangi et al., 2004) and iron (III) can precipitate rapidly by the formation of hydrous iron oxide and hydroxides, which they can absorb other trace metals. Thus, iron ion controls the mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of other trace metals in the natural water system (Wirat, 2008; Lunvongsa et al., 2006). Amounts of iron are widely present in tap, pond, well and underground water, and this metallic ion is essential for biological systems (Ohno et al., 2004; Kawakubo et al., 2004).

As iron is one of the most frequently determined analyte in environmental (water, soil and sediment) samples, many spectrophotometric and/or flow-injection spectrophotometric methods have been developed for iron determination. When trace levels of the iron are concerned, the detection methods applicable are reduced (Tarafder et al., 2005; Weeks & Bruland, 2002; Giokas et al., 2002; Themelis et al., 2001; Bagheri et al., 2000; Pascual-Reguera et al., 1997; Teshima et al., 1996; Tesfaldet et al., 2004; Udnan et al., 2004; Pojanagaroon et al., 2002; van Staden & Kluever, 1998; Asan et al., 2003, 2008; Andac at al., 2009). Flow-injection analysis, as a rapid and precise technique, has found wide application in the determination of iron in several sample matrices (Bowie A.R., et al. 1998; Hirata S., et al. 1999; Qin W., et al. 1998; Kass M., et al. 2002; Saitoh K., et al. 1998; Weeks D.A., et al. 2002; Giokas D.L., et al. 2002; Themelis D.G., et al. 2001; Bagheri H., et al. 2000; Molina-Diaz A., et al. 1998; Teshima N., et al. 1996).

Highly sensitive, selective and rapid flow-injection spectrophotometric analysis (FIA) methods for the determination of iron (II), iron (III) and total iron will be defined under proposed chapter of the book. The methods were based on the reactions of iron (II) and iron (III) with different complexing agents in different carrier solutions in FIA (Asan A. et al., 2010; Andac M. et al., 2009; Asan A. et al., 2008). Several parameters acting on the

Flow-Injection Spectrophotometric Analysis of Iron (II), Iron (III) and Total Iron 423

soaking in acidified solutions of KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 followed by washing with concentrated HNO3, and were rinsed several times with high-purity deionized water. Stock solutions and environmental water samples (1000 mL each) were kept in polypropylene bottles containing 1 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Standard iron (II) and iron (III) stock solutions were prepared by solving 278.02 mg of iron (II) and 489.96 mg of iron (III) sulphate (Merck) in 0.01 M 100 mL hydrochloric acid to give 0.01 M stock solution of iron (II) and iron (III). Iron (II) and iron (III) working standard solutions were prepared daily by suitable dilution of stock solutions with double deionized water. Standard reference material consisting of 0.085 % Fe (Zn/Al/Cu 43XZ3F) was provided from MBH Analytical Ltd. (UK). Hydrogen

A stock solution of Morin (5x10-3M) was prepared by dissolving requisite amount of Morin (BDH Chemicals) in 100 mL of ethanol:water (4:96 v/v) because of it's low solubility in water only. For spectrophotometric study, morin complex solutions of various metals were prepared by mixing 1 mL of 1x10-4 M standard solution of each metal in double deionised water with a suitable volume of 1x10-4 M Morin solution. All stock solutions were stored in polyethylene containers. All polyethylene containers and glassware used for aqueous solutions containing metallic cations were cleaned with (1+1) nitric acid while the rest were cleaned with 3 % Decon 90, all were rinsed with deionized water before use. The working standard solutions were prepared by appropriate dilution immediately before use. All solutions were degassed before use using a sonicator (LC 30). Reagent carrier solution was

UV-Visible spectra of metal-AcSHA complexes were taken with a Unicam spectrophotometer (GBC Cintra 20, Australia). A Jenway 3040 Model digital pH-meter was

In the FIA system, peristaltic pump (ISMATEC; IPC, Switzerland) 0.50 mm i.d. PFTE tubing was used to propel the samples and reagent solutions. Samples were injected into the carrier stream by a 7125 model stainless steel high pressure Rheodyne injection valve provided with a 20 L loop. The absorbance of the coloured complex formed (λmax 415 nm) was measured with a UV-Visible spectrophotometer equipped with a flow-through micro cell (Spectra SYSTEM UV 3000 HR, Thermo Separation Products, USA), and connected to a

A UNICAM 929 model (Shimadzu AA-68006) flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer with deuterium-lamp background correction was used for the determination of iron in reference to the FIA method. The measuring conditions were as follows: UNICAM hollow cathode lamp, 10 cm 1-slot burner, air-acetylene flame (fuel gas flow-rate 1.50 L/min), 0.2 nm spectral bandwidth, and 7 mm burner height. The wavelength and the lamp current of

The FIA system used was simple as shown schematically in Fig.2. The sample solution was introduced into the reagent carrier solution by the Rhodyne injection valve. The complex (max=415 nm) was formed on passage of the reagent and iron (II) ion solution through the

buffer (pH:4.50) solution consisting of metanol 4 %.

peroxide solution 30 % (v/v) used was from Merck.

computer incorporated with a PC1000 software programme.

composed of Morin in 0.1 M HAc/Ac-

Fe was respectively 248 nm and 5 mA.

**2.1.3 General procedure**

used for the pH measurements.

**2.1.2 Apparatus**

determination of iron (II) and iron (III) were examined. The developed methods have been successfully applied to the determination of iron (II), iron (III) and total iron in water and ore samples. The methods were also verified by applying certified reference materials.


Those measures do not offer a sustainable development plan for the region by bringing investment opportunities in sectors that are more viable in the long term. The environmental issues, in particular, water source protection, are strategic for the stability of the region [125].

To summarize, due to social instability in the mining region, the production was heavily affected. The development of the short-term solution is inefficient and even has deepened the socio-environmental problems in the region. Phosphate rock is also critical for Tunisia as it is a barometer of the social situation [63]. It can maintain social stability, but in the case of imbalance, it triggers social instability with high economic consequences for the country.

## **8.3.2 The interrelations between environmental and social impacts**

The results of the environmental and social impacts discussed in chapter 6 and chapter 7 show that the investigated environmental impacts have strong social dimensions. According to DI NOI and Ciroth (2018), for the assessment of the environmental and social impacts of mining, it is essential to take into consideration the interrelationship between both dimensions as the burden of one dimension can shift to another [47]. Moreover, the environmental and social impacts are not only primary impacts, which are immediately occurring in the mining site, but also secondary impacts related to infrastructure development and change in local economies [201].  According to Macombe et al. (2013), in S-LCA the social impacts are the consequences of changes that entail a specific effect [126]. These effects could generate negative phenomena among an affected group of people (workers, local population, and society) [126].

Figure 8.1 represents the environmental and social change process, from the bottom of environmental impacts to socio-ecological effects to end up on social change, which are the long-term impacts such as high unemployment, change in health status, and very low economic diversification. Those social changes would have a high risk of triggering social conflicts in the region.

The social changes are grouped into three clusters:

Besides the interdependence of environmental and social impacts in the mining region, potential negative economic effects may occur. Indeed, in the absence of social stability, the company is not able to achieve good economic profitability. The company struggles to reach its production potential due to strikes and sit-ins. Negative environmental impacts are the growing medium for social and economic injustice that can create a feeling of being neglected by the company and the responsible authorities (see Figure 8.1).

**Figure 8.1: Environmental -social impact pathway from environmental effect to socio-environmental effect to social changes based on the results of E-LCA and S-LCA**

The social and economic injustice is reducing the livelihood and livability of the region. They also reduce the attractiveness of the region to investments and economic activity diversification. The feeling of marginalization leads to social animosity towards the company (see chapter 7). As long as the situation is not kept under an acceptable risklevel, social anger can turn into riots, strikes, and attempts to block industry production.

Environmental and social impacts are inevitable for any mining project. Without the implementation of early-stage measures to maintain and control the negative impacts (very low to low risk), the threat of social change will lead to high costs for solving problems and reduce the profit of the company.

As the situation would reach the point of a negative social change, the company will allocate more effort and funding to solve external problems than focusing on increasing its profitability [100]. The company, as well as the governmental agencies with the participation of the local population, are better able to reduce secondary impacts and mitigate their changes by defining where environmental sensitivities exist [201].

Therefore, to promote better livability and livelihood of the region, the mining company CPG has to minimize, control, and offset the local ecological damages and ensures an equitable distribution of social services and economic investment. The management of environmental impacts and building the social responsibility capability of the company have to go hands in hands.

## **8.4 Measures toward global sustainable phosphorus management**

This final section aims to close up the study with recommendations and measures toward a better global sustainable phosphorus management. The regional and national context of phosphate rock mining and production has to be integrated into the assessment of global phosphate supply.

## **8.4.1 Addressing the criticality of phosphorus from a global perspective**

There is no standardized method to assess the criticality of minerals (see chapter 4). The method can change according to the scope of the assessment, which could be either national/regional or regarding the sector scope and the time frame [2]. In national reports, the criticality of a mineral is defined by its importance to the domestic economy and its vulnerability to external supply restriction. The critical minerals are those involved in mega sectors with a high contribution to the GDP of the country.

However, the assessment of phosphorus supply risks through its supply chain shows that the supply chains of minerals are complex and dispersed globally, as the mineral can be used in numerous industries. Thus, it is essential to study risk factors at an earlier stage of the supply chain.

Moreover, phosphorus is implicated not only in a sector with high economic importance, but also has a fundamental role in assuring food security of the growing global population. Hence, the definition of phosphorus criticality has to be aligned to the values of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the targets of the concept of Planetary Boundaries [24, 170]. According to Scholz et al. (2014). phosphate management has to achieve the aspect of intra-and intergenerational justice, which are included in the Brundtland definition of sustainable development definitions [175]. Sustainable phosphorus management must encompass more justice in the global use of phosphorus and respect the planetary boundaries.

The high disparity of phosphorus usage for agriculture between different regions of the world (see Figure 8.2) and the overconsumption may induce the risk of socio-economic crisis in vulnerable areas as it deepens the inequalities towards access to food production and water. By addressing phosphorus criticality as a global problem, it helps to achieve some sustainable development goals such as reducing poverty, hunger, and improving access to clean water. Phosphorus criticality has to be a universal challenge to assure better, equitable, and sustainable phosphorus management.

**Figure 8.2: Nutrient phosphate P2O5 (total) agricultural use shares by region; Average 2002-2017 [79]**

The criticality assessment of phosphorus needs to adopt a global perspective to achieve sustainable phosphorus management. It was suggested by Graedel et al. (2012) that "*It is from the global level perspective, and from a temporal horizon of half a century or more, that one might ask the question: Is society today using elements at a rate that permits the next generation to acquire them to the extent that might be needed?*" [87].

From this perspective, this study suggests that the definition of mineral criticality has to be more inclusive. A critical material should be defined as followed:

"A critical material is a material that performs an essential and non-substitutable function, and it is subject to a risk of interruption or decrease of its supply, which will lead to negative economic, and or a social, and or environmental consequences for one or many actors in its supply chain."

### **8.4.2 The role of responsible mining to mitigate social instability**

According to Hustrulid et al. (2013), "Responsible Mining" is the approach to establishing appropriate levels of environmental and social mitigation while achieving an acceptable economic result. The mining company must consider the environmental and social risks in an early stage when planning a new project as well as while the project unfolds [100]. Therefore, the environmental and social mitigation costs have to be included in the profit equation3 to achieve an optimum between the economic responsibility, the environmental responsibility, and the social responsibility's components of responsible mining [100]. Moreover, according to the OECD, in high-risk areas, mining companies and those involved in the minerals supply chain can generate economic growth, sustain livelihoods, and foster local development [150].

The regional and national situation in producing countries has a high effect on the global supply. As phosphate rock is highly geo-concentrated, fostering more responsible mining practices in developing countries would help to reduce socio-economic and political instability. Consequently, mining in stable countries would improve the sustainable supply of these resources on the global market. Efforts have to be engaged globally to empowering emerging countries to reform their regulatory framework and to reinforce natural

**3** Profit equation: Profit/unit= Price/unit- (Extraction cost/unit+ Environmental cost/ unit+ Social cost/unit) [100]

resources governance as well as empowering societies and local communities by cultivating a culture of civil society and citizens who work to influence the political and social sphere positively.

It is better to foresee challenges in mining areas to avoid a supply risk than to let sociopolitical instability erupt. This is not possible without collaboration with mining countries to achieve responsible mining. This idea has already been discussed by the Critical Material Alliance (CRM Alliance): "Efforts need to be directed toward minimizing supply chain risks rather than continuing to develop methodologies and performing studies toward the identification of a CRM" [40].

Moreover, to mitigate the risk along the supply chain, it is important to identify early the challenges for emerging countries in which economies rely on mining. In most cases, emerging countries do not dispose of the tools and the know-how to establish policies and legal frameworks. Solutions such as economic cooperation, trade agreements, and technological support must be coupled with social-ecological empowerment.

Natural resources have always been in the center of all geopolitical competition. It is not possible that phosphate resources would be managed as a common good for the world's population to feed the world and assure justice for food production. It is a utopia to suggest to nations and governments to give up their sovereignty over the natural resource to a global common management strategy to eradicate hunger and poverty. The control of natural resources is one of the competitive advantages for economies.

However, working together to strengthen a global framework is possible through international institutions. A good example is the World Trade Organization (WTO), which came up after a long history of global trade wars and global instability to set the rules of international trade peacefully and to manage conflicts. It is not a utopia to aspire for international cooperation to organize mineral supply chains in a better way. The OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals is a big step towards uniting efforts of developed countries, emerging countries, and the industry to strengthen the transparency and sustainability of minerals supply chains [150].

### **8.4.3 Improving resource efficiency and increasing recycling**

The phosphate mining sector is still dominated by a linear model that generates a significant loss of mineral, exerts high pressure on the current mineral resources and reserves, and creates high social and environmental impacts. However, the circular economy paradigm offers principles to close the loop of material flow through the reuse and recycling of materials along their supply chains to form "circular supply chains," reducing negative environmental and societal impacts as part of a sustainable system transition [83].

The central axis of actions to improve the sustainable management of phosphorus and create a circular phosphorus supply chain are: (1) improving the efficiency of the mining operations and the beneficiation process; (2) increasing the resources efficiency use through the supply chain; and (3) closing the loop by recycling and recovery of phosphorus from waste food, municipal and industrial wastewater.

Losses of phosphorus are at all stages of the value chain, from mining and fertilizer production to food processing and food consumption. It is estimated that losses during mining using open-pit extraction are around 5 to 50% of P2O5, whlie losses during the beneficiation in North Africa is around 30% [215]. According to the results of the inventory analysis of phosphate mining in Tunisia (see Chapter 6), 20% of crude phosphate rock is lost during crushing and screening operations, and 20 to 25% of P2O5 is lost during beneficiation.

During the application phase in agriculture, phosphorus is washed off the land and goes into aquatic environments where it causes eutrophication4 . It is estimated that the current agri-food system is inefficient in phosphorus use; only one-fifth of the phosphorus mined for food production finds its way into food consumed by the global population each year [39].

Assessing the phosphorus flow and balance in the European Union, Van Dijk et al. (2016) found out that points of high phosphorus emissions in the food chain in Europe are the household's food consumption and the food processing industry [214].

The recovery of phosphorus from municipal and industrial wastewater may create a strategic opportunity for European countries to reduce their dependency on the importation of primary phosphate and to improve their resource efficiency and environmental performance. According to the European Sustainable Phosphorus Platform, recycled phosphorus products could replace 20-40% of the EU mineral phosphate fertilizer [99]. However, investing in phosphorus recovery from wastewater needs to be included in a comprehensive approach to improving the sustainable use of phosphate rock sources. Scenarios

4 Eutrophication happens due to the overabundance of phosphorus or nitrate in the aquatic environment, algae use these nutriments to grow and reproduce faster as it has to be, the overproduction and dense growth of algae causes the depletion of dissolved oxygen and creating by consequence an anaerobic environment 'dead zones' and fish die in lakes, rivers and oceans

based on the environmental, social, and economic performance of both primary and secondary phosphorus products would allow the development of the strategy to define the optimal combination of primary and secondary phosphate fertilizers.

# **9 General Conclusion**

Phosphorus criticality has a humanitarian dimension, as phosphorus serves a basic human need, which is food production to feed the global population. Phosphorus criticality has not to be addressed only as a local problem but also as a global problem. Moreover, phosphorus criticality has to be more aligned with sustainable development goals to reduce poverty in the world, to eradicate hunger, and to reduce inequalities.

The keys findings of this study are the following:

This study can be applied to other critical minerals to achieve sustainable supply chains, especially critical materials mined in developing countries with a high risk of environmental and social impacts. For instance, the mining sector is the first link of the supply chain, and its socio-environmental impacts in emerging economies are an early indicator of the supply disruption. Furthermore, the results of the environmental and social assessment of phosphate rock production can be used in a broader scope to study scenarios and strategies for importing countries to combine primary and secondary phosphorus resources to produce a more sustainable fertilization strategy.

A take-home message of this work is that sustainable phosphorus management is a global issue. Therefore, to mitigate phosphorus criticality, it needs a global action: first the implementation of responsible mining in emerging countries; second better resources efficiency during the use phase (mainly in agriculture and food consumption); and finally, reducing the loss of phosphorus into the environment along its value chain.

# **Bibliography**

[1] Acero, A. P., Rodriguez, C., and Ciroth, A. 2015. LCIA methods: Impact assessment methods in Life Cycle Assessment and their impact categories. 1.5.4.

[2] Achzet, B. and Helbig, C. 2013. How to evaluate raw material supply risks—an overview. Resources Policy 38, 4, 435–447.

[3] African Manger. 2019. Le chantage de Bouzaïene, qui ruine la CPG, continue impunément. African Manger 2019 (Sep. 2019).

[4] Agricultural Research for Development. 2016. Social LCA research book: Social evaluation of the life cycle application to the agriculture and agri-food sectors. Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD, Sète, France.

[5] Airbus, L./ C. and Maxar technologies, M. d. 2019. Current mining sites coverage 2017-2018. Google Maps.

[6] Atlas Copco Drilling Solutions LLC. 2015. DM45-series blasthole drills.

[7] Auvray, F. and Auvray, F. 2013. Les gisements des phosphates de Gafsa, Tunisie. phosphates deposits of Gafsa, Tunisia. Accessed 24 June 2020.

[8] Ayeb, H. 2011. Social and political geography of the Tunisian revolution: the alfa grass revolution. Review of African Political Economy 38, 129, 467–479.

[9] Ayeb, H. and Fautras, M. 2013. Pauvreté et Révolution en Tunisie / Poverty and Revolution in Tunisia Cartes / maps + Article « Révolution de l'Alfa » (Alfa Grass Revolution). https://habibayeb.wordpress.com/2013/05/15/pauvrete-et-revolution-en-tunisie-poverty-and-revolution-in-tunisia-cartes-maps/. Accessed 20 August 2020.

[10] Bard, D. and Ouertani, A. 2017. Etéude d'impact de la pollution industrielle sur la santé de l'Homme à Gabès. Study of the impact of industrial pollution on the human health in Gabes 2016/372830/2.

[11] Bates, B., Kundzewicz, Z. Z.W., and Palutikof, J.P., Eds. 2008. Climate change and water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 6. IPCC Secretariat, Geneva.

[12] Ben Ahmed, L. 2018. Tunisie – Crise du bassin minier : le gouvernement opte pour la fermeté. https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/afrique/tunisie-crise-du-bassin-minier-legouvernement-opte-pour-la-fermet%C3%A9-/1079625. Accessed 20 May 2020.

[13] Bio by Deloitte. 2015. Study on Data for a Raw Material System Analysis. Roadmap and Test of the fully operational MSA for raw materials final report.

[14] Bonnet, C. 2011. Les Phosphates. Phosphate. https://www.lasim.org/images/doc\_gratuite/les-phosphates.pdf. Accessed 19 June 2020.

[15] Boubaker, S. and Hassen, M. 2016. La Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa (CPG) : État des lieux de la gouvernance et recommandations.

[16] Bouchrika, R. 2017. Mesures sismiques et éude des effets de tirs dans les mines à ciel ouvert. Sismic measurement and study of the blasting effects in open pit mine, Metlaoui, Tunisia.

[17] Boujlel, H., Daldoul, G., Tlil, H., Souissi, R., Chebbi, N., Fattah, N., and Souissi, F. 2019. The Beneficiation Processes of Low-Grade Sedimentary Phosphates of Tozeur-Nefta Deposit (Gafsa-Metlaoui Basin: South of Tunisia). Minerals 9, 1, 2.

[18] Brahmi, M., Zouari, S., and Rossi, M. 2014. L'industrie minière et ses effets écologiques. État socio-économique et environnemental dans le bassin minier tunisien. edyte 17, 1, 109–120.

[19] British Geological Survey, Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières, Deloitte Sustainability, Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, and TNO. 2017. Study on the review of the list of critical raw materials. Critical raw materials factsheets. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.

[20] Britt, A., Summerfield, D., Senior, A. 2016. Australia's Identified Mineral Resources 2016. Geoscience Australia.

[21] Bronzo Perasso- carrière et bétons. 2018. Demande d'autorisation environnementale unique pour l'exploitation d'une installation classe pour la protection de l'environnement, Renouvellement de l'autorisation d'exploiter avec extension de la carrière de sainte-Marthe: Pièce 5- Demande d'autorisation les effets sur la santé. Application

for a single environmental permit for the operation of an installation classed for environmental protection, Renewal of the authorization to operate with extension of the quarry of Sainte-Marthe: Exhibit 5- Application for authorization health effects. Accessed 22 February 2020.

[22] Bureau International du Travail, Service des principes et droits fondamentaux au travail, and Institut National de la Statistique. 2017. Enquête Nationale sur le travail des enfants en Tunisie,2017. National survey on the child labor in Tunisia,2017.

[23] Burreau, B., Hossie, G., and Lutfalla, S. 2013. Approvisionnements en métaux critiques, un enjeu pour la compétitivité des industries française et européenne. Document de travail 2013-04.

[24] Carpenter, S. R. and Bennett, E. M. 2011. Reconsideration of the planetary boundary for phosphorus. Environ. Res. Lett. 6, 1, 14009.

[25] Caterpillar, I. 2010. Specalog for D10T Track-Type Tractor, AEHQ6029.

[26] Caterpillar, I. 2011. Specalog for 789C Mining Truck AEHQ6167.

[27] Caterpillar, I. 2012. Specalog for Cat 789D Mining Truck AEHQ6237-03.

[28] CHARNI MAJOUBI, H., ABBES, A., ABOUDI, A., KHAYATI, S., GRAUBY, A., GHARBI, H. A., and MTIMET, S. 1991. Étude de la radioactivité naturelle dans le sol du sud tunisien Région de Gafsa Tozeur. Radioprotection 26, 3, 537–549.

[29] Ciroth, A. and Eisfeldt, F. May/2016. PSILCA- A product social impact life cycle assessment database. Version 1.1.

[30] CNES/Airbus. 2020. Research Center, Metlaoui. Google Maps.

[31] CNES/Airbus and Maxar technologies, M. d. 2020. Dépot Maintenance Metlaoui (DMM) CPG. Google Maps.

[32] CNES/Airbus and Maxar technologies, M. d. 2020. Laverie Kef Eddour. Google Maps.

[33] CNES/Airbus and Maxar technologies, M. d. 2020. Laverie Moulares CPG. Google Maps.

[34] 2018. Code Minier. In Loi n° 2003-30 du 28 avril 2003 portant promulgation du Code Minier.

[35] Companie des phosphates de Gafsa CPG. 2016. Rapport annuel 2015.

[36] Companie des phosphates de Gafsa CPG. 2018. Rapport d'activité générale pour l'année2016. Document interne.

[37] Companie des phosphates de Gafsa CPG. 2018. Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa: Historique. Company of phosphates of Gafsa: history. https://www.cpg.com.tn/. Accessed 24 June 2020.

[38] Companie des phosphates de Gafsa CPG. 2019. Rapport d'activité générale pour l'année 2017. Document interne.

[39] Cordell, D. 2010. The Story of Phosphorus. Sustainability implications of global phosphorus scarcity for food security. Dissertation, Linköping University faculty of arts and sciences.

[40] CRM Alliance. 2019. CRM list and methodology. http://criticalrawmaterials.org/policy/crm-policy/.

[41] De Ridder, M., Jong, S. de, Polchar, P., and Lingemann, S. 2012. Risks and opportunities in the global phosphate rock market. Robust strategies in times of uncertainty. Rapport / Centre for Strategic Studies no. 17 | 12 | 12. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies (HCSS), Den Haag.

[42] DERA - Deutsche Rohstoffagentur in der Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe. 2012. DERA-Rohstoffliste 2012. Angebotskonzentration bei Metallen und Industriemineralen - Potenzielle Preis- und Lieferrisiken. DERA Rohstoffinformationen 10, Berlin.

[43] DERA - Deutsche Rohstoffagentur in der Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe. 2014. DERA-Rohstoffliste 2014. Angebotskonzentration bei Metallen und Industriemineralen - Potenzielle Preis- und Lieferrisiken. DERA Rohstoffinformationen 24.

[44] DERA - Deutsche Rohstoffagentur in der Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe. 2016. DERA-Rohstoffliste 2016. Angebotskonzentration bei mineralischen Rohstoffen und Zwischenprodukten ‒ potenzielle Preis- und Lieferrisiken. DERA Rohstoffinformationen 32, Berlin.

[45] DERA - Deutsche Rohstoffagentur in der Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe. 2019. DERA Rohstoffliste 2019. Angebotskonzentration bei Metallen und Industriemineralen - Potenzielle Preis- und Lieferrisiken. DERA-Rohstoffinformationen 40, Berlin.

[46] Dhibi, A., Elbarcharoui, M., and Fattah, N. 2017. Guided visit to the mining site Table Metlaoui, Washing plant n°4 and Research Center. Accessed 27 June 2020.

[47] Di NOI, C. and Ciroth, A. 2018. The importance of Three-dimension approach in LCA. A screening study on mining addressing environmental, social and cost aspects. LCA XVIII Conference.

[48] Di NOI, C., Eisfeldt, F., Ciroth, A., and Bizarro, D. 10-12 Decembre 2018. Complementarity of social and environmental indicators in assessing the sustainability of mining industry, Pescara (Italy).

[49] Direction de sécurité et de l'environnement. 2016. Rapport d'audit interne. Document interne.

[50] Direction de sécurité et de l'environnement. 2017. Tableau des indicateurs sur les accidents pour l'année 2016. Document interne.

[51] Direction de sécurité et de l'environnement. 2018. Statistique des acccidents et maladies professionnelles pour l'année 2017. Document interne.

[52] Direction générale de l'aménagement du territoire. 2011. Atlas du gouvernorat de Gafsa.

[53] Direction of Accounting. 2017. Tableau de bord de gestion et des indicateurs de performance de 2016: les coût complets. Internal document, 6.

[54] Direction of Accounting. 2017. Total consumption CPG. Internal document, 10. Accessed 29 June 2020.

[55] Direction of Accounting. 2018. Tableau de bord de gestion. Internal document, 7.

[56] Direction of human resources. 2018. Rapport de classification des employés selon la catégorie, le genre, le salaire, congès et séance de travail effectué. Document interne.

[57] Direction of human resources. 2018. Tableau de distribution des fonctions selon le genre. Document interne.

[58] Direction of mining planification. 2004. Synoptique de la préparation mécanique secteur Metaloui Kef Shfaier, Redeyf, Moulares. Intenal document. Accessed 27 June 2020.

[59] Direction of research and innovation. 2010. Etude de la qualité du phosphate de la Table de Metlaoui. Internal file, 4.

[60] Direction of the sector Metlaoui-Kef Schfaier. 2017. Activity report of the mining site Table de Metlaoui. Internal document, 9.

[61] Direction of the sector Metlaoui-Kef Schfaier. 2017. Bilan matière de la laverie 4, 12.

[62] Direction of the sector Metlaoui-Kef Schfaier. 2017. Exploitation planning and investment budget for 2018. Internal document, 8.

[63] Dumas, L. R. 2018. L'industrie des phosphates en Tunisie: un baromètre de la situation sociale. https://www.francetvinfo.fr/monde/afrique/economie-africaine/l-industrie-des-phosphates-en-tunisie-un-barometre-de-la-situation-sociale\_3053945.html. Accessed 26 May 2020.

[64] Eisfeldt, F. Soca v.1 add-on – Adding social impact infor-mation to ecoinvent: Description of methodology to map social impact information from PSILCA v.1 to ecoinvent v. 3.3.

[65] EPA. Phosphate Rock Processing Background Report. In AP-42: Compilation of Air pollution, Vol. 1.

[66] EPA. Phosphate Rock Processing final section. In AP-42: Compilation of Air pollution, Vol. 1.

[67] Erdmann, L., Behrendt, S., and Feil, M. 2011. Kritische Rohstoffe für Deutschland. Identifikation aus Sicht deutscher Unternehmen wirtschaftlich bedeutsamer mineralischer Rohstoffe, deren Versorgungslage sich mittel- bis langfristig als kritisch erweisen könnte", Berlin.

[68] Espace Manager. 2011. Tunisie: les recettes des phosphates fondent en 2011. https://www.espacemanager.com/tunisie-les-recettes-des-phosphates-fondent-en-2011.html. Accessed 22 May 2020.

[69] EU Ad-Hoc Working Group on Raw Materials. 2014. Report on critical raw materials for the EU.

[70] European Commission. 2010. Critical raw materials for the EU. Report of the Adhoc Working Group on defining critical raw materials Ref. Ares(2014)2187691 - 02/07/2014. European Commission.

[71] European Commission. 2011. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the Eropean Economic and Social Committee of the regions: Tackling the challenges in commodity markets and on raw materials.

[72] European Commission. 2017. Methodology for establishing the EU list of critical raw materials. guidelines, Brussels. DOI=10.2873/769526.

[73] European Commission. 2017. Report from the commission to the European parliament, the council, the european economic an social committee and the committee of the regions on the implementation of the circular economy plan, Brussels.

[74] European Commission, Joint Research Center, and Institute for Environment and Sustainaility. 2010. International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook - General guide on LCA - Detailed guidance EUR24708, Luxembourg.

[75] European Environmental Agency. 2019. 2.A.5.a Quarrying and mining calculation model 2019 - Spreadsheet — European Environment Agency. https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/emep-eea-guidebook-2019/part-b-sectoral-guidance-chapters/2 industrial-processes/2-a-mineral-products/2-a-5-a-quarrying-1/view. Accessed 7 March 2020.

[76] European Environmental Agency (EEA), Ed. 2019. 2.A.5.a Quarrying and mining of minerals other than coal. Technical guidance to prepare national emission inventories. EMEP/EEA air pollution emission inventory guidbook 2019.

[77] FAO. 2017. World fertilizer trends and outlook to 2020.

[78] Fattah, N. 2005. Geological structure of phosphorites in the Gafsa basin (Tunisia) and their geochemical specialization. Dissertation, The Russian State Geological Prospecting University (MGRI-RSGPU).

[79] Fodd and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2019. FAOSTAT: Fertilizers by Nutrient:. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/. Accessed 23 August 2020.

[80] Forum Tunisien des droits économiques et sociaux. 2018. Rapport du mois de décembre 2018 des mouvements sociaux, suicides et violences. Report of december 2018 on the social mouvement, suicide and violence 64. Observatoir social tunisien.

[81] Frischknecht, R. 1998. Life cycle inventory analysis for decision-making.

[82] Gantner, O. 2016. Ressourcenstrategische Betrachtung der Kritikalität von Phosphor. Dissertation, Shaker Verlag GmbH.

[83] Geissler, B., Hermann, L., Mew, M., and Steiner, G. 2018. Striving Toward a Circular Economy for Phosphorus: The Role of Phosphate Rock Mining. Minerals 8, 9, 395.

[84] Giurco, D., Mohr, S., Mudd, G., Mason, L., and Prior, T. 2012. Resource Criticality and Commodity Production Projections. Resources 1, 1, 23–33.

[85] Gobe, E. 2011. The Gafsa Mining Basin between Riots and a Social. HAL, halshs-00557826ff.

[86] Goedkoop, M., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., Schryver, A. de, Struijs, J., and Van Zelm, R. 2009. ReCiPe 2008 : A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at midpoint and the endpoint level. Report 1: Characterisation.

[87] Graedel, T. E., Barr, R., Chandler, C., Chase, T., Choi, J., Christoffersen, L., Friedlander, E., Henly, C., Jun, C., Nassar, N. T., Schechner, D., Warren, S., Yang, M.-Y., and Zhu, C. 2012. Methodology of metal criticality determination. Environmental science & technology 46, 2, 1063–1070.

[88] Greendelta. December 19th, 2019. Openlca. GreenDelta.

[89] Groupe Chimique de Tunisie GCT. 2011. The Tunisian Phosphate sector. http://www.gct.com.tn/produits-services/secteur-des-phosphates/. Accessed 22 May 2020.

[90] Groupe Chimique de Tunisie GCT. 2018. The Annual general ordinary meeting of the GCT.

[91] Grunwald, A. 2010. Technikfolgenabschätzung. Eine Einführung. Gesellschaft, Technik, Umwelt Neue Folge, 1. Edition Sigma, Berlin.

[92] Hajem, S. 2015. Système tunisien d'information sur les causes de décès: Entraves spécifiques, synthèse des principaux résultats de l'année 2013 et perspectives. Tunisian information system on the causes of death: Specific obstacles, summary of the main results for 2013 and prospects. l'Unité de recherche et d'information sur les causes de vieillissement et les cause médicales de décès.

[93] Haldar, S. K. 2018. Mineral exploration. Principles and applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

[94] Hamed, Y., Ahmadi, R., Demdoum, A., Bouri, S., Gargouri, I., Ben Dhia, H., Al-Gamal, S., Laouar, R., and Choura, A. 2014. Use of geochemical, isotopic, and age tracer data to develop models of groundwater flow: A case study of Gafsa mining basin-Southern Tunisia. Journal of African Earth Sciences 100, 418–436.

[95] Hassen Mzoughi. 2017. Sami Tahri: " Un député possède 100 camions pour le transport le phosphate". Sami Tahri: " A deputy has 100 truck for the transport of phosphate. Kapitalis 2017 (Nov. 2017).

[96] Hatayama, H. and Tahara, K. 2015. Criticality Assessment of Metals for Japan's Resource Strategy. Mater. Trans. 56, 2, 229–235.

[97] Heni, W., Mokni, N., and Shafaie, A. 2018. Code minier de la tunisie. l'amélioration des aspects liés à la transparence et à la gouvernance.

[98] Heni, W. and Shafaie, A. 2017. Tunisia's Draft Law on Parliamentary Approval of Oil Contracts: Missed Transparency Opportunity? https://resourcegovernance.org/blog/tunisia%E2%80%99s-draft-law-parliamentary-approval-oil-contractsmissed-transparency-opportunity. Accessed 12 October 2019.

[99] Hermann, L. and Thornton, C. Developments in regulatory and downstream user perspectives in sewage sludge management in Europe: drivers, challenges and opportunities. In ECSM'2019: European Conference on Sludge Management.

[100] Hustrulid, W. A., Kuchta, M., and Martin, R. K. 2013. Open Pit Mine Planning and Design, 1. Fundamentals Volume 1, London.

[101] IHS Markit. 2017. Phosphorus and Phosphorus Chemicals. CHemical Economic Handbook. https://ihsmarkit.com/products/phosphorus-chemical-economics-handbook.html.

[102] INS. 2010. Enquete nationale sur la population et l'emploi 2010.

[103] INS. 2011. Enquête nationale sur la population et les ménages 2009.

[104] INS. 2014. Gafsa à travers le recensement général de la population et de l'habitat 2014.

[105] INS. 2015. Rapport annuel sur les indicateurs d'infrastructure-. Le comité général du développent sectoriel et régional.

[106] INS. 2016. Consommation et niveau de vie. consumption and standard of living. Flash consommation et niveau de vie 1.

[107] INS. 2016. Enquête Emploi et salaires auprès des Entreprise en 2014.

[108] INS. 2017. Indicateurs de l'emploi et du chômage: deuxième trimestre 2017. Employment and unemployment indicators: second trimester 2017 P0201. Institut National de la Statistique (INS).

[109] Institut National de la Statistique. 2019. Les comptes de la nation: Agrégat et tableaux d'ensemble 2013-2017, Méthodology et principaux résultats. Institut National de la Statistique (INS).

[110] International Council on Mining and Metal. 2018. Role of mining in national economies. Mining Contribution Index.

[111] International Fertilizer Association. 2019. Production and International Trade, World Phosphoric acid production by region. https://www.ifastat.org/supply/Phosphate%20Products/Processed%20Phosphates. Accessed 26 August 2020.

[112] International Fertilizer Association (IFA), Ed. 2018. Fertilizer Outlook 2018- 2022. Medium- Term Outlook for Fertilizer and Raw Materials Global Supply :2017/18- 2022/23.

[113] International Monetary Fund. 2019. IMF Data access to macroeconomic and financial data : Government Finance statistics (GFS). https://data.imf.org/?sk=89418059 d5c0-4330-8c41-dbc2d8f90f46&sId=1437430552197. Accessed 12 March 2019.

[114] International Organization for Standardization. 2006. Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Requirements and guidelines, Geneva Switzerland, ISO 14044:2006(E).

[115] International Organization for Standardization. 2019. The ISO Survey of Management System Standard Certifications . - Full results. https://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink?func=ll&objId=18808772&objAction=browse&viewType=1. Accessed 28 November 2019.

[116] International Trade Centre. 2019. Trade Map - List of exporters for the selected product (Natural calcium phosphates and natural aluminium calcium phosphates, natural and phosphatic …). https://www.trademap.org/tradestat/Country\_SelProduct\_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c2510%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c2%7c1% 7c2%7c2%7c1%7c1. Accessed 19 February 2019.

[117] Kasprak, A. 2016. The Desert Rock That Feeds the World. https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/11/the-desert-rock-that-feeds-the-world/508853/. Accessed 21 August 2020.

[118] Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A., and Mastruzzi, M. 2010. The worldwide Governance Indicators. Methodology and Analytical issues. Policy research working paper 5430. The World Bank Development Research Group.

[119] Kellenberger, D., Althaus, H.-J., Jungbluth, N., Künniger, T., and Thalmann, P. 2007. Life Cycle Inventories of Building Products. Final report. Ecoinvent Data V2.0 No 7. Swiss Center for Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf, Swizerland.

[120] Khelifi, F., Besser, H., Ayadi, Y., Liu, G., Yousaf, B., Harabi, S., Bedoui, S., Zighmi, K., and Hamed, Y. 2019. Evaluation of potentially toxic elements' (PTEs) vertical distribution in sediments of Gafsa–Metlaoui mining basin (Southwestern Tunisia) using geochemical and multivariate statistical analysis approaches. Environ Earth Sci 78, 2.

[121] Khelifi, L. 2012. Contribution à l'étude géochimique des phosphates du bassin de Gafsa-Métlaoui : Exemple du Gisement d'Oum EL Khecheb. Master, FACULTE DES SCIENCES DE TUNIS.

[122] KOMATSU Mining Germany. 2005. KOMATSU PC3000.

[123] KOMATSU Mining Germany. 2013. Komatsu Prospekte PC5500.

[124] Kroop, S., Kaufhold, T., Lohmeyer, R., Mocker, M., Franke, M., Kranet, M., Böhme, L., Genslein, M., and Clauß, D. 2014.  Fraunhofer-Institut für Umwelt,Sicherheits und Energietechnik-UMSICHT/ Universität Stuttgart-Insitut für Siedlungswasserbau, Wassergüte und Abfallwirtschaft, Baden Württemberg.

[125] Laabidi, W. 2017. Repenser le phosphate… Repenser l'environnement : Athimar. https://www.athimar.org/articles/details/repenser-le-phosphate-repenser-lenvironnement. Accessed 20 May 2020.

[126] Macombe, C., Leskinen, P., Feschet, P., and Antikainen, R. 2013. Social life cycle assessment of biodiesel production at three levels: a literature review and development needs. Journal of Cleaner Production 52, 205–216.

[127] Mancini, L. and Sala, S. 2018. Social impact assessment in the mining sector: Review and comparison of indicators frameworks. Resources Policy 57, 98–111.

[128] Mancini L., Eynard U., Eisfeldt F., Ciroth A., Blengini G., Pennington D. 2018. Social assessment of raw materials supply chains. A life-cycle-based analysis. JRC Technical Reports EUR 29632 EN. European Commission, Luxembourg. DOI=10.2760/470881.

[129] Maria Chiara Cavalleri, Alice Eliet, Peter McAdam, Filippos Petroulakis, Ana Soares, and Isabel Vansteenkiste. Concentration, market power and dynamism in the euro area.

[130] Marscheider-Weidemann, F., Langkau, S., Hummen, T., Erdmann, L., Tercero Espinoza, L. A., Angerer, G., Marwede, M., and Benecke, S. 2016. Rohstoffe für Zukunftstechnologien 2016. Auftragsstudie. DERA Rohstoffinformationen 28. Deutsche Rohstoffagentur (DERA) in der Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR), Berlin.

[131] Metso Corporation. 2018. MHC 250 Standard Equipment Data Sheet 3662-01-18- ENG-MNG.

[132] Michaud, D. 2016. Rotary Dryer Design & Working Principle. https://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/rotary-dryer-design-working-principle. Accessed 19 April 2020.

[133] Mikkola, H., Ed. 2018. Seabirds. InTech.

[134] Miller, T., Kim, A. B., and Roberts, J. M. 2019. 2019 index of Economic Freedom. The Heritage Foundation.

[135] Mine-Engineer.com. 2020. Basics of an open pit mine. http://www.mine-engineer.com/mining/open\_pit.htm. Accessed 7 March 2020.

[136] Mining planification direction. 2018. Measured and demonstrated reserves in Gafsa mining region. Internal document, 2. Accessed 27 June 2020.

[137] Ministère des affaires locales et de l'environnement. 2018. Arrêté du ministre des affaires locales et de l'environnement et du ministre de l'industrie et des petites et moyennes entreprises du 26 mars 2018, fixant les valeurs limites des rejets d'effluents dans le milieu récepteur. In Journal Officiel de la République Tunisienne, 823–838.

[138] Mokaddem, N. 2017. Etude des aquifères et gestion des ressources en eau dans le bassin de Gafsa Nord. Doctoral, Université de Sfax.

[139] Mtimet, N., Loridan, M., and Rajaonarivelo. 2014. Tunisie: Perspectives des entreprises. Série de l'ITC sur les mesures non tarifaires MAR-14-250.F. Ecole spérieure d'agriculture de Mograne, International Trade Center (ITC).

[140] Muthu, S. S. 2019. Social Life Cycle Assessment. Case Studies from Agri and Food Sectors. Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd., Singapore.

[141] National Research Council. 2008. Minerals, critical minerals, and the U.S. economy. National Academies Press, Washington D.C.

[142] Nedelciu, C.-E., Ragnarsdóttir, K. V., Stjernquist, I., and Schellens, M. K. 2019. Opening access to the black box: The need for reporting on the global phosphorus supply chain. Ambio.

[143] Nicolas, F. 2016. Compte rendu d'une enquête abrégée à Redeyef (Sud-Ouest Tunisia). Accessed 24 June 2020.

[144] NRGI. 2017. Natural resource governance Index 2017.

[145] Numbeo.com. 2019. Rankings by Country of Average Monthly Net Salary (After Tax) (Salaries And Financing). https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/country\_price\_rankings?itemId=105&displayCurrency=TND. Accessed 19 July 2019.

[146] Office de développement du sud. july/2017. Gouvernorat de Gafsa en chiffre 2016. Ministère du développement, de l'investissement et de la coopération internationale, la République Tunisienne.

[147] Office de Développement du Sud. 2017. Gouvernorat de Gafsa en chiffre 2016. Ministère du développement,de l'investissement et de la coopération internationale.

[148] Office National des Mines. 2020. Industrie minérale extractive en Tunisia. http://www.onm.nat.tn/fr/index.php?p=indminier. Accessed 16 September 2020. [149] ONEQ. 2013. Rapport annuel sur le marché du Travail en Tunisie.

[150] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2013. OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas. OECD Publishing.

[151] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2015. Tunisia: A Reform Agenda to support Competitiveness and Inclusive Growth.

[152] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2019. Gender pay gaps for full and part-time workers. Database, LMF5. http://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm. Accessed 12 March 2019.

[153] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2019. Unemployment rate - OECD Data. https://data.oecd.org/unemp/unemployment-rate.htm. Accessed 22 June 2020.

[154] Organisme Professionnel de Prévention du Bâtiment et des Travaux Public. 2003. Les principaux explosifs utilisés dans les travaux publics. the main explosives used in public works. Accessed 22 February 2020.

[155] Paie-tunisie.com. Paie Tunisie -Smig et Smag. Tunisia Salary: Interprofessional guaranteed minimum wage SMIG and Agriculture guaranteed minimum wage SMAG. https://www.paie-tunisie.com/369/fr/smig-et-smag.aspx. Accessed 12 March 2019.

[156] Picard, r. and Guidara, A. 2016. Municipalité de Gafsa: Rapport final sur la performance de la gestion des finances publiques. Municipality of Gafsa: Final report on the performance of public financal management.

[157] polymerdatabase.com. 2020. Properties of Polyacrylamides. https://polymerdatabase.com/polymer%20classes/Polyacrylamide%20type.html. Accessed 3 December 2020.

[158] PRé Sustainability. 2020. ReCiPe. https://www.pre-sustainability.com/recipe. Accessed 4 September 2020.

[159] Primas, A., Capello, C., and Hischier, R. 2007. Phosphate rock. In Life Cycle Inventories of Chemicals, Swiss Center for Life Cycle Inventories, Ed. Ecoinvent report No. 8, 508–529.

[160] Quain, S. 2019. The Definitions of "Upstream" and "Downstream" in the Production Process. https://smallbusiness.chron.com/definitions-upstream-downstream-production-process-30971.html. Accessed 16 September 2020.

[161] Rébpublique Tunisienne. 1996. Code du Travail. Loi n° 96-62.

[162] 1999. Règlement interne de la companie des phosphates de Gafsa. In Arrêt n°2644.

[163] Research Center CPG. Généralités sur le phosphate naturel du bassin de Gafsa. General information on rock phosphate in the Gafsa Basin. Internal report, 1.

[164] Research Center CPG. 1999. Rapport: études granulochimique des qualités marchandes du phosphate du bassin de Gafsa. Internal file, 3.

[165] Research Center CPG. 2017. Analyse chimique de l'eau de forage. Internal document. Accessed 7 April 2020.

[166] Research Center CPG. 2017. Rapport chimique des rejets fins laverie 4. Internal document. Accessed 7 April 2020.

[167] Research Center CPG. 2017. Synoptique de la partie brut, lavage et tratement d'eau. Internal document. Accessed 7 April 2020.

[168] Rietbergen-McCracken, J. and Narayan, D. 1996. Participation and social assessment tools and techniques 17796. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

[169] RitchieSpecs Equipment Specification. 2018. Caterpillar D10R Crawler Tractor.

[170] Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin, F. S., III, Lambin, E., Lenton, T. M., Scheffer, M., Folke, C., Schellnhuber, H. J., Nykvist, B., Wit, C. A. de, Hughes, T., Van der Leeuw, S., Rodhe, H., Sörlin, S., Peter K. Snyder, Costanza, R., Svedin, U., Falkenmark, M., Karlberg, L., Corell, R. W., Fabry, V. J., Hansen, J., Walker, B., Liverman, D., Richardson, K., Crutzen, P., and Foley, J. Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity.

[171] Rowland, J. H. and Mainiero, R., Eds. 2000. Factors affecting ANFO fumes productions. Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique Vol.1. International Society of Explosives Engineers, Cleveland, OH.

[172] Ryan, Y. 2014. Special documentary - Tunisia: The phosphate curse. https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/features/2014/12/18/special-documentary-tunisia-the-phosphate-curse. Accessed 25 June 2020.

[173] Salhi, B. 2017. Mutations socio-spatiales et environnementales du bassin minier de Gafsa (Sud-ouest de Tunisie): Approche par les outils géomatiques. Dissertation, Université Bretagne Loire.

[174] Sapko, M., Rowland, J. H., Mainiero, R., and Zlochower, I., Eds. 2002. Chemical and Physical Factors that Influence N0x Production During Blasting: Exploratory Study. Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique Vol. 2. International Society of Explosives Engineers, Cleveland, OH.

[175] Scholz, R. W., Roy, A. H., Brand, F. S., Hellums, D. T., and Ulrich, A. E., Eds. 2014. Sustainable Phosphorus Management. A Global Transdisciplinary Roadmap. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, s.l.

[176] Scholz, R. W., Ulrich, A. E., Eilittä, M., and Roy, A. 2013. Sustainable use of phosphorus: a finite resource. The Science of the total environment 461-462, 799–803.

[177] Schröder, J.J., Cordell, D., Smit, A.L., and Rosemarin, A. Sustainable Use of Phosphorus. EU Tender ENV.B.1/ETU/2009/0025 357. Plant Research International Business Unit Agrosystem; Stockholm Environmental Institute (SEI).

[178] Searates.com. 2020. International container shipping | Online freight marketplace. https://www.searates.com/. Accessed 7 February 2020.

[179] Sellami, A., Sellami Boudawara, T., Hsairi, M., Jlidi, R., and Achour, N. 2007. Incidence des cancers dans le gouvernorat de Sfax 2000-2002. Incidence of cancer in the governorate of Sfax 2000-2002. Hôpital universitaire Habib Bourguiba Sfax, Tunisia.

[180] Shafaie, A. and Heni, W. 2019. Des solutions importantes pour consacrer la transparence et la bonne gouvernance dans le cadre juridique minier tunisien. https://resourcegovernance.org/blog/des-solutions-importantes-pour-consacrer-la-transparenceet-la-bonne-gouvernance-dans-le-cadre. Accessed 12 October 2019.

[181] SKAKO VIBRATION. Caractéristiques Techniques Tambours le lavage type SF\_F.

[182] Smida, O. 2012. Etude du comportement des rejets de l'industrie phosphatière du bassin de Gafsa- Metlaoui (M'dhilla, R'deyef, Moularès) dans les conditions de surface. Study of the behaviour of discharges from the phosphate industry in the GafsaMetlaoui basin (M'dhilla, R'deyef, Moularès) under surface conditions., Faculté des sciences de Tunis.

[183] Sociéé tunisienne de l'électricité et de Gaz. 2019. Clients industriels et tertiaires / Tarifs moyenne tension moyenne pression. industrial client: priceso of medium voltage electricty.

[184] Société Tunisienne de transport des produits miniers. 2017. Etat du matériels de la STTPM. Internal document, 11.

[185] Société Tunisienne de transport des produits miniers. 2018. Rapport d'activité de chargement et de transport des produits de phosphates de la CPG selon le secteur pour l'année 2017, 12. Accessed 29 June 2020.

[186] SOTEMU. 2016. Products catalog. https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/42899618/products-catalog-sotemu-sa. Accessed 21 April 2020.

[187] SurveyMonkey. Welcome to SurveyMonkey! https://www.surveymonkey.com/dashboard/. Accessed 15 January 2020.

[188] Tartakovsky, D., Stern, E., and Broday, D. M. 2016. Indirect estimation of emission factors for phosphate surface mining using air dispersion modeling. The Science of the total environment 556, 179–188.

[189] The New York Times. 1984. Curfew imposed across Tunisia as riots spread-Archive. The New York Times (1984).

[190] The New York Times. 1987. A Coup is reported in Tunisia. A version of this article appears in print on Nov. 7, 1987, Section 1, Page 3 of the National edition with the headline: A COUP IS REPORTED IN TUNISIA. The New York Times (1987).

[191] Tournis, V. and Rabinovitch, M. 2009. Les ressources naturelles pour la fabrication des engrais : une introduction. Natural ressources for the manufacturing of fertilizer: Introduction. Géologues, Geol162, 37–44.

[192] Transparency International. Corruption Perceptions Index 2018. https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018. Accessed 12 March 2019.

[193] Tuniscope. 2015. Transport du phosphate,la corruption pointe du nez. Transport of phosphate, corruption is here. Tuniscope 2015 (May. 2015).

[194] U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey. 1980. Principles of Resrouce/Reserve Classification for Minerals. Geological Survey Circular 831.

[195] U.S. Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission. 1997. Horizontal Merger Guidelines (1997). https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scpwps/ecb.wp2253~cf7b9d7539.en.pdf. Accessed 26 August 2020.

[196] U.S. Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission. 2010. Horizontal Merger Guidelines (2010). https://www.justice.gov/atr/horizontal-merger-guidelines-08192010. Accessed 27 August 2020.

[197] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Chapter 13: Miscellaneous Sources: Emission unpaved road. In AP 42, Fifth Edition.

[198] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. AP-42 11.9 Western Surface Coal Mining. Revision of Emission Factors for AP-42 Section 11.9 Western Surface Coal Mining.

[199] U.S. Geological Survey. 2017. EarthWord–Rock vs. Mineral. https://www.usgs.gov/news/earthword-rock-vs-mineral. Accessed 10 October 2019.

[200] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2018. Human Development Indices and Indicators. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

[201] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). NaN. Understanding the Long-Term Impacts of Natural Resource Extraction. https://www.unenvironment.org/newsand-stories/story/understanding-long-term-impacts-natural-resource-extraction. Accessed 23 August 2020.

[202] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2009. Guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products. United Nations Environment Programme, Paris, France.

[203] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2009. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2008-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center.

[204] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2010. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2009-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center.

[205] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2011. Minneral Commodity Summaries 2010-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center.

[206] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2012. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center.

[207] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2013. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2012-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center.

[208] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2014. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2013-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center.

[209] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2015. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2014-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center.

[210] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2016. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2015-Phosphate rock.

[211] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2017. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2016-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center.

[212] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2018. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2017-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center.

[213] USGS National Minerals Information Center. 2019. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2018-Phosphate rock. USGS National Minerals Information Center. DOI=10.3133/70202434.

[214] Van Dijk, K. C., Lesschen, J. P., and Oenema, O. 2016. Phosphorus flows and balances of the European Union Member States. The Science of the total environment 542, Pt B, 1078–1093.

[215] Van Kauwenbergh, S. J. September/ 2010. World Phosphate Rock Reserves and Resources.

[216] VBW. 2009. Rohstoffsituation Bayer: Keine Zukunft ohne Rohstoffe. Situation of raw materials in Bavaria: No future without raw materials. Strategien und Handlungsoptionen. Vereinigung der Bayerischen Wirtschaft (VBW).

[217] VBW. 2011. Rohstoffsituation Bayern: Keine Zukunft ohne Rohstoffe. Situation of raw materials in Bavaria: No future without raw materials. Strategien und Handlungsoptionen. Vereinigung der Bayerischen Wirtschaft (VBW).

[218] VBW. 2015. Rohstoffsituation der bayerischen Wirtschaft. Situation of raw materials for the Bavarian economy. Vereinigung der Bayerischen Wirtschaft (VBW).

[219] VBW. 2017. Rohstoffsituation der bayerischen Wirtschaft. Situation of the raw materials for the Bavarian economy. Vereinigung der Bayerischen Wirtschaft (VBW).

[220] Waszkewitz, H. 2018. Tunisia's phosphate mines – between a rock and a hard place. https://globalriskinsights.com/2018/02/tunisia-phosphate-mines-strikes/. Accessed 1 February 2020.

[221] Weatherspark. 2020. Météo habituelle à Metlaoui, Gafsa Tunisie - Weather Spark. Weather at Metlaoui, Gafsa, Tunisia - Weather Spark. https://fr.weatherspark.com/y/58621/M%C3%A9t%C3%A9o-habituelle-%C3%A0-Metlaoui-Tunisie. Accessed 22 June 2020.

[222] Wendling, Z. A., Emerson, J. W., Esty, D. C., Levy, M. A., Sherbinin, A. de, Spiegel, N. R., Pinkerton, V., Boucher, L., Ratté S., Mardell S., Ichihara, M., Battles, J., and Quay, A. N. 2018. Environmental Performance Index. Global metrics for the environment: ranking country performance on high priority environmental issues, New Haven.

[223] World Bank. 2017. World governance indicators. http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/.

[224] World Health Organization. 2018. Noncommunicable Diseases (NCD) Country Profiles, Tunisia.

[225] World Health Organization. 2020. Common pollutants from household heating, cooking and lighting. https://www.who.int/airpollution/household/pollutants/combustion/en/. Accessed 14 April 2020.

[226] World Health Organization. 2020. Ionizing radiation, health effects and protective measures. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ionizing-radiationhealth-effects-and-protective-measures. Accessed 14 April 2020.

[227] Yara UK. 2018. Conversion calculator , plant nutrients. https://www.yara.co.uk/crop-nutrition/farmers-toolbox/conversion-calculator/. Accessed 29 June 2020.

[228] Zepf, V., Simmons, J., Reller, A., Ashfield, M., and Rennie, C. 2014. Materials critical to the energy industry - An introduction. BP.

## **Annex**

## **A. Chapter 1: Global supply of phosphorus and criticality analysis**

#### **Table A-1: Literature review of phosphate rock criticality assessment**

## **B. Chapter 2: Methodology**

#### • **ReCipe method**

The LCIA phase is the transformation of LCI flows (input-output) into a set of environmental impact categories. Those environmental impact categories are expressed in quantitative indicators [86] (see Figure B-1). The set of impact categories are organized in a specific LCIA method (such as CML. Eco-indicator 99. Cumulative Energy Demand. ReCiPe). For this work. the method to be applied is the "ReCiPe1 Midpoint (H) [v1.11 2014]" as it combines CML and Eco-indicator 99 in an updated version [1]. Moreover. ReCiPe distinguishes two levels of environmental damage. which are the Midpoint and the Endpoint level.

The midpoint level refers to the conversion of the LCI results (such as fresh-water use. land use. and the emission of CO2. NOx. SO2) into Midpoint impact category indicators (such as water depletion. climate change. and water ecotoxicity). The Endpoint level refers to the conversion of Midpoint impact categories into three Endpoint impact categories, which are; the damage to human health (HH). the damage to ecosystem diversity (ED). and the damage to resource availability (RA) [86]. The conversion is based on an environmental mechanism. The environmental mechanism is a cascade effect that can lead to a certain level of damage to human health or the ecosystem [86].

The ReCiPe method has three characterization scenarios or perspectives defined according to the different sources of uncertainty and the different choices and assumptions. For this work, the hierarchist perspective (H) was used as it is considered to be the default model. and a consensus model often used in scientific modeling [158]. The Hierarchist perspective has a longer time horizon for the environmental mechanism as the individualist perspective. For instance, the time horizon perspective for the environmental mechanism of climate change is 100 years in the Hierarchist perspective and 20 years in the individualist perspective.

According to ReCiPe. 2008 report: "Perspectives are used to group similar types of assumptions and choices. For instance:

1 The acronym represents the initials of the main contributors and collaborators institutes for the development and design of the method: **R**IVM and Radboud University, **C**ML, and **P**Ré consulting[86].

**Figure B-1: Relationship between inventory results. midpoint indicators. and endpoint indicators in the LCIA [74]**

#### **Table B-1: Impact categories and characterization factor in ReCiPe [86]**

#### • **Social Impacts Weighting method**

For calculating social impacts for a specific product system, since social impacts assessment is still investigated. and no generally accepted method has been developed so far. the so-called "Social Impacts Weighting Method" is rather rudimentary with typically impact categories corresponding to one indicator [64].

The reference unit of each impact category is medium risk hours. Therefore, the risk level of each impact category is scaled to medium risk applying an impact factor as indicated in Table B-3.

#### • **Stakeholder analysis**

#### **Table B-3: Stakeholder classification and the management action**

#### **Table B-4: Stakeholder classification**

#### **Table B-5: Stakeholder classification according to the participant at the CPG**

**Figure B-3: The characterization of local population in Gafsa and the population sample structure**

#### **Table B-6: Social impacts, their indicator and the corresponding question for the survey**

#### **Table B-7: Ordinal scale questions (1-9) survey among the local population**

• 1- Please assess the quality of influence

• 2- Can you rate the reason behind leaving the region

• 3- In your personal opinion. how high is the impact of phosphate mining on the following public health problem in the region

• 4- Please rate the quality of drinking water coverage:

• 5- How frequent is the interruption of water in households per month, week and day?

• 6-According to your personal opinion please estimate the risk of the following impact of phosphate mining on the water resources

• 8- As a part of the local population, how informed do you feel about the following topics?

• 9- As a part of the local population, how well involved in the company's decision?

• 10-Gender

o female o male o other/unknown

## **C. Chapter 3: Revision of the global phosphate reserves**

**Table C-2: Evolution of the global reserves of phosphate rock, global production of phosphate rock and the Resources/Consumption ration based on the data of the USGS and data [203–213] of the CPG for the year 2017-2018 [136]**

## **D. Chapter 6: Environmental life cycle analysis of phosphate rock mining**

**Figure D-1: Planning map for the mining operation at Metlaoui, for the year 2018 [62]**

#### **Table D-1: P content in crude phosphate rock ore of Morocco, USA, and Tunisia**

**Figure D-2: Example of satellite picture of the beneficiation plant at Moulares(a) [33] and Kef Eddour (b) [32]. Research Center (c) [30]. Maintenance and reparation center (d) [31]**

**Table D-2: List of equipment operative at the mining site of Metlaoui in 2017**

#### **Table D-3: Transportation of different phosphate product and byproduct for the year 2017 [185]**

**Figure D-3: Input-Output table of the process "Blasting phosphate-TN" in openLCA**

**Table D-4: Particulate matter emission factor g/metric ton of crude phosphate rock according to the EEA calculation model [75, 76], the composition of TSP (%), and Gafsa mining weather conditions**

#### **Table D-6: Chemical concentration in the slime fraction of the slurry and their related emissions due to the production of 1kg beneficiated phosphate rock based on the data from Smida (2012) [182]**

**Figure D-5: Photo of a drying unit at CPG (Own photo during data collection visit to the drying plant)**

**Table D-7: Inputs/outputs of the production of 1 kg P2O5**

#### **Table D-8: Total Particulate Matter (TPM) calculation**

#### **Table D-9: Water depletion impact of the product system "Wet beneficiation phosphate rock, as P2O5-TN". Expressed in m3 /kg P2O5**

#### **Table D-10: Freshwater eutrophication impact category of the product system "Wet beneficiation phosphate rock, as P2O5-TN". Expressed in P eq/kg P2O5**

#### **Table D-11: Freshwater ecotoxicity impact category of the product system "Wet beneficiation phosphate rock, as P2O5-TN". Expressed in 1,4 DB eq/kg P2O5**

#### **Table D-12: Terrestrial acidification impact category of the product system "Wet beneficiation phosphate rock, as P2O5-TN". Expressed in kg SO2/kg P2O5**

#### **Table D-13: Terrestrial ecotoxicity impact category of the product system "Wet beneficiation phosphate rock, as P2O5-TN". Expressed in kg 1,4 DB eq/kg P2O5**

#### **Table D-14: Arable Land use impact categories of the product system "Wet beneficiation phosphate rock, as P2O5-TN".**

**Table D-16: Ionizing radiation impact category of the product system "Wet beneficiation phosphate rock, as P2O5-TN". Expressed in kg 235U eq/kg P2O5**

#### **Table D-18: Photochemical oxidant formation impact category of the product system "Wet beneficiation phosphate rock, as P2O5-TN". Expressed in kg NMVOC eq /kg P2O5**

#### **Table D-19: Human toxicity impact category of the product system "Wet beneficiation phosphate rock, as P2O5-TN". Expressed in Kg 1,4 DB eq /kg P2O5**

#### **Table D-20: Environmental impact contribution of each life cycle stage**

#### **Table D-21: Environmental impact contribution of different operation in the process "Mining operations phosphate rock as P2O5-TN"**

#### **Table D-22: Comparison of the environmental impacts of two product systems of wet beneficiated phosphate rock in Tunisia and the USA**

## Sustainable phosphate management

Environmental and Social life cycle assessment of phosphate mining in Tunisia

Phosphorus is a crucial element in agriculture to feed the fast-growing global population. Its sustainable supply has ecological, social and human dimensions. Moreover, phosphate rock and white phosphorus are classified as critical to European industries, and the call to reduce dependency on importation through phosphorus recycling can mitigate the European supply risk. On the other side, phosphate rock can also be critical for the producing, mostly emerging countries as phosphate mining contributes to their national economies. This work investigates implications of environmental and social impacts and the resource governance of producing countries to mitigate global phosphate criticality.

Roukaya Issaoui

Sustainable phosphate management