DEVELOPING THE PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM BASED ON MAQA>S{ID FOR ISLAMIC BANKS

: The performance appraisal system for Islamic banks, according to the function and role of Islamic banks, is still not well established and is still in search of ideal forms. Several Islamic economic figures see that the existing Islamic bank performance appraisal system is still profit-oriented and has not considered Islamic banks' social aspects. Apart from having a business function, Islamic banks also have social functions that must be carried out. Using the maqa>s}id al-Najja>r approach, this study developed a performance measurement system based on maqasid for Islamic Banks. Using the Sekaran model, the researcher breaks down the elements of maqa>s}id al-Najja>r into indicators of performance appraisal of Islamic banks to produce a Syaria bank performance measurement system within the framework of the maqa>s}id al-Najja>r. Based on the concept of maqa>s}id al-Najja>r, the developed model in this study is called the performance measurement system based on maqasid (PMSBM) for Islamic banks. This model contains financial and social aspects, so that Islamic banks are more in line with the basic objectives of Islamic economics, namely realizing prosperity for mankind.

INTRODUCTION
The formulation of a Syariah bank performance appraisal system that follows the values, objectives, roles, and characteristics of Islamic banks is still in search of an ideal form. Few multidisciplinary studies that have resulted in integrated and interconnected the Islamic bank performance appraisal system formula as an approach (Mohammed et al., 2015;Prasetiyo & Rofiah, 2021;Tarique et al., 2020). In fact, the emergence and development of Islamic Financial Institutions, including Islamic banks as the spearhead, is shaped by the norms, values , and ethical principles of Islamic economics. Therefore, the assessment of Islamic banks' performance with the right model is very important, so that the performance of Islamic banks remains on track in accordance with the original objectives, roles, and characteristics.
Islamic banks have unique and different characteristics and functions from conventional banks. In addition to having a business function, Islamic banks also have social functions that must be carried out. Therefore, the evaluation and performance assessment of Islamic banks must also be carried out comprehensively according to their role, namely the achievement of business performance (financial) and social performance (Hasan & Andriany, 2015, p. 51;Sucipto, 2003, p. 34) . But unfortunately, the assessment of the social performance of Islamic banks has not received adequate attention. So far, Islamic bank performance appraisals are more likely to assess business performance. In contrast, business performance and social performance are integral parts that go hand in hand because Islamic 79 banks are established and developed to fulfill these two functions. The fulfillment of these two functions is also a unique characteristic of Islamic banks compared to conventional ones.
Islamic banks are developed as an entity based on two inseparable principles: world affairs and religious affairs. These principles must obey and comply with shariah as the basis for all aspects of life. Compliance is not only related to origin worship (ibadah mahdah) but also business transactions (AAOIFI, 2015, p. 5).
The relationship between Islamic banks and religion is in line with social construction theory in the sociology of religion. According to Berger, religion is a social reality. Religion has a strategic role in building a social reality (Berger, 1991, p. 35;Soehadha, 2008, pp. 20-21). Islamic banking is a social reality whose presence cannot be separated from religion. The emergence of Islamic banks is based on the Islamic paradigm. Therefore, the assessment of Islamic banks' performance as a social reality through a religious approach with maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah as a reflection needs to be done.
Many scholars have discussed maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah. One of them is 'Abd al-Maji> d al-Najja> r, a Tunisian-born scholar. Al-Najja> r develop maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah based on the areas of human life. Al-Najja> r tries to dialogue and relate the text to the context of human life. With starting from the concept of maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah that have developed before and consider the problems that develop in various dimensions of human life, al-Najja> r developed the essential elements in maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah. Al-Najja> r argued that shariah was revealed for the benefit of humans. Therefore, it deserves and becomes necessary that maqa> s} id el Barka: Journal of Islamic Economics and Business al-shari> 'ah oriented in general to the comprehensive dimensions of human life (Al-Najjar, 2008, p. 56). Based on this, the concept of maqa> s} id al-Najja> r is quite relevant to be used as an approach to formulate an Islamic bank performance measurement system in academic studies.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Maqa> s} id al-Shari> 'ah in the Concept of al-Najjar The term maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah consists of two words, namely maqa> s} id and shari> 'ah. Maqa> s} id is the plural form of maqs} ad which means purpose, target, final goal. Meanwhile, maqa> s} id what is meant in Islamic shari'ah is the objective or purpose of Islamic law. Some fuqaha' argue that maqa> s} id bush with mas} a> lih} . Al-Juwayni, for example, used the term maqa> s} en and mas} a> lih} } alternately (Auda, 2008, p. 2). Maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah underwent a long evolution in its development until it finally emerged as a scientific discipline in the mid-20th century with the main character Muh} ammad T} a> hir Ibn 'A< shu> r (d. 1379 H / 1973 M) who played a major role in developing the concept of maqa> s} id which has been built by al-Sha> t} ibi> (d. 790 H) (Mawardi, 2010, p. 178) . Currently, the development of maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah are in a phase of methodological development. This phase was pioneered by the presence of Ibn 'A< shu> r, which is phenomenal and is positioned as the third pillar in the map of maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah development. After that, several contemporary maqa> s} id figures emerged who seek to develop maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah from a concept to an approach in answering current problems. However, the five main elements of maqa> s} id developed by al-Ghaza> li> seem to be a fixed price that remains. Although that does not mean maqa> s} id figures in this phase have no role at all. The positive contribution of maqa> s} id figures in this phase is to relate the five main elements of maqa> s} id with contemporary issues. Jasser Auda, for example, understands that the protection of offspring is a concern for the family. Besides, he understands that property protection is economic development and reduces the gap between economic classes (Auda, 2008, pp. 248-249) . Meanwhile, 'Abd al-Maji> d al-Najja> r, a Tunisian-born scholar, offered the concept of maqa> s} id with a slightly different offer. Al-Najja> r develops maqa> s} id al-shari> 'Ah based on the areas of human life.
Al-Najja> r seeks to dialogue and relate the text to the context of human life. With starting from the concept of maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah who have developed before and consider the problems that develop in various dimensions of human life, al-Najja> r developed the essential elements in maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah. Al-Najja> r argued that shariah was revealed for the benefit of humans. Therefore, it deserves and becomes a necessity that maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah oriented in general to the comprehensive dimensions of human life (Al-Najjar, 2008, p. 56).
According to al-Najja> r, the dimension of al-maqa> s} id al-d} aru> riyyah, better known as al-d} aru> riyya> t al-khams, sometimes it is not entirely appropriate to analyze the various aspects of human life that develop very rapidly. The multiple dynamics in human life must be covered by maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah (Al-Najjar, 2008, p. 51) . The el Barka: Journal of Islamic Economics and Business thinking reason used by al-Najja> r is known as reasoning with the Islamic anthropocentrism epistemology (Wijaya, 2014, p. 322).
Based on the epistemology of Islamic anthropocentrism, al-Najja> r reformulating maqa> s} id al-shari> 'ah into four dimensions, and each dimension contains two elements. Al-Najja> r confirms that the classification of the maqa> s} id elements which are developed does not mean that each element stands alone to realize mas} lah} ah without being related to other elements. According to al-Najja> r, although each element is interrelated and intertwined, each element has its main characteristics that differ from another (Al-Najjar, 2008, p. 56).
Maqa> s} id reformulation developed by al-Najja> r are: 1) Maintaining the value of human life, which consists of protection of religion (faith) and protection of human humanity; 2) Maintaining human essence, which consists of safeguarding the soul (self) and protection of intellect (mind); 3) Maintaining the human community, which consists of keeping the offspring (prosperity) and maintaining the existence of the human entity (social entity); and 4) Maintaining the material dimension of humans, which consists of preserving wealth and protecting the environment (Al-Najjar, 2008).

METHODS
This study constructs a performance mesurement system for Islamic Banks that includes financial and social aspects using the maqa> s} id al-Najja> r approach. It means that the concept of maqa> s} id al-Najja> r is used as an approach and framework in constructing the performance measurement system for Islamic banks. The researcher breaks down the maqa> s} id al-Najja> r elements become indicators of performance measurement of Islamic banks resulting in a Syariah bank performance measurement system within the framework of the maqa> s} id al-Najja> r concept. Moreover, it uses two analyses, content and domain analysis, to explore and get a holistic understanding of the data and theories. The researcher breaks down the elements of maqa> s} id al-Najja> r using the Sekaran model into indicators of financial and social performance measurement of Islamic banks to produce a syariah bank performance measurement system within the framework of the maqa> s} id al-Najja> r concept.
Islamic banking is a derivative of the Islamic economic system which makes Islam the cornerstone of its paradigm. Therefore, it is very important to develop a performance assessment of Islamic banks so that all activities of Islamic banks are in accordance with Islamic objectives. One way to make Islamic bank activities in accordance with Islam is to assess the performance of Islamic banks based on the maqasid framework.

Overview of the Islamic Bank Performance Assessment System
Information related to Islamic banks' financial and nonfinancial performance is of interest to many related parties from owners, managers, people using Islamic bank services, Islamic bank supervisory authorities, and other parties that are not directly related.
Information on the performance of Islamic banks can be used according to the interests of each party. Among the most widely used Earning is the value-added that is distributed for a broader stakeholder's welfare (Triyuwono, 2011, p. 14).
Islamic bank financial performance is the determination of certain measures to measure the success of Islamic banks in generating profits. The responsibility of management is to improve the company's financial performance. The stakeholder components, such as investors, creditors, and employees, are very concerned about performance. The higher financial performance generated by the company will increase stakeholder assets. Also, an increase in financial performance gives companies many opportunities to improve social performance in all aspects.
In general, the factors in CAMELS and RGEC emphasize more on the financial aspects. Non-financial aspects have a tiny portion, such as management or governance (Good Corporate Governance) factors. The financial part is none other than the profit el Barka: Journal of Islamic Economics and Business aspect. According to Triyuwono, the aspect of assessing the health of Islamic banks is determined so that the financial aspects are maintained, and even with the existing provisions, it is hoped that it will continue to increase from time to time (Triyuwono, 2011, p. 3) .
Indeed, the regulation of Islamic bank health assessment is the basis for ensuring the existence and sustainability of a bank. The presence and sustainability of a bank can be guaranteed if the bank in its operations makes a profit and, in simple terms, the profit is actually intended for shareholders.
Assessment of Islamic banks' performance, which is oriented to the aspects of finance and profit for the interests of shareholders, is not wrong. Of course, this is in the context of the fundamental values contained in the modern economic system. However, according to Triyuwono, if it is viewed from the point of view of shariah ethics, then the performance assessment of a Islamic bank which is only oriented to the financial and profit aspects will look very partial and temporary. In fact, in the context of sharia ethics, social reality (including the reality of the banking business) is an inseparable part of all social and religious systems (Triyuwono, 2011, pp. 4-5) . Apart from financial performance assessment, Islamic bank social performance assessment as a reflection of the social role must also be done.
However, unlike financial performance, corporate social performance is relatively difficult to measure, even though the company's social performance, which is often known as Corporate Social Performance (CSP), has been an academic topic of discussion for decades. The CSP concept has been used in the United States since the mid-1970s. According to Wood, CSP is a configuration of the principles of social responsibility in business organizations and processes, policies, social responsibility programs, and outcomes that can be observed related to corporate social relations (Wood, 2017, pp. 691-693) .
Along with the increasing awareness of many companies about the importance of CSR and increasingly accepted by various parties, an assessment of the company's social performance is also developing.
Several researchers have developed a corporate social performance assesment system. However, the concept of CSR, which is quite varied, has resulted in various social performance asssesment systems as well. With regard to Islamic banks, there have been no researchers who specifically developed an assessment of the social performance of Islamic banks. Several studies have been carried out adapting the CSP concept developed for general company assessment. Among the adapted CSP concepts is Islamic banks' performance assessment using the Islamic Social Reporting (ISR) Index. In addition, there is also a syariah bank social performance asssesment system that is integrated with Islamic bank financial performance assessment, such as the ANGELS model developed by Triyuwono and several other researchers.
The ISR concept emerged as a form of corporate accountability to The first relation is the accountability of Islamic banks to God.
The second relationship is the accountability of Islamic banks to stakeholders. Furthermore, the third relation is the social accountability of Islamic banks to nature. Apart from the points of relation with God, these points of contact are also in line with the concept of CSR, which aims to make companies not only carry out the interests of shareholders but also pay attention to the interests of stakeholders, such as employees, communities, government, consumers, and the environment (Susanto, 2009, pp. 109-118). CSR is a company's concern based on three fundamental principles known as Triple Bottom Lines (3P): Profit, People, and Planet. With this 3P principle, business goals are no longer merely seeking profit and must provide welfare for humans (people) and ensure the sustainability of life in this world (planet) (Alma & Priansa, 2009, p. 191). In detail, the following is the construction of a syariah bank performance appraisal system using a maqa> s} id al-Najja> r perspective. The implementation of this dimension in the performance assessment of Islamic banks is to provide educational scholarships.
The young generation is a precious asset for the sustainability of humankind. One form of protection for offspring is to maintain the younger generation's quality through the support of educational scholarships.
The second dimension in maintaining the social system of society is maintaining the social structure of society. Humans will not be able to carry out their duties as caliphs if they are not incorporated into society's structure. Society consists of various structures.
According to al-Najja> r, maintaining the social structure of society means maintaining the two main elements in it, namely community organization and social relations. Humans as social beings are included in various social institutions. These institutions start from the family as the smallest organization, community organizations, to the government as a formal organization (Al-Najjar, 2008, pp. 157-158 In the study of maqa> s} id al-Najja> r, the property is distinguished from other material dimensions. Although the property is part of the material dimension, the property has different characteristics and specifications from other natural objects' structure. Someone obtains property through work and other methods of obtaining assets. The relationship between property and humans is a relationship of ownership that can rotate and transfer ownership. The implementation of this dimension in the performance assesment of Islamic banks is through revenue redistribution. Income redistribution is a form of Islamic banking social concern. Therefore, income redistribution is included in the category of Islamic bank social performance assesment. Meanwhile, another assessment in the dimension of asset protection is the financial performance assessment of Islamic banks related to profitability, asset quality, liquidity, capital, and sensitivity to market risk. All of them are a form of Islamic bank protection against assets following the objectives of shariah (maqa> s} id).
Another beings is the nature of Allah SWT. Allah created this universe in a balanced and measured manner, both quantitative and qualitative. So that if humans destroy this universe or ignore this universe, then the consequence is that the whole of nature will experience suffering, which will impact human suffering as well.
Based on the overall description of the construction of the financial and social performance appraisal system of Islamic banks in maqa> s} id al-Najja> r perspective above, a summary of the financial and social performance appraisal system of Islamic banks in the maqa> s} id al-Najja> r perspective is as follows:


s2fieldsofstudy: Business Psychology

text:
Positive behavioral change during the COVID‐19 crisis: The role of optimism and collective resilience

Abstract While the issue of behavioral change is of increasing interest to academics and practitioners, an understanding of its drivers remains limited. Consistent with the possibility that destabilizing events can trigger the implementation of beneficial changes in one's life, this research studies the COVID‐19 pandemic and its influence on the adoption of positive habits. More specifically, it focuses on positive health and lifestyle‐related behavioral changes observed within the confined population, as well as the antecedents of such changes. Two surveys conducted 1 month apart in an urban setting severely affected by the pandemic confirm the role of optimism toward the crisis as an antecedent to four changes: slowdown in pace of life, decluttering of personal space, reflection on consumption habits and adoption of healthy behaviors. Collective resilience, social support and anxiety are identified as determinants of optimism. Results suggest an evolution of certain relations including the increase of collective resilience effect on optimism over time.

| INTRODUCTION
For several years, the question of behavioral change has preoccupied academics and practitioners across disciplines (e.g., Austin & Kwapisz, 2017;Griskevicius et al., 2012). While citizens have been asked on several levels to improve certain behaviors-notably, physical activity practices, healthier food choices, more responsible consumption or smarter financial choices (e.g., Cadario & Chandon, 2020;Parkinson et al., 2017;Spader et al., 2009)-in practice, to change one's habits is a big challenge, and initiatives often show disappointing results (e.g., Brawley et al., 2003;Grier et al., 2007). However, it appears that the drastic changes of contexts such as a crisis situation may be favorable for behavioral modifications (Harper et al., 2007). On March 11, 2020, such a crisis began, when the World Health Organization qualified COVID-19 as a global pandemic. Several countries implemented measures to limit the spread of the virus, including border shutdowns, school and business closures and social distancing (Wamsley, 2020). The mandatory confinement created a new reality and changed the way many people lived as they found themselves isolated in their home and deprived of social relations (Wright, 2020). While the COVID-19 situation is concerning at various levels, many individuals tried to make the best of the situation and change their habits in a positive way. Some seized the moment to prioritize a healthier lifestyle, including a balanced diet and increased exercise (Charm et al., 2020;Pinsker, 2020;Ronto, 2021). Others considered this period as a time to slow down and reflect on the pace of their life, priorities, and values (Matei, 2020;Miller, 2020;Nielsen Alimentation, 2020;Rosenbloom, 2020). These changes do not happen by chance, given that drastic context transformations, such as those brought on by the current pandemic, are conducive to the establishment of new habits (White et al., 2019).
This article aims to bring a new perspective to the challenge of behavioral change by focusing on the specific pandemic context and its ability to positively transform existing habits. More specifically, this research examines the positive behavioral changes observed among the confined population of a large city and the antecedents of such changes.
It looks at the role of optimism as a driver of change and at the effects of collective resilience, social support and personal anxiety on this optimism. It also explores the evolution of the changes and relations via two online surveys among 1009 citizens from Montreal a month and 2 months after the start of the implementation of measures by the authorities. Montreal was selected as this urban setting was severely affected by the pandemic and for which severe confinement measures were implemented such as school closures, interdiction of gathering, closure of all non-essential businesses, and mandatory teleworking (Lindeman, 2020), making this city a relevant context for the study.
Results confirm the role of social support, personal anxiety, and collective resilience on optimism toward the crisis as well as the influence of this optimism on behavioral changes. They suggest a variation in time of the relative weight of optimism's antecedents.
This article offers several contributions to the literature on behavioral change. First, it reveals the positive influence of optimism on behavioral change. More specifically, it expands the current understanding of this psychological trait-and its antecedents-demonstrating that optimism is a driver for the adoption of positive habits related to a healthy lifestyle. While it has been demonstrated that optimism is related to several positive consequences, such as overall well-being and longevity (Chopik et al., 2015), and that it influences one's ability to overcome individual challenges (Carver et al., 2010;Scheier & Carver, 1985;Taylor et al., 1992), this article highlights its positive role in a global crisis. Interestingly, in such a context, results indicate that collective resilience has an important influence on leveraging the optimism felt toward the crisis, and ultimately the positive changes implemented in one's life. Second, this article provides a new understanding of the impacts of the current pandemic by focusing on certain positive individual and societal outcomes, thus distinguishing itself from other recent studies on the subject (Bäuerle et al., 2020;Huang & Zhao, 2020). It emphasizes the importance of facilitating factors (social support) and aggravating factors (anxiety) in the crisis context to promoting the individual and collective capacity to take advantage of circumstances of drastic change. In addition, by examining variables tied to individual and societal well-being (Chopik et al., 2015), this study contributes to transformative consumer research (Mick, 2006) and the understanding of some of the drivers of consumer well-being. Relatedly, this research provides rich and useful insights that can be used in the design of behavioral change initiatives such as social marketing campaigns or public policy interventions. In sum, considering that the incorporation of positive and healthy habits in society is associated with positive economic and social benefits (Chopik et al., 2015), this research offers a significant contribution in this regard.
This article is organized as follows: A literature review on behavioral change, optimism and its antecedents culminates in a series of four hypotheses pertaining to the positive effect of optimism on four habit changes during the pandemic, and other related assertions.
The two studies conducted (1 month apart after the start of the COVID-19 crisis) are then presented and the hypotheses are tested.
The article ends with a discussion of the results, the article's contributions and possibilities for future research.
Research indicates that despite people's intentions to change or improve certain behaviors, prexisting behaviors tend to rapidly return (Verplanken & Wood, 2006;Wood et al., 2002). Interestingly, drastic context changes may be conducive to the development of new behaviors (Cohen, 2020). When humans lose their reference points, it may lead to the emergence of new habits (Parise, 2020). This occurs because several behaviors are learned and performed in stable circumstances and known contexts. A disruption of such contexts opens the door to new potential mechanisms (Wood et al., 2005). Studies which focused on the effects of traumatic incidents have confirmed that these incidents are a positive driver of change (Harper et al., 2007).
For example, patients who suffered from cancer bounced back from this ordeal and established new habits, both physically (e.g., physical activity) and psychologically (e.g., becoming closer to their family). Studies confirm that such events may be the tipping point toward re-prioritizing and implementing better habits (Aspinwall & MacNamara, 2005;Harper et al., 2007). Furthermore, research indicates that stressful events can fuel increased motivation for change and induce a positive turn in one's life (Harper et al., 2007). Relatedly, according to the habit discontinuity hypothesis, a disruption in a stable context represents an ideal condition for new habits to be implemented, as the references associated with the old habits are no longer accessible (Verplanken & Roy, 2016). This explains why people are, for example, more likely to adopt environmentally responsible behaviors following a move to a new city (Verplanken & Roy, 2016). Thus, habits are not based on intentions but on environmental cues and changing one's environment is a powerful determinant of habit change (White et al., 2019).

| Crisis consumption and positive habits
Crisis situations lead to changes in our consumption behavior, mostly in the products we buy but also in the ways we consume. These effects vary according to the type of crisis. For example, in situations of economic crisis, consumers tend to decrease their overall consumption expenditures and limit non-essential or superfluous purchases (e.g., Alonso et al., 2017;Faganel, 2011;Ozdamar Ertekin et al., 2020), favor certain types of discount and second-hand retailers and increase the variety of types of retailers frequented in search of savings (McKenzie & Schargrodsky, 2005). Other crises, however, have different effects, especially in the case of natural disasters, when consumers compensate for the unpleasant situation through impulse purchases (Kennett-Hensel et al., 2012) and other consumption choices that evoke positive emotions. Similarly, the current pandemic context is marked by a total break in people's regular habits (Parise, 2020) and new forms of consumptions have emerged. With regard to the COVID-19 crisis, a few academic articles provide an initial picture of consumption changes; results propose that in this particular context, consumers opted more for online shopping (Sheth, 2020), made more panic or unusual purchases (Hall et al., 2020;Laato et al., 2020), sought refuge in safe and comforting product choices (Eftimov et al., 2020) as well as cleaning products to feel protected (Cambefort, 2020). Hoarding behaviors-accumulating large quantities of goods due to a perceived risk of shortage-have also been observed (Kirk & Rifkin, 2020).
Beyond the influence on consumption choices, this contextual destabilization drove some to question and rethink their habits as their daily lives have been modified in unprecedented ways. Individuals' habits and routines have indeed drastically changed, forcing new habits to emerge and old ones to recede (Ding et al., 2020;Huber et al., 2021). Several studies suggest that this pandemic is motivating behavioral changes. More specifically, there is recent evidence that individuals have modified specific habits such as a shift to a healthier lifestyle including increased exercise and improved diet (Chiu et al., 2021;Ranasinghe et al., 2020), a simplified personal space and a need to declutter (Liu et al., 2021;Sandlin & Wallin, 2021), a need to slow down the pace of one's life (Ertz, 2020;Everingham & Chassagne, 2020), as well as a reflection on one's consumption habits and relation to consumption (Kang et al., 2021;Kirk & Rifkin, 2020). These behavioral changes can be explained by consumers focusing on the essentials and aspiring to reduce their level of consumption in a situation of uncertainty (Gordon-Wilson, 2022), and by consumers being more sensitive to responsibility and sustainability in their consumption choices following a crisis (Faganel, 2011). Accordingly, drawing from preliminary research evaluating the impact of the current pandemic on forming new habits, this study focuses on four behavioral changes: adopting healthy behaviors (e.g., Chiu et al., 2021), decluttering one's personal space (e.g., Sandlin & Wallin, 2021), slowing down the pace of one's life (e.g., Everingham & Chassagne, 2020), and reflecting on one's consumption habits (e.g., Kirk & Rifkin, 2020). Interestingly, these changes pertain to improvements in one's physical and psychological states, which are known for their positive impacts on societal well-being and general satisfaction with life (Ferguson & Goodwin, 2010).

| The role of optimism
Personal optimism is defined as a tendency to expect positive versus negative life outcomes (Robinson-Whelen et al., 1997). Optimism plays an important role in a person's positive transformations, namely for patients who suffered from serious illnesses (Allison et al., 2000;Mulkana & Hailey, 2001;Shepperd et al., 1996), and appears linked to the ability to develop healthier life habits (Ylöstalo et al., 2003) and sustainable choices (Mahmoodi et al., 2021). Given that optimists have more favorable expectations toward future events, they are more likely to engage in positive behavior changes-both physically and mentally-after a trying event (Scheier & Carver, 1985). Optimistic individuals recover more rapidly after a major life event and show increased adoption of healthy habits following such an event (Kivimäki et al., 2005;Shepperd et al., 1996). Several studies report that optimism is related to superior mental and physical health and that it plays a motivating role when facing a crisis (Giltay et al., 2007;Tindle et al., 2009).
Optimism allows people to better manage and overcome difficult situations as well as to transform them into positive results (Carver et al., 2010;Scheier & Carver, 1985;Taylor et al., 1992). More specifically, optimistic people are better able to manage stressful events given their adaptive coping style (Carver et al., 1999). When optimists face a crisis, they can adapt to this reality and take advantage of it (Moos & Schaefer, 1993). From this perspective, optimism shares similarities with the locus of control-that is, one's assumptions about one's control over life events and one's perceived ability to influence the course of his life (Findley & Cooper, 1983;Peacock & Wong, 1996). Such similarities have been recognized in the literature, notably regarding how optimistic individuals as well as people with internal control beliefs are able to cope with stressful events and positively adapt to difficult situations (e.g., Lefcourt, 1980;Scheier & Carver, 1987). Interestingly, internal locus of control has been related to the adoption of health-related as well as

| Social support
Social support is the belief that the support of loved ones is available if necessary (Procidano & Heller, 1983). More specifically, it can be defined as a multidimensional construct that taps into both the support concretely received (informative, emotional, and instrumental) and the support's sources (e.g., friends, family, strangers, and animals; Dumont & Provost, 1999). Social support is relevant in the current pandemic context as it constitutes a central resource in understanding people's adaptation in a crisis situation (Ekas et al., 2010;Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Social support is described as a protective factor that alleviates the effects of a stressful situation on individuals (Dumont & Provost, 1999) through its ability to reduce loneliness (Prati & Pietrantoni, 2009). Mandatory confinement due to the COVID-19 situation has raised concerns about isolation and the mental challenges related to it (Ganesan et al., 2021).
Social support is related to one's general satisfaction with life and to a positive state of mind (Jones et al., 2003;Zhu et al., 2013). It has been linked to perseverance, hope for positive outcomes (Pariat, 2008), and optimism (Beauregard & Dumont, 1996;Dougall et al., 2001).
Furthermore, supporting relationships have been related to people's overall optimism (Kivimäki et al., 2005). Social support has also been associated with high self-esteem, which in turn was shown to increase optimism in people facing chronic illness (Symister & Friend, 2003).
Relatedly, social support provides individuals with a positive context for experiencing stressful situations (Bettschart et al., 1992). As such, this support appears to influence one's ability to get through the current crisis, and more specifically, appears to be linked to optimism about the crisis.
Hypothesis 2. Social support is positively linked to optimism toward the crisis.

| Anxiety
Personal anxiety is defined as a state of tension, nervousness, apprehension and great concern (Spielberger, 1983). While dispositional anxiety refers to a personality trait, situational anxiety-considered in this research-relates to a specific context (Zheng, 2008). The current pandemic is a major stress factor characterized by uncertainty and a high anxiety level (Bavel et al., 2020). For example, more than a third of Americans have reported pandemic-related anxiety (Twenge & Joiner, 2020), and the number of Canadians experiencing high levels of anxiety has quadrupled since the pandemic began (Pollara, 2020).
In addition, recent academic work confirms that the pandemic significantly affects mental health through its influence on generalized anxiety (Bäuerle et al., 2020;Huang & Zhao, 2020).
Studies suggest that greater anxiety is linked to lower levels of optimism (Wang et al., 2017;Zenger et al., 2010). Moreover, anxiety is linked to the anticipation of future events perceived as dangerous (Spielberger, 1983). Consistently, anxiety in a pandemic context would reduce the probability of believing in a positive outcome, the latter underpinning optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985). Anxiety has a paralyzing influence and leads one to believe that the worst could happen (Palazzolo, 2019), thus negatively impacting one's optimism.
Hypothesis 3. Anxiety is negatively related to optimism toward a crisis.

| The role of collective resilience
Collective resilience consists in a group's ability to overcome challenges and difficulties (Lyons et al., 2016). The union spirit that stems from difficult situations illustrates this resilience ). This group strength and its beneficial role have been studied in various crisis contexts (e.g., natural disasters, terrorist attacks) (Aguirre, 2005). Thus, group spirit and unity emerge naturally in crisis situations as a powerful form of collective resilience (Ntontis et al., 2018). Collective resilience is equally associated with cooperation and collaboration in crisis situations (Kendra & Wachtendorf, 2003;Tierney, 2002).
The current crisis helps to highlight this collective solidarity (Brillon, 2020). Mutual support groups and collaborative movements started throughout the countries affected. Several political leaders relied on this resilience in their communications ("The most important collective battle of our lives," François Legault, Quebec Premier; Laforest & Warren, 2020). The perception of individuals that their fellow citizens are united against the crisis and that the sum of individual efforts will be fruitful is likely to influence their optimism. Moreover, collective resilience is linked to the ability to see things in a positive light, in other words, optimism (Smith et al., 2008;Yeager & Dweck, 2012). Affiliation to a group has a positive impact on the way events are perceived (Sime, 1983), and allows individuals to believe in their ability to reach their goals (Lyons et al., 2016;Williams & Drury, 2009). This leads to the following hypothesis. choice of preferred language. It is important to note that these two data sets were collected during a period of strict confinement for the population. Social contact and transportation were strictly limited (e.g., schools closed, distance learning in universities, businesses closed or reduced to remote work only). To be admissible, participants had to be 18 years or older, live in the greater Montreal area, be a member of the research firm's panel and accept to participate in the survey. Montreal city was selected for this study because of the strict lockdown measures put forward by the government and because this urban setting was hit harder by COVID-19 than other regions of the province and other similar international cities (Lepage, 2020;Lindeman, 2020). Furthermore, by asking participants about habits adopted during the last month, this study covers a period of 8 weeks (4 weeks prior to first survey on March 15 and 4 weeks prior to second survey on April 15). As it is generally accepted in the literature that 8 weeks are required to form a new habit (e.g., Duhigg, 2012;Lally et al., 2007;Lally et al., 2009), this period was deemed appropriate to observe the formation and maintenance of new habits. It is important to note that although participants in each phase are not the same individuals, they were selected from a panel representative of the Canadian population, and they further display similar characteristics across all sociodemographic variables when comparing both periods (i.e., month 1 and month 2). Respondents' sociodemographic profile is provided in Table 1. Respondents' sociodemographic profile is provided in Table 1.

| Measures
Optimism toward the crisis was measured using three items (Briley et al., 2017;Reed et al., 1999) (e.g., In regards to the current crisis, I have a positive outlook on what's to come, α = 0.95). Perception of collective resilience toward the crisis was measured using three items adapted from Lyons et al. (2016) (e.g., Quebec will be able to overcome this major crisis, α = 0.95). Social support was adapted from two studies (Dolbier & Steinhardt, 2000;Ferguson & Goodwin, 2010) (e.g., In the context of the current crisis… I feel as though I have the support of my loved ones, α = 0.93). Anxiety was measured using three items from Taylor (1953) (e.g., I cannot seem to relax, α = 0.93).
Behavioral changes were measured by asking participants if they sought to adopt certain behaviors since the beginning of the previous month (Price et al., 2018). Four variables were measured: healthy lifestyle (e.g., Prioritize a healthy lifestyle, α = 0.89), decluttering activities (e.g., Getting rid of things I do not need, α = 0.87), slowing down the T A B L E 1 Demographic profile of respondents (percentages).

| Data analysis and results
The conceptual model proposed in this research suggests individually (i.e., social support and anxiety) and collectively related (e.g., collective resilience) influences on optimism toward the crisis.
Interestingly, social support and anxiety's impacts on optimism suggest compensatory effects (0.14 vs. -0.15), consistent with prior research that revealed that social support moderates the negative effects of stress (Wang et al., 2014). Figure 1 illustrates the main findings.

| Multigroup analysis
The multigroup analysis focuses on comparing the model during different periods, after the first and second month. Prior to testing multigroup variations, configural and metric invariance was tested. To verify configural invariance of the multigroup model, an unconstrained multigroup measurement model was examined (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Second, this study reveals the important role of optimism in global health-related crises such as the Covid-19 pandemic.
Although optimism has been related to several positive outcomes in past research (Andersson, 1996;Chopik et al., 2015;de Ridder et al., 2000;Forgeard & Seligman, 2012), its role in stimulating behavioral change in a collective crisis has not been empirically studied. In doing so, this study contributes to the overall understanding of how individual traits influence habit change (e.g., Howlett et al., 2008). Interestingly, recent work highlighted the role of optimism-and more specifically comparative optimism bias (Mahmoodi et al., 2021)-in influencing one's perceived efficacy, leading to increased sustainable behaviors. The current study brings additional evidence of the importance of this trait in consumers' decisions and its impact on positive health and lifestylerelated behavioral changes. Relatedly, this research demonstrates that collective resilience is an important variable to consider in behavioral change literature, answering recent calls for research around the role of community resilience in driving sustainable consumption (O'Rourke & Lollo, 2015). In sum, this research offers new theorical lenses to understand the impact of global crisis by considering its individual-related (i.e., optimism) and group-related (i.e., collective resilience) psychological effects.
Third, this research brings clarification to the equivocal literature on consumption behavior in times of crisis. While the literature offers ambiguous results regarding these behaviors, which consist on the one hand of a reduction in spending and unnecessary purchases (Alonso et al., 2017;Faganel, 2011), and on the other an increase in compulsive, compensatory and emotional purchases (Kennett-Hensel et al., 2012), the results of this research support the view that consumption changes in the context of a crisis are part of an overall perspective of reducing consumption (through decluterring) and reflecting on one's choices (through reflection on consumption habits), as some research suggests (e.g., Ozdamar Ertekin et al., 2020). It provides an accurate and up-to-date portrait of behavioral changes within the Covid-19 crisis.
Finally, this research reveals that a context change-even a negative one-is a powerful ally for habit change, as it enables people to establish new patterns of behavior in the absence of competing habit cues (Wood & Neal, 2009). Although literature has looked at changes when one experiences a positive context change (e.g., new job, new start; Wood & Neal, 2009;Price et al., 2018), less work has been conducted on the implementation of positive changes in a difficult situation. By exploring new habits in the pandemic context, this study contributes to literature by revealing that positive outcomes can emerge from negative situations. Furthermore, it enriches the understanding of the role of optimism on certain behaviors in a crisis situation and contributes to emerging literature on the subject (Briley et al., 2017). In this regard, an additional exploratory analysis suggests that the role of optimism on changes is more important for those who lost their job during the crisis (see Web Appendix A), reinforcing the idea that optimists living a crisis are better able to adapt and take advantage of this crisis.

| Public policy and managerial implications
The results of this research can guide policymakers in developing strategies to help individuals overcome difficult situations such as the current pandemic, as well as other stressful events, and to help them turn these events into opportunities for self-improvement.
This article provides initial evidence that a communication strategy based on optimism is promising in a crisis situation, not only to increase general confidence but ultimately to influence positive individual behavior. Concretely, governmental advertising agencies should consider this communicational axis in influencing citizens and helping them make the most out of the crisis. For example, the Singapore Government created advertisements that promoted optimism and collective effort to provide strength to persevere in the face of this difficult journey (Singapore Government, 2020). In light of the current study and its results, this strategy appears promising. Given the challenge of educating people on making more responsible choices (El Haffar et al., 2020), identifying the role of optimism offers a concrete contribution to use in various brand-related strategies.
Relatedly, brands that naturally evoke consumer optimismself-relevant brands and brands that appeal to consumers' values (Tuan et al., 2012)-appear well positioned to leverage the potential of optimism on consumers' behavioral change.
Another managerial implication relates to the importance for businesses to adapt to new consumer mindsets and evolving perceptions toward consumption in general. The results of this research show that the pandemic has influenced the way consumers perceive their lifestyle and their consumption. Consumers seem to want to slow down the pace of their activities, simplify their space, make more responsible choices and consider their real needs when it comes to consumption. In concrete terms, companies must be aware of the fact that consumers may question, and even criticize, their role, in view of their influence in current overconsumption and their significant ecological footprint (Pimonenko et al., 2020;Stanley, 2020). They must realize that consumer expectations have changed; consumers want companies to be more than businesses, that is, to also have a social and environmental purpose (Grohmann & Bodur, 2015). In a nutshell, ecological and social repositioning is a wise strategy for a company to consider in order to stay relevant in the current context (Guèvremont et al., 2020). Patagonia, for instance, exemplifies this by engaging in brand activism, constantly reviewing the way they do things, and embedding its social and environmental mission in all its decisions and actions (Vredenburg et al., 2020). Companies must be willing to challenge themselves to understand the new consumer reality, and this is all the more urgent in the context of the current crisis.

| Limits
Behavioral change is a multifaceted and complex construct (Best & Papies, 2017;Ji & Wood, 2007), and this research considers a limited set of variables in a specific context. Furthermore, this research does not examine the continuity of the behaviors when the context reverts back to normal. This issue is important as learned situational, thus context-dependent, cues play a role in forming long-lasting habits (Neal et al., 2012). It would therefore be important to conduct additional studies and see the evolution of the behaviors studied in this research on a medium-to long-term basis. It is also important to note that because this research focuses on positive behavioral changes driven by the current pandemic, it does not include the reality of individuals whose habits have deteriorated due to the current crisis (Briley, 2020). An important limit of this research is that different samples were used in month 1 and month 2. Although the samples selected show similar socio-demographic characteristics and were selected from a representative panel of the population (Bourbonnais, 2019), conducting a longitudinal study using the same sample would have been preferrable. Moreover, several control variables relevant in the current context would have been important to include, both on a sociodemographic (e.g., job gain/loss) and psychographic (e.g., level of stress) level. Future work should address these issues.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was made possible because of the support of MBA Recherche and its CEO Maxime Bourbonnais.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Research data are not shared.


What Do Consumers Think About Foods Processed by Ultraviolet Radiation and Ultrasound?

This study aimed to investigate Brazilian consumers’ perception concerning foods processed by ultraviolet (UV) radiation and ultrasound (US) and define consumer segments considering their socioeconomic characteristics and eating habits towards industrialized products through free word association tasks answered by 1004 participants via an online platform. UV- and US-treated foods were more frequently related to unfamiliar words/terms (21.51 and 36.95%) and negative associations (36.25 and 26.70%) than positive ones (29.89 and 24.20%), respectively. Unfamiliarity and health risk concerns were more reported for US-treated foods by women aged 18–25 and ≥46 with low income, and low and frequent industrialized products consumption, as well as for UV-treated foods by consumers ≤35 years old with low and medium income, and low and frequent industrialized products consumption. This indicates that more clear and trustworthy information is needed before introducing these products in the Brazilian market, mainly for potential target consumer groups identified in this study.

Introduction
Studies concerning effective, eco-friendly, and cost-effective novel processing technologies have been boosted by increasing demand for high-quality, safe, and sustainable foods with no chemical preservatives by consumers together with the global market economic competitiveness (e.g., energy consumption reduction). Innovative food technologies have been highlighted by their effectiveness in several processing applications (tenderizing, brining, emulsification, freezing, thawing, drying, maturation, fermentation, cooking, microbial inactivation, and extension of shelf life), and by their advantages (reduced processing time, energy saving, similar or reduced cost, no or minimal food changes) compared to conventional technologies [1][2][3][4][5]. UV radiation and US are among the most promising novel non-thermal food technologies.
Considering all UV light ranges emitting energy (UV-A: 315-400 nm; UV-B: 280-315 nm; UV-C: 200-280 nm; vacuum UV: 100-200 nm), UV-C is the germicidal range, forming crosslinking between cytosine and thymine (direct action) and producing free radicals from water radiolysis (indirect action) damaging the microbial DNA structure [2]. Among UV-C ranges, the light at 253.7 nm is recognized as an effective and safe technology for food decontamination [6], being the most effective against microorganisms because, in this wavelength, there is the highest light absorption by microbial nucleic acids [2]. The action mechanism of ultrasound (US) at a high intensity (20-100 kHz and 10-1000 W/cm 2 ) is based on the cavitation process. The ultrasonic waves are propagated in a liquid medium, generating bubbles, which collapse due to high energy, temperature, and pressure, and create microchannels on foods, leading to free radicals formation and subsequent microbial DNA damage [1].
UV radiation and US are considered cost-effective technologies with easy-to-use installation and operations that do not induce radioactivity or produce toxicity into foods, and may preserve the original food quality when adequately applied [1,3]. Nevertheless, these technologies can generate free radicals causing adverse changes in foods depending mainly on treatment conditions, food composition, and processing [7,8], making it challenging to find an optimal application for each food. At present, identifying the ideal treatment conditions for each food product is the main barrier for using UV radiation and US on an industrial scale. Therefore, although several technical benefits can be obtained for the food production chain by using UV radiation and US, as already stated, food-specific treatment conditions need to be addressed through research for further application of these technologies on a large industrial scale according to the Food and Drug Administration [6,9].
Although scientists know the benefits and risks of foods treated with novel technologies, consumers know little about them [10], especially when they are not commercially available as UV-and US-treated foods. According to some authors, the lack of knowledge or experience with food technological innovations spontaneously evokes doubtful and negative concepts, mainly if the name of the technology may generate misconceptions in interpretation [11][12][13][14]. Furthermore, consumers are increasingly health conscious and aware of the environment [15] and thus have negative associations with industrial processing [12]. In other words, processed foods are being related to unhealthy foods by consumers, which impair the introduction of novel processed products in the marketplace.
Furthermore, socioeconomic, demographic, and eating characteristics also influence the acceptance of novel food technologies [16][17][18][19]. In this context, understanding consumers' perceptions is crucial to aid future marketing strategies for foods processed by UV radiation and US and guarantee their successful marketability because they are influenced strongly by marketing [18]. Therefore, understanding how consumers perceive foods processed by these two technologies is as important as finding optimal treatment conditions. The free word association is a projective method with no right and wrong answers. Thus, participants are expected to evoke spontaneous thoughts, feelings, and attitudes [20], which is crucial to understanding their food choices and purchase decisions. This method has been used successfully to evaluate consumers' perceptions towards conventional products and those processed by innovative technologies such as pulsed electric fields and high hydrostatic pressure [13,14,18]. Despite that, there is no study evaluating the intuitive perceptions of the Brazilian consumers concerning UV-and US-treated foods through a free word association task.
Therefore, this study aimed to understand how foods submitted to UV radiation and US are perceived by Brazilian consumers and identify the associations of consumer segments that would lead to a rejection based on their socioeconomic characteristics and eating habits related to industrialized products.

Participants
The only criteria used in this study for recruiting participants were their interest and availability to collaborate. This study was conducted with a convenient sample to explore overall associations concerning food processed by ultraviolet radiation and food processed by ultrasound for Brazilian consumers and provide valuable qualitative inferences about this subject, with no intent to reflect a specific market population. A total of 1004 Brazilian consumers answered an online questionnaire, including socioeconomic characteristics (Table 1). According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, it is a representative sample of the Brazilian population in terms of age and income [21]. . £ Career-food areas (student or professional of food engineering or science, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, and nutrition), and other areas (neither student nor professional of food areas). € Consumption frequency of industrialized products-low (consumers who never or rarely consume industrialized products), frequent (consumers who frequently consume industrialized products), and high (consumers who consume industrialized products daily or more than once a day).

Procedures
This study was approved by the Brazilian Committee of Ethics in Research (CAAE 82850718.2.0000.5243). The questionnaire was developed through a web interface (Google Forms ® ), and the link was distributed via e-mail and social media postings between April and August 2019. The online questionnaire was divided into three sections. In the first and second ones, participants had to write down the first four words, terms, or phrases that came to their minds when they thought about food processed by ultraviolet radiation and food processed by ultrasound, respectively. In the third one, participants were asked to answer five multiple-choice questions: four concerning socioeconomic characteristics (gender, age, income, and career) and one about their consumption frequency of industrialized products (Table 1). All participants were asked to consent to participate in the study before starting it.

Data Analysis
All words, terms, or phrases were considered for data analyses, and their frequency of mentions was calculated separately for UV and US tasks. Associations with similar meanings were sorted into categories and further grouped in dimensions through inductive coding by triangulation. This step was performed and revised by three researchers familiar with the methodology and the final categories and dimensions defined by consensus [13]. A cut-off point was applied to avoid losing a high amount of information. Therefore, the dimensions and categories were considered for analysis when their terms were mentioned by 5% or more of the participants.
The frequency of mention of the categories and dimensions was calculated, and chisquare was applied to identify statistical differences among them considering their different socioeconomic characteristics and consumption frequency of industrialized products. The source of the global chi-square variation was determined using a chi-square per cell test [22]. Correspondence Analysis (CA) was applied in the frequency of mention of the categories, socioeconomic characteristics, and consumption frequency of industrialized products. The principal coordinates (F1 and F2; cumulative inertia above 74%) obtained from CA were submitted to Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) with the Euclidean distance and Ward's method. All statistical analyses were carried out at a 5% significance level using the XLSTAT software.

Consumers' Associations with Food Processed by UV Radiation and Ultrasound
For the word association task concerning UV radiation, participants generated 2554 words, terms, or phrases, of which 436 were different, resulting in an average value of 2.54 associations per participant. A similar pattern was observed for US task (a total of 2503 words, terms, or phrases, of which 471 were different, and an average value of 2.49 associations per participant). These findings corroborate with those found by Guerrero et al. [13], which suggested a clear mental formation of words with an average value of 2.42 associations per participant.
The words or terms most frequently mentioned for UV radiation and ultrasound tasks are shown in Figure 1A,B, respectively. Figure 1. Frequency of mention of the most frequently mentioned words or terms when participants were asked to write down the first four words, terms, or phrases that came to their minds when they thought about food processed by ultraviolet radiation (A) and food processed by ultrasound (B).
Among these words or terms, I don't know was the most mentioned term for both technologies indicating that, in general, participants had low knowledge about them. Doubt showed a high frequency of mention only in the US word association task, revealing lesser knowledge about US-treated foods than UV-treated ones since the word doubt can also be associated with an unknown/unfamiliar concept. Despite this, Safe food also had many mentions for both technologies, which may suggest a controversial feeling considering the citation for Cancer (higher for UV). Quality, technology, and innovation were also frequently cited for both technologies. These words have no obvious interpretation and may be related to neutral, positive, or negative associations depending on the consumers' knowledge concerning benefits and risks from novel technologies.
Overall, although UV radiation and ultrasound evoked positive words/terms (30 and 24%), they elicited more negative ones (36 and 27%), respectively. Furthermore, ultrasound aroused more words/terms associated with unknown/unfamiliar concepts (37%) and non-obvious interpretation (21%) than UV radiation (21 and 12%, respectively). The lack of knowledge regarding intrinsic and extrinsic benefits from innovative technologies applied to foods [12,13] associated with their terminology can scare consumers leading naturally to doubts and negative associations [11,13,14]. In our study, the word radiation and prefix "ultra" may have been determinants for evoking negative words/terms because they can refer to radioactivity and ultra-processed foods, respectively, which are associated with unhealthfulness [23,24].
Consumers' responses were grouped into categories and dimensions. The frequency of mention of the dimensions and categories for the two technologies and examples of individual responses are presented in Table 2.  The dimensions Negative association, Unfamiliarity, and Negative effects had a high frequency of mention for UV-and US-treated foods. Unfamiliarity, associated mainly with unknown and doubt, was the highest for US, while negative associations such as harmful, unhealthy, bad, disgusting, unsafe, and negative effects associated mainly with cancer were higher for UV than US-treated foods. Within the dimension Negative association, the categories negative hedonic reactions (I wouldn't buy, I wouldn't eat) and changes (food changes, oxidation, loss of quality properties) were mentioned only for UV and US, respectively. Dittgen et al. [25] reported that consumers would not buy brown rice treated with UV-C at 4.11 J/cm 2 . Concerning the US, Yildiz et al. [5] observed positive sensory changes applying 100 kW/m 3 for 15 min. These authors found that the US reduced the browning and decay of fresh-cut quince fruit.
There is no available UV-and US-treated food on the Brazilian market. Nevertheless, UV has been used in food industries to disinfect water, surfaces, surgical supplies, and packaging materials [2]. US is not used industrially in other materials, and studies focus more on the pilot scale [1]. This could explain the higher unfamiliarity with US compared to UV radiation. Concerning negative thoughts, the nomenclature is a crucial point towards consumer perceptions. Overall, those that elicit unnatural things impair the acceptance of new foods and food technologies by evoking wrong, limited, and negative associations even with positive points and benefits compared to existing foods and food technologies [11,26]. In addition to the name "radiation" not being associated with natural things, it can elicit fears due to a lack of knowledge about the actual UV source and its benefits in foods. The association with cancer diseases may be explained by unknown benefits of UV in foods, misconceptions between UV and nuclear radiation sources in association with radiophobia [24]. It is well known that direct exposure to UV radiation may cause changes in the DNA methylation profile leading to skin diseases such as cancer [27] and damage to the eyes [28]. Nevertheless, UV radiation does not induce radioactivity in foods and the environment [24,28]. Besides, there is no research concerning cancer diseases from the consumption of UV-treated foods, and UV at approximately 260 nm is considered safe by the Food and Drug Administration [6]. According to Jack and Sanderson [29], misconceptions and lack of knowledge lead to an instinctive aversion to new technologies and subsequent negative associations. For US, negative perceptions can be attributed to high unfamiliarity and the "ultra" prefix, as previously suggested.
Safety food was another highly mentioned dimension, mainly for UV, and safe food was the category most relevant within this dimension, mostly associated with decontamination and sterilized food. This was an interesting and unexpected finding because it demonstrated that some Brazilian consumers understand the reasons for applying UV in foods. In Brazil, UV radiation systems are used to decontaminate surfaces and surgical materials in the medical field, and this is sometimes shared on TV and social media. However, little information is provided about UV radiation, with no report about its effects on foods, which may have been suppressed by radiophobia, making it difficult to understand the actual benefits of UV-treated foods. Therefore, participants' knowledge of food areas about technological strategies against overall microorganism contamination may also have contributed to this finding, as shown in Table 3. Likewise, one of the US applications is inactive microorganisms and extends the shelf life of foods, maintaining or improving their quality attributes [1]. However, ultrasound is the name of an imaging exam, which can impair associations regarding its application for improving food safety. This can be reinforced by research, development, and innovation, an interesting dimension that was only highly mentioned in the US word association task. This dimension was represented by category innovation with associations related to novel technology and recent methods. Although several segments of consumers (uninvolved, rational, careless), including those in favor of innovation (adventurous), most of them are conservatives and tend to worry about the quality and safety of foods treated with novel technologies [30,31]. The lack of knowledge of the benefits and risks of emerging food technologies intensifies this [10].
The dimensions Technology and food processing, Functionality, Positive associations, and Foods were frequently cited, especially for US. Within the dimension Technology and food processing, the category technology associated with food technology was almost equally mentioned for UV and US. The category industrialized, associated with the industry and industrialized foods, was only cited for UV, while the category processing (treatment, drying, industrial processing) was cited for US. The dimension functionality was mainly related to food conservation, and it was associated with two technologies. The category mechanism of action (associated with cavitation, vibration, agitation) within the dimension Functionality was only cited for US. The dimension Positive association was represented by positive points such as effectiveness and benefits. These results indicate that despite the association between foods processed by UV radiation and cancer, participants recognized UV radiation as a technology applied in industrialized foods to preserve them. Concerning US, most consumers supposed that it is a food processing technology for preservation. Due to high unfamiliarity with US-treated foods, participants related to food areas can be contributed to this finding since drying, cavitation, vibration, and agitation are specific terms. Our results in Table 3 can reinforce it. Furthermore, some consumers may know ultrasound as a technology, but not for food processing [31].
The dimension Foods had fruits and vegetables as the category most mentioned, and the main associations were banana, strawberry, lettuce, and carrot. Fruits and vegetables are more commonly consumed raw, increasing consumers' concerns about contamination [32]. Furthermore, studies have been focused on applying emerging technologies to ensure food safety, especially concerning food products potentially related to outbreak-associated illnesses that are not subjected to the heating process before consumption. Table 3. Frequency of mention of the categories from ultraviolet (UV) radiation and ultrasound (US) word association tasks according to socioeconomic characteristics (gender, age, income, and career) and consumption frequency of industrialized products of the participants.  . £ Formation-food areas (student or professional of food engineering or science, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, and nutrition), and other areas (neither a student nor professional of food areas). € Consumption frequency of industrialized products-low (consumers who never or rarely consume industrialized products), frequent (consumers who frequently consume industrialized products), and high (consumers who consume daily industrialized products or more than once a day). (+) or (−) indicate that the observed value is higher or lower than the expected theoretical frequency according to the chi-square per cell: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

UV Radiation
Overall, the dimensions Others, Quality, Shelf life, and Recommendations were equally mentioned for the two technologies. Others had economic aspects as the most mentioned category, associated with cost, industrial profit, and added value foods, suggesting consumers' concern about the price of UV-and US-treated foods. However, this barrier can be overcome through appropriate communication that may contribute to acceptance. It is well reported that UV radiation requires short treatment times to achieve its antimicrobial effect saving energy [3]. Therefore, UV radiation is considered a cost-effective technology, and it is believed that UV-treated foods have a similar price to non-treated foods. Likewise, studies concerning US application in foods have been increased worldwide because it is considered an effective, eco-friendly, and cost-effective food processing technology [33]. Price is a common concern of consumers towards new foods and technologies; however, acceptance and purchase intention tend to increase when they have a similar cost to conventional ones [24]. Rojas and Saldaña [34] reported that high prices decreased the purchase intention of US-treated guava juice. Otherwise, Delorme et al. [35] observed lower purchase intention for UV-treated sliced Prato cheese even without a price label; however, it was overcome after providing information about the cost-effectiveness of the technology. Within the dimension Quality, the categories hygiene and quality were almost equally mentioned for UV, and only the category quality was cited for US. Hygiene was related to cleanliness and sanitization, and quality was associated with food quality and quality assurance. These associations may be explained by the same reasons as those used for the safe food category. According to Deliza and Ares [12], besides naturalness and price, consumers have habitual concerns about the effects of technologies on food quality and safety. Rojas and Saldaña [34] observed that guava juice treated with ultrasound had lower acceptance than a non-treated one; however, this acceptance was increased after providing information about ultrasound benefits due to consumers' higher perception concerning quality and safety. The same was observed in sliced Prato cheese processed by UV [35].
The dimensions Shelf life, related to increased shelf life, prolonged conservation, and storage, and Recommendations, associated with worrying, unfit for consumption, and health risks reinforce our findings concerning safe food and hygiene versus harmful, unhealthy, unsafe, diseases, and the unknown.
It is worth highlighting similarities among dimensions, categories, and associations in the UV and US tasks. However, although UV-treated foods have been more associated with safe food and quality assurance, they were more related to detrimental aspects (unsafe, unhealthy, diseases, cancer), including aversion to buying or eating them, even with a higher lack of knowledge about US-treated foods.

Effects of Socioeconomic Characteristics and Frequency of Consumption of Industrialized Products on Consumers' Associations
Personal habits are one of the main factors influencing the acceptance of food innovations [36]. In general, individuals with a healthy lifestyle give crucial importance to food-health relationships looking for fresh and natural foods and thus, tend to be disgusted by processed ones [14,18]. Nevertheless, the most differences found were between whether participants were related to food areas or not (Table 3). Obviously, students or professionals of food areas more frequently mentioned the categories conservation, quality, fruit and vegetables, positive points, and shelf life for UV-and US-treated foods, hygiene for UV, and mechanism of action, technology, processing, safe food, and innovation for US. Otherwise, they less frequently cited unknown and diseases for UV-and US-treated foods, bad, detrimental, negative hedonic reactions, technology, and industrialized for UV, and doubt, health damage, negative points, and recommendations, alerts, and risks for US. On the other hand, opposite associations were observed for lay consumers.
The category unknown had lower mention by males than females for UV and US (Table 3), indicating a lack of knowledge, especially among women. Similarly, Sajdakowska et al. [37] also reported that Polish women had a higher lack of knowledge about food technologies than men. The categories diseases, recommendations, alerts, and risks were more cited for UV-treated foods by consumers aged 18-35 years, while those aged 26-35 years associated US-treated foods more frequently with the words bad, detrimental, and less frequently with processing. The higher proportion of women than men among the participants may be contributed to our finding, representing a limitation of this study. On the other hand, consumers aged ≥46 y mentioned the categories bad, detrimental, and fruits and vegetables more frequently for UV, and health damage for US. These findings demonstrate the role of age, indicating that older consumers were more negative and concerned about novel food technologies. Overall, Brazilians above 40 years old eat more frequently healthy foods, including fruits and vegetables [16], which are unprocessed or minimally processed foods. Moreover, older consumers care more about the safety and familiarity regarding food products [19]. According to Zheng et al. [38], the risk perception towards health tends to increase as people get older.
The category safe food was less cited by consumers with income between 1-5 Brazilian minimum wage (BMW), but diseases received more mentions for the same income about UV-treated foods. An opposite finding was found for consumers with income >20 BMW. The categories industrialized, recommendations, alerts, and risks had more mentions from consumers with income >5-10 BMW (Table 3). Vidigal et al. [19] reported that lowerincome individuals had a lower acceptance of novel food technologies. They attributed it to a higher lack of knowledge of this group of individuals, similarly to the present study. The greater concern of the low-income consumers may be due to less access to information from education, public and online media than medium-and high-income ones. Furthermore, low-income individuals are more afraid of getting sick because they have difficulty accessing and receiving quality healthcare services [39]. Otherwise, the medium-income consumers (>5-10 BMW) demonstrated a greater concern about health risks from US-treated foods than low-income ones. Consumers with income >5-10 BMW more frequently cited the category innovation. Despite that, US-treated foods were more associated with bad, detrimental, and less related to conservation by consumers with income >5-10 BMW. These findings may be attributed to higher unfamiliarity for US-treated foods (about 45%) than UV-treated ones (little over 25%). Furthermore, foods processed by US (36.95%) evoked more words/terms associated with unknown/unfamiliar concepts than foods processed by UV radiation (21.51%). According to some authors, the lack of knowledge concerning benefits and risks from novel food technologies spontaneously evokes doubts and negative associations [11,13,14]. The application of US in foods is still evaluated in pilot-scale experiments by the scientific community [1], and unlike UV radiation, US is not used commercially in other materials. Therefore, there is no information for all lay populations regarding the use of US as a decontamination processing.
The category bad, detrimental was more cited for UV-treated foods, and health damage for US-treated foods by consumers with low consumption frequency of industrialized products, while less cited by consumers with high consumption frequency of industrialized products. Consumers with a low consumption frequency of industrialized products also felt more negative hedonic reactions towards UV-treated foods (Table 3).

Consumer Groups about Foods Processed by UV Radiation and US Considering Socioeconomic Characteristics and Consumption Frequency of Industrialized Products through Chemometric Analysis
Three consumer groups were formed concerning consumer perception of food products processed by UV radiation (Figure 2A). Cluster 1 included male and female consumers aged 18-35, with income ranging from 1 to 10 BMW, neither students nor professionals of food areas, and low and frequent consumption of industrialized products. This consumer group associated UV-treated foods with bad, detrimental, negative points, negative hedonic reactions, unknown, diseases, recommendations, alerts and risks, technology, industrialized, and safe food ( Figure 2B). Cluster 2 had consumers aged 36 or more with income above 10 BMW and high consumption of industrialized products (Figure 2A). This consumer group related UV-treated foods with safe food, economic aspects, technology, quality, fruits and vegetables, unknown, and diseases ( Figure 2B). The students or profes-sionals of food areas belonged to cluster 3 ( Figure 2A) and associated UV-treated foods with safe food, conservation, hygiene, positive points, and shelf life ( Figure 2B). Based on our findings, lay and younger consumers (≤35 years old) with low and medium-income (1-10 BMW) who consume industrialized products frequently, rarely, or never, were the most concerned about the adverse effects of UV-treated foods. However, they recognized UV radiation as an industrial strategy to ensure safe food. Older consumers (≥36 years old) with high income (>10 BMW) who consume industrialized products daily or more than once a day perceived UV-treated foods as safe food. Nevertheless, this consumer group also demonstrated unfamiliarity and concerns about price and diseases from food products processed by UV radiation. Our results indicate a lack of knowledge and health risk concerns towards UV-treated foods regardless of gender, age, income, and eating habits related to industrialized products consumption. However, it was more remarkable in the consumer group comprised of lay and younger (≤35 years old) consumers with low and medium-income (1-10 BMW) who consume industrialized products frequently, rarely, or never.
Three consumer groups were identified regarding consumer perception of food products processed by US ( Figure 3A). Cluster 1 comprised males aged 26-45 with income >5 BMW and different consumption frequencies of industrialized products (low, frequent, and high). This consumer group associated US-treated foods with processing, technology, conservation, positive points, safe food, shelf life, quality, and economic aspects ( Figure 3B). This consumer group was also unfamiliar and concerned about negative issues and health risks from foods processed by US. However, it was reported by consumers with low and frequent consumption of industrialized products according to CA analysis since consumption frequency of industrialized products was not determinant to consumer segmentation by HCA analysis. It occurred possibly because almost half of the consumers were unfamiliar with US-treated foods.
Cluster 2 included females aged 18-25 and ≥46 with income from 1 to 5 BMW, neither student nor professional of food areas ( Figure 3A). US-treated foods were related to unknown, doubt, changes, recommendations, alerts and risks, bad, detrimental, negative points, health damage, and diseases by these consumers ( Figure 3B). Cluster 3 was composed of students or professionals of food areas ( Figure 3A). As expected, this consumer group was more optimistic about US-treated foods and associated it with conservation, mechanism of action, technology, positive points, safe food, innovation, and shelf life ( Figure 3B).
Overall, consumers do not know about novel food technologies and tend to make negative associations because they cannot perceive their benefits and risks [10]. Despite this, previous studies have reported different associations for novel food technologies depending on gender, age, income, and eating habits [16][17][18][19]. In general, women are more related to household food activities, resulting in a greater concern regarding proper foods for the family than men [40]. Furthermore, as women tend to have healthier eating habits, they are less willing to accept novel food technologies than men [16,41]. Similar to our findings, previous studies also reported that women perceived novel food processing technologies more negatively than men [18,37]. Concerning age, most studies show that younger adults are more accepting of novel food technologies than older ones [18,19,36]. Older adults have deep-rooted traditional habits, more cautious behavior seeking familiar products, and more interest in maintaining health and preventing chronic diseases [19,30]. According to Garrido and Gallardo [17], older adults (53-71 years old) are less likely to be convenient and eat less processed food because they like to cook and consider it healthier. However, in our study, younger adults (18-25 years old) also had negative perceptions and were concerned about the health risks of US-treated foods. This can be attributed to information and knowledge sharing in online media, which strongly contribute to increasing the number of health-conscious consumers, mainly young adults who spend more time connected. Hierarchical cluster analysis (A) and correspondence analysis of the consumer characteristics (blue) and frequency of mention of the categories (red) from free word association task concerning ultraviolet (UV)-treated foods (B) at 5% significance level. BMW-Brazilian minimum wage in Brazilian currency (Real). Low consumption-consumers who never or rarely consume industrialized products; frequent consumption-consumers who consume frequently industrialized products; high consumption-consumers who consume daily industrialized products or more than once a day. Hierarchical cluster analysis (A) and correspondence analysis of the consumer characteristics (blue) and frequency of mention of the categories (red) from free word association task concerning ultrasound (US)-treated foods (B) at 5% significance level. BMW-Brazilian minimum wage in Brazilian currency (Real). Low consumption-consumers who never or rarely consume industrialized products; frequent consumption-consumers who consume frequently industrialized products; high consumption-consumers who consume daily industrialized products or more than once a day.
Regarding income, a higher lack of knowledge due to limited access to information and a greater fear of getting sick due to limited access to a quality healthcare service are reasons frequently used to explain the lower acceptance of novel food technologies by lower-income consumers. Martins et al. [18], Vidigal et al. [19], and Young et al. [36] also observed that lower-income individuals were less accepting of innovative food technologies than medium-and high-income ones corroborating with our findings.
Regarding eating habits, consumers with low and frequent consumption of industrialized products perceived US-treated foods more negatively than consumers with high consumption of industrialized products. Consumers with healthy eating habits consume less processed foods and, thus, are less likely to accept novel food technologies [14,17,18]. The negative perceptions concerning foods processed by US from consumers with frequent consumption of industrialized products may be attributed to unfamiliarity with this type of food technology and its prefix "ultra". The lack of knowledge of the benefits and risks of novel food technologies and their terminologies can result in doubts and spontaneous negative associations [11][12][13][14]. The prefix "ultra" may have been associated with industrial processing and, thus, with unnatural food. Martins et al. [18] observed that consumers perceived cold-pressed juice more positively than pressurized juice and pasteurized juice and attributed it to terminology, wherein the words "pressed" and "cold may have evoked associations with unprocessed and natural products.
Roselli et al. [42] reported that almost half of the participants (49%) would not buy and the other half ones would buy (51%) extra-virgin olive oil extracted by ultrasound considering a sample population of 54% women and 68% individuals with high income. Otherwise, based on a population composed of 72% women and young individuals (19-33 years), Rojas and Saldaña [34] observed low acceptance and purchase intention for guava juice processed by US, which only was improved after proving information label about higher stability and nutrients absorption.
Concerning UV-treated foods, no clear segmentation was observed for lay consumers. However, those youngers with low and medium income and with low and frequent consumption of industrialized products were more pessimistic. All consumers perceived UV-treated foods as safe food; however, they also demonstrated health risk concerns. Similarly, Jack and Sanderson [29] reported that most consumers perceived benefits from food irradiation, but few of them were willing to buy irradiated food and attributed it mainly to radiophobia. Overall, consumers still associate radiation with radioactivity and nuclear energy [24]. Lima Filho et al. [43] reported that Brazilian consumers related food irradiation with a preservation method (31.4%) and reduction of microorganisms (22.5%); however, they associated more negatively irradiated foods with radioactivity (52.8%), cancer (48.7%), nuclear accident (27.2%), and mutation (19.6%), reinforcing our findings. A recent study concluded that the acceptance of irradiated foods is increased by not expressing the term "radiation" and adding "food safety" as one benefit in the labeling [44]. As Brazilian consumers seem to understand the benefits of UV-treated foods, expressions regarding "no radioactivity" in the labeling may also be needed. Delorme et al. [35] demonstrated that the low acceptance and purchase intention of UV-treated Prato cheese was overcome by label information about the technological advantages such as elimination of microorganisms, minimal changes to food, absence of residues and toxic effects, besides cost and energy effectiveness in comparison with other preservation methods. These authors considered Brazilian consumers composed of 69% women, 70% young individuals (18-35 years), 56% with high education level, and 54% with low-medium income. In 2017, young Brazilian consumers were less concerned about risks from irradiated foods [43]. In our study, younger individuals were more pessimistic, which may be explained by increased health-consciousness among these consumers suggesting that a greater effort will be needed to introduce foods processed by UV in the market.

Conclusions
Brazilian consumers are unfamiliar and less willing to accept foods processed by UV radiation or US technologies. UV-treated foods were considered safe foods; however, most consumers associated them with unfamiliarity and health risks regardless of gender, age, income, and eating habits related to industrialized products consumption, especially those aged ≤35 years old with low and medium income (1-10 BMW) and low and frequent consumption of industrialized products. The consumers more unfamiliar and concerned about risks from foods processed by US were women aged between 18 and 25 and above 46 years old with low income and low and frequent consumption of industrialized products.
Therefore, more transparent and trustworthy information about the benefits of UVand US-treated foods must be shared with the overall Brazilian population to avoid wrong interpretations and rejection of these products caused by lack of knowledge and confidence, especially for those specific consumer groups identified in this study. Simultaneously, marketing strategies such as renaming technologies and adding benefits/no risks for the consumers should be considered. Furthermore, younger consumers (from 18 to ≤35 years old) may be a potential target group to avoid future problems introducing novel food technologies in the marketplace.

Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest:
The author declares no conflict of interest.